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B.M. Bekhterev Hypnosis Suggestion Telepathy
Moscow "Thought" 1994
53.57 B 55
GEDATION OF LITERATURE ON GENERAL PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY
ISBN 5-244-00549-9
© Thought Publishing House. 1994
With the technical assistance of JV "Columbue"
Miraculous healings, healers and soothsayers for every taste, psychotherapy telesessions, mass fascination with psychics, thought transmission at a distance and bioenergy transmission, witchcraft, communication with aliens, etc. filled your daily life. A truthful and truly scientific word about these phenomena has an invaluable socio-political, educational and medical value. Acquaintance with the wealth of ideas, facts, observations, advice and warnings bequeathed to us by V. M. Bekhterev in this most complex area of medicine is now, more than ever, necessary. It will also contribute to the scientific development of many problems associated with hypnosis, suggestion and telepathy.
The works of the outstanding scientist were not published after his death (with the exception of the one-volume "Selected Works"). They have become a bibliographic rarity. Many of them are not familiar even to experts.
V. M. Bekhterev's ideas about the essence of hypnosis, suggestion and telepathy have not yet been the subject of serious scientific research. Therefore, the publication of even a part of the numerous works of the scientist is extremely relevant.
In the introductory article, we will try to analyze the ideas of V. M. Bekhterev about the essence of the mysterious phenomena of neuropsychic life in the context of his multifaceted scientific work, his concept of consciousness, his personality as a doctor-scientist.
Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev was born on January 20, 1857, in the village of Sorali, Yelabuga * county, Vyatka province, in the family of a bailiff. At the age of nine, he was left without a father, and a family of five - a mother and four sons - experienced great
About V. M. Bekhterev - scientist and hypnologist
material difficulties. In the Vyatka gymnasium, he got acquainted with the works and ideas of outstanding natural scientists of that time and progressive figures of the Russian social movement.
In 1873 after successful delivery examinations for the seventh grade of the gymnasium, V. M. Bekhterev entered the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy (later the Military Medical Academy), where he enthusiastically engaged in natural and medical sciences, actively public life students. In his fourth year, he chose psychiatry and neuropathology as his future medical specialty.
In December 1876, he took part in the first joint demonstration of workers and students on Nevsky Prospekt near the Kazan Cathedral, at which G. V. Plekhanov delivered a speech. The demonstration was dispersed, several demonstrators - students and workers - were arrested. V. M. Bekhterev managed to avoid arrest. Many years later, he wrote about this: “Some lucky fate saved me from arrest and other consequences of the harsh Nemesis that befell many of my relatives and closest comrades.”
In the spring of 1877, V. M. Bekhterev interrupted his studies. The reason for this was the Russian-Turkish liberation war that began in April 1877. The progressive part of Russian society enthusiastically joined the struggle for the liberation of the fraternal Slavic peoples in the Balkans. The medical community has not been left out. Many doctors went to the front as volunteers, including professors of the Medico-Surgical Academy S. P. Botkin, N. V. Sklifosovsky and others. At the call of S. P. Botkin, some senior students of the academy also went to the front. Among them was V. M. Bekhterev, who finished his fourth year ahead of schedule, and in May 1877, as part of a detachment of the Ryzhov brothers, went to the theater of operations. The correspondence that he sent from there to the Severny Vestnik newspaper reflects the personal impressions of the young Bekhterev and the main stages of the military path of volunteers.
About V. M. Bekhterev - scientist and hypnologist
medical detachment of the Ryzhovs. In the autumn of 1877 V. M. Bekhterev returned to St. Petersburg. In 1878 he graduated from the Academy with honors and was left to prepare for a professorship. scientific work he began under the guidance of the head of the Department of Mental and Nervous Diseases of the Medico-Surgical Academy I. P. Merzheevsky.
On April 4, 1881, Bekhterev defended his thesis for the degree of Doctor of Medicine on the topic “The experience of a clinical study of body temperature in certain forms of mental illness.” This study was a serious scientific clinical and experimental work, in which interesting data were obtained and conclusions were drawn about the paramount role nervous system in the life of the whole organism in normal and pathological conditions. In the same year, 1881, he was awarded the academic title of Privatdozent by a conference of the academy. Bekhterev spent 1884-1885 in the laboratories and clinics of the most famous European scientists. In the autumn of 1885 he became head of the department of psychiatry at Kazan University. Then he opened the first experimental psychophysiological laboratory in Russia. The Kazan period occupies a special place in the work of Bekhterev. During the years of managing the department of psychiatry, he managed to turn the district psychiatric hospital into the clinical base of the department. He conducted scientific research in the field of neurology mainly in the Kazan military hospital. With the active participation of V. M. Bekhterev, a society of neuropathologists and psychiatrists was organized in Kazan, which began to publish the journal Neurological Bulletin. He attracted talented and progressive-minded youth to work, worked in close contact with such well-known medical scientists and naturalists as N. A. Vinogradov, N. O. Kovalevsky, K. N. Arnshtein, A. M. Zaitsev and etc. He carried out a number of important studies * together with the prominent Kazan physiologist N. A. Mislavsky.
V. M. Bekhterev worked in Kazan for about 8 years. Here he carried out many scientific studies that brought him world fame, published
About V. M. Bekhterev - scientist and hypnologist
We have published such works as "Consciousness and Its Limits", "Nervous Diseases in Individual Observations", the first edition of his classic work "The Pathways of the Spinal Cord and the Brain" has been prepared.
In 1893, he was elected head of the Department of Mental and Nervous Diseases at the Military Medical Academy in St. Petersburg. His "pedagogical, scientific, organizational and social activities are gaining unprecedented scope. With his active participation, the psychiatric clinic was reorganized and a new clinic for nervous diseases was built with one of the world's first neurosurgical departments. The anatomy-histological, physiological, psychological and biochemical laboratories.In 1908, the first electrocardiographic room in Russia was opened at the same clinic.
V. M. Bekhterev headed the Department of Mental and Nervous Diseases of the Military Medical Academy for 20 years. He founded a number of specialized journals, such as the Review of Psychiatry, Neurology and Experimental Psychology (in last years life of V. M. Bekhterev, the journal was published under the title “Review of Psychiatry, Neurology and Reflexology”), “Bulletin of Psychology, Criminal Anthropology and Hypnology” (later the journal was called “Bulletin of Psychology, Criminal Anthropology and Pedology”), etc.
In 1903-1907. V. M. Bekhterev published a fundamental seven-volume work “Fundamentals of the study of brain functions”, which collected the results of numerous researches of the author in the field of the study of the localization of brain functions and summarized the development of neurophysiology until the beginning of the 20th century, and also published the monographs “Psyche and Life” , "Objective Psychology", "Suggestion and its role in public life" and more than 200 articles on the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system, psychology, psychiatry, neurology, etc.
First Russian Revolution 1905-1907 occupies a special place in the life and scientific activity of V. M. Bekhterev. In 1905, he served as
About V, M. Bekhterev - scientist and hypnologist
Head of the Military Medical Academy. In September of the same year, at the II Congress of Russian Psychiatrists, held in Kyiv, he made a presentation on the topic "Personality and the conditions for its development and health." The report not only reflected the scientist's views on the essence of the human personality, but was also a kind of political protest - Bekhterev ended his speech with the words: "Open the dungeon for me, give me the radiance of the day." The hall reacted to the report with a storm of applause, a spontaneous rally began. The enraged Kyiv governor threatened to ban the congress.
In 1908, the Psychoneurological Institute, organized by V. M. Bekhterev, began its work - a higher educational and research institution of a new type. It accepted people of different ages, social status and nationality. The teachers of the institute were such famous scientists as N. E. Vvedensky, V. L. Komarov, P. F. Lesgaft, P. A. Ostankov, N. N. Petrov, L. M. Pussep, E. V. Tarle, A. A. Ukhtomsky, F. D. Batyushkov and others. On December 11, 1908, the Council of the Institute elected L. N. Tolstoy as its honorary member.
In 1910, at the III Congress of Russian psychiatrists in St. Petersburg, V. M. Bekhterev made a report on the topic “Issues of neuropsychic health in the Russian population”. At the I Congress of the Union of Russian Psychiatrists and Neurologists in memory of S. S. Korsakov (1911), he made a report on an acute social topic - the growth of suicides among schoolchildren after the first Russian revolution. The main attention and creative forces of V. M. Bekhterev in these years were directed to the development and expansion of the Psychoneurological Institute. In 1918 he founded the Institute for the Study of the Brain and Psychic Activity in Petrograd. V. M. Bekhterev was one of the first major Russian scientists who went over to the side of Soviet power. He ended his report at a conference at the Institute for the Study of the Brain in January 1919 with the following words: “At the turning point of history, one cannot stand at a crossroads and wait - what is needed is the will to act, to build and constructive work. And for you scientists who have always given their
What is suggestion according to Bekhterev.
Bekhterev's article "On suggestion". Bulletin of Psychology, Criminal Anthropology and Hypnotism, 1904, Vol. one.
In order to dispel myths about hypnosis, it is useful to read or listen to the opinion of the eminent physician V. M. Bekhterev. In addition, there is a clear physiological definition of what suggestion and hypnosis according to Pavlov are. It is important to understand that hypnosis is not dangerous, that it is natural state, which each person experiences several times a day, and hypnosis cannot be dangerous in principle.
The question of what is suggestion is one of the most important questions the latest psychology and public life, which has recently received a huge practical value thanks especially to the study of hypnotism; nevertheless, it is now firmly established that suggestion is an act much wider than hypnotic suggestion proper, since the former manifests itself in the waking state and, moreover, is observed in social life everywhere and everywhere under very diverse conditions. Despite, however, the enormous practical importance of suggestion, its psychological nature still seems to be so little studied that various authors have attached and continue to attach very little to this concept. different meaning. Already in my work "The Role of Suggestion in Public Life" I drew attention to the contradictions of the authors on this issue and to the confusion that results from this. “Until recently, this term,” I say, “did not have a special scientific meaning and was used in common parlance mainly to refer to insinuations, for one purpose or another, made by persons to others. Only in modern times this term has received quite a special scientific significance together with the expansion of our knowledge of the mental influence of some individuals on others. But this term has already begun to be abused, applying it to those phenomena to which it does not apply, and often covering up with it facts that remain insufficiently elucidated. Undoubtedly, from such an abuse of the scientific term there is a lot of confusion in the elucidation of those psychological phenomena that relate to the field of suggestion. "If we turn to the literature on the subject, we will meet with the most diverse definitions of suggestion.
♦ According to Lefёvre's definition, whose book has just appeared, the phenomena of suggestion and auto-suggestion consist in the assimilation of thoughts, in general, any ideas, admitted without a motive and accidentally, and in their rapid transformation into movements, into sensations or into an act of delay.
♦ Liёbault under suggestion recognizes the evoking of a word or gestures in the hypnotic representation, the consequence of which is one or another physical or mental phenomenon.
♦ According to Bernheim, suggestion is such an influence by means of which a representation is introduced into the brain and accepted by it. Lowenfeld understands suggestion as a representation of a mental or psychophysical nature, which, by its implementation, exhibits an extraordinary effect due to the restriction or cessation of associative activity.
♦ Foge1 by suggestion means the induction of such a dynamic change in the nervous system, when the idea arises that this change has come, is coming or will come.
♦ Moll gives a similar definition. According to him, suggestion is the case when the result is determined by the fact that they cause the idea of its occurrence.
♦ According to Wundt "y, suggestion is an association with the concomitant narrowing of consciousness in relation to ideas that, when they arise, do not allow opposite connections to manifest themselves.
♦ According to Schrenk-Notzin g "y, suggestion is expressed by limiting associations with respect to a certain content of consciousness. Vincent says that "by suggestion we usually mean advice or an order, but in a state of hypnosis, suggestion is an impression made on the psyche, which causes a direct adaptation brain and everything that depends on it.
♦ According to HirschIaff, suggestion should be understood on the part of the hypnotist as a statement that is unmotivated and untrue, on the part of the hypnotized - the realization of this statement. Lowenfeld rightly rebels against this extremely narrow definition, since, according to this definition, one would have to exclude not only all therapeutic suggestions, which, according to Hirschlaff, should not be considered as suggestions, but as advice, hopes, etc., but a whole series of phenomena known as counter-suggestions should also be excluded from the field of suggestion, since they are in accordance with reality. Yes, and how much indefiniteness is in the very concept of "not corresponding to reality! For example, a suggestion is given to a sleeping person: upon waking up, take a cigarette from the table and light it, and he does this by suggestion. The question is, how much does not correspond to reality, but meanwhile, it is indisputable that we are here also dealing with suggestion, as in other cases. introduction of other definitions of suggestion is superfluous and useless, since the foregoing is quite enough to see how much confusion, obscure and indefinite is introduced into the concept of suggestion.
B. Sidis begins his book very characteristically on this occasion: “Psychologists use the term “suggestion” so randomly that the reader often does not understand its real meaning. Sometimes this name is used to denote those cases when one idea leads to another, and in this way suggestion is identified with association.Some extend the field of suggestion so much as to include in it all the influence of a person on his fellows.Others narrow suggestibility and suggestibility to mere symptoms of hysterical neurosis.So do the adherents of the Salpêtrière school.The Nancy school calls suggestion the cause that causes it a special state of mind in which the manifestations of suggestibility come forward extremely. It goes without saying that such an unclear position on the question of suggestion leads, according to B. Sidis, to great confusion in psychological research relating to suggestion, with which one cannot but agree. B. Sidis himself, explaining suggestion with several examples, dwells on Boldwin’s definition, according to which “suggestion is understood as a large class of phenomena, a typical representative of which is a sudden intrusion into consciousness from the outside of an idea or image that becomes part of a stream of thought and tends to cause muscular and volitional efforts its usual consequences. B. Sidis rightly considers it insufficient, he finds other important features in suggestion, which consist in the fact that the suggestion is perceived by the subject without criticism and is carried out by him almost automatically.
In the end, B. Sidis dwells on the following definition of suggestion: "Suggestion is understood as the intrusion into the mind of an idea; met with more or less personal resistance, it is finally accepted without criticism and carried out without discussion, almost automatically."
This definition, expressed in this form, is quite close to the definition of suggestion I made earlier, but nevertheless it cannot be considered completely sufficient. See: Bekhterev V. The role of suggestion in public life. SPb., 1898. S. 2. First of all, suggestion is far from always met with one or another resistance from the personality of the suggested person. This is observed most often in those hypnotic suggestions that relate to the moral sphere of the suggested person or that contradict the established relationship of the given person to those phenomena that serve as the subject of suggestion. In most other cases, the suggestion enters without any resistance on the part of the person to whom the suggestion is made, often it penetrates into his mental sphere completely imperceptibly, despite the fact that it acts in a waking state.
That this is so is proved by an example borrowed from Ohorovich's book "On Mental Suggestion", cited by B. Sidis himself: "My friend P., a man as absent-minded as he was witty, played chess in next room and we, the rest, were talking near the door. I noticed that my friend used to whistle the aria from "Madam Angot" when he was completely immersed in the game. I was already going to beat the rhythm on the table to accompany him; but this time he whistled the march from "The Prophet."
“Listen,” I said to my comrades, “we will do a trick with P.: we will order him (mentally) to move from “The Prophet” to “La fille de madam Angol.” First I began to beat the march, then, using several notes common to both pieces, immediately shifted to a faster tempo of my friend's favorite aria. P., for his part, suddenly changed tune and started whistling "Madam Angol". Everyone laughed. My friend was too busy with the queen's check to notice anything. "Let's start again,” I said, “and back to The Prophet.” Immediately we again heard Meyerbeer's wonderful fugue. All my friend knew was that he was whistling something."
There is no need to explain that there was no mental suggestion here, but an auditory suggestion, which penetrated into the psychic sphere completely imperceptibly to the suggested person and without any resistance on his part. We have the same in other cases. Let's take another example from B. Sidis: "I have a newspaper in my hands, and I begin to fold it; soon I notice that my friend, sitting opposite me, folded his in the same way. We say that this is a case of suggestion."
We can cite many other analogous examples where suggestion enters the psychic sphere imperceptibly for the person himself and without any struggle or resistance on his part. In general, it can be said that suggestion, at least in the waking state, much more often penetrates into the psychic sphere precisely in this imperceptible way, and in any case without much struggle and resistance on the part of the suggested person. This is the social power of suggestion. Let us take another example from the same B. Sidis: “In the middle of the street in the square, on the sidewalk, a merchant stops and begins to pour out whole volumes of chatter, flattering the public and praising his goods. The curiosity of passers-by is excited, they stop. Soon our hero becomes the center of a crowd that stares at the "wonderful" items exhibited to her surprise. A few more minutes, and the crowd begins to buy things that the merchant suggests that they are beautiful, cheap. "
“A street speaker climbs onto a log or a wagon and begins to rant in front of the crowd. In the rudest way, he glorifies the great mind and honesty of the people, the valor of citizens, deftly declaring to his listeners that with such talents they should clearly see how the prosperity of the country depends on that policy, which he approves, from the party of which he is a valiant champion. His arguments are absurd, his motives contemptible, and yet he usually carries the mass with him, unless another speaker comes along and leads them in another direction. Antony's speech in "Julius Caesar" is an excellent example of suggestion."
Obviously, in all these cases, the effect of suggestion would not have been realized, as it would soon be noticed by everyone that the merchant exaggerates his goods, that the street speaker exaggerates the importance of his party, praising its merits in an absurd way. At least everyone for whom the absurdity and falsity of assurances is clear, in such cases, immediately depart from such speakers, around whom there remains only a trusting crowd of listeners, little understanding of the matter, not noticing either rude flattery or false statements, and therefore easily amenable to suggestion. .
One of the excellent examples of a suggestion that penetrates the consciousness after a certain struggle is the suggestion from Iago to Othello, who initially meets this suggestion with strong resistance, but then gradually succumbs to it when the "poison of jealousy" begins to do its destructive work in Othello's soul. Also, some of the suggestions made in hypnosis are sometimes met with a certain opposition on the part of the hypnotized person. Particularly, this happens to persons who are indoctrinated to perform an act that is contrary to their moral convictions. As you know, some of the French authors, according to the degree of resistance of the person to whom suggestions are made that are contrary to generally accepted moral concepts found it possible even to determine the morality of a given person. Obviously, in hypnosis, the personality is for the most part not completely eliminated, it only goes out to a certain extent and, meeting a suggestion that is contrary to conviction, counteracts it in one way or another.
Nevertheless, we have nothing obligatory and even characteristic for suggestion in opposition to it on the part of the person to whom the suggestion is made, since many suggestions enter the mental sphere of this or that person without the slightest resistance on his part. To one person who is in a waking state, I say that his hand begins to tighten into a fist, that a spasm seizes his entire arm and draws it to his shoulder, and this suggestion is immediately carried out. I tell another that he cannot grasp the surrounding objects with his hand, that he is paralyzed, and it turns out that from that time on he really lost the use of his hand. All this continues until such time as I tell both persons that they again still have control of their hand. In neither case, as in many other cases, there is no shadow of resistance.
Therefore, we cannot agree with B. Sidis when he says that "a feature of resistance is the main part of suggestion", or that "the stream of consciousness of an individual struggles with suggested ideas, like an organism with bacteria, seeking to destroy the stability of equilibrium." There is no need for this struggle and resistance for suggestion, as a result of which the resistance of the personality cannot and should not be included in the definition of suggestion. It is also impossible to think that suggestion does not allow criticism. Resistance to suggestion, where it exists, is, after all, based on criticism, on understanding the internal contradiction of the suggested idea with the convictions of the given person, on the disagreement with him of his "I". Otherwise, there would be no resistance. From this it is obvious that suggestion in certain cases does not even exclude criticism, without ceasing to be suggestion at the same time.
This is usually noticed in weak degrees of hypnosis, when the person is still critical of everything around him, including suggestion. I suggest to one person in hypnosis that, upon awakening, he should take from the table a photographic card that he sees. When he wakes up, he almost immediately scans the surface of the table and fixes his gaze on a certain place. "Do you see anything?" I ask. "I see a card." I say goodbye to him, intending to leave; but he still turns his gaze to the table. "Do you need to do something?" I ask. "I wanted to take this card, but I don't need it!" he replies and leaves without following the suggestion and obviously struggling with it. Highly good to that we also find an example in B. C and d and c a. A person who is in a weak degree of hypnosis is suggested that, upon hearing a knock, he will take a cigarette and light it. When he woke up, he remembered everything. I quickly knocked several times. He got up from his chair, but immediately sat down again and, laughing, exclaimed: "No, I will not do that!" - "What to do?" I asked. "Light a cigarette, that's nonsense!" "And you really wanted to do it?" I asked, presenting the desire as having passed, although it was clear that he was now fighting it. He didn't answer. I asked again: "Are you very eager to do this?" "Not very well," he replied shortly and evasively.
Thus, "the acceptance of criticism of suggested ideas and actions" is also not an absolute necessity for suggestion, although it is indisputable that most suggestions enter the psychic sphere, as mentioned earlier, without any resistance. Similarly, we do not find complete automatism in the implementation of suggestion. We know how often we find, even among persons immersed in hypnosis, that suggestion is not carried out without some struggle. We observe the same thing in cases of post-hypnotic suggestion. Sometimes this struggle ends in the fact that the suggestion, which was on the way to realization, in the end remains not carried out at all, as was the case in the examples just given. True, this counteraction varies, depending on the strength of the suggestion, on its character, on one or another external condition, nevertheless it is possible and in many cases exists. Consequently, motor automatism can by no means be considered an integral part of suggestion. So, suggestion often enters the psychic sphere imperceptibly, without any violence, sometimes causes a struggle on the part of the personality of the suggested subject, is even subjected to criticism on his part, and is by no means always carried out automatically.
It should be noted, however, that in other cases the suggestion actually enters the psychic sphere as if by force and, being accepted without any criticism or internal struggle, is carried out quite automatically. An example of such suggestions is the method of suggestion of the abbe Faria, who acted with one order. The well-known command, which is stopped everywhere and everywhere, belongs to the same order of suggestion, not so much on the strength of fear for disobedience and on the consciousness of the rationality of submission, but on actual suggestion, which in this case bursts into consciousness violently and suddenly and without giving time for deliberation and criticism, leads to the automatic execution of suggestion.
Obviously, the essence of suggestion lies not in one or another of its external features, but in the special relationship of the suggested subject to the "I" of the subject during the perception of the suggestion and its implementation. Generally speaking, suggestion is one of the methods of influencing some persons on others, which is carried out intentionally or unintentionally by the suggesting person and which can occur either imperceptibly for the person to whom the suggestion is made, or with his knowledge and consent.
To clarify the essence of suggestion, we must keep in mind that our perception can be active and passive. In the first case, the "I" of the subject necessarily participates, which directs attention, in accordance with the course of our thinking and environmental conditions, to certain objects and phenomena. The latter, entering the psychic sphere with the participation of attention and assimilated through deliberation and reflection, become a lasting property of personal consciousness, or our "I".
This kind of perception, leading to the enrichment of our personal consciousness, underlies our views and beliefs, since the further result of active perception is the work of our thought, leading to the development of more or less strong convictions. The latter, entering the content of our personal consciousness, are temporarily hidden behind the threshold of consciousness, but in such a way that every minute, at the desire of the "I", they can again be revived by reproducing the experienced ideas. But, in addition to active perception, we perceive much of the environment passively, without any participation of our "I", when our attention is occupied with something, for example, when focusing on some thought, or when our attention is weakened due to various reasons, as this is observed, for example, in a state of absent-mindedness. In both cases, the object of perception does not enter the sphere of personal consciousness, but penetrates into other areas of our mental sphere, which we can call general consciousness. This latter is sufficiently independent of personal consciousness, due to which everything that enters the sphere of general consciousness cannot be arbitrarily introduced by us into the sphere of personal consciousness. Nevertheless, the products of general consciousness can, under certain conditions, also enter the sphere of personal consciousness, and the source of their initial origin is not always even recognized by personal consciousness.
A whole series of heterogeneous impressions entering the psychic sphere during passive perception without any participation of attention and penetrating directly into the sphere of general consciousness, in addition to our "I", forms those influences of the surrounding world that are elusive for us, which are reflected in our well-being, often giving it that or another sensual tone, and which underlie the obscure motives and motives that we often experience in both cases. The sphere of general consciousness generally plays a special role in the mental sphere of each person. Sometimes an impression, received passively, enters through the linking of ideas into the sphere of personal consciousness in the form of a mental image, the novelty of which strikes us. In some cases, this image, taking on plastic forms, appears in the form of a special inner voice, reminiscent of an obsessive idea, or even in the form of a dream or a real hallucination, the origin of which usually lies in the sphere of the products of the activity of the general consciousness. When the personal consciousness weakens, as we observe in sleep or in deep hypnosis, then the work of the general consciousness moves onto the stage of consciousness, completely disregarding either the views or the conditions of the activity of the personal consciousness, as a result of which, in dreams, as in deep hypnosis, everything that we cannot even think of in the sphere of personal consciousness seems possible.
It can hardly be doubted that suggestion refers precisely to the order of those influences on the mental sphere that occur apart from our "I", penetrate directly into the sphere of general consciousness. Even in my work "The Role of Suggestion in Social Life" (St. Petersburg, 1898), I defined suggestion, after appropriate explanations, as follows: participation of the will of the perceiving person and often even without a clear consciousness on his part. I explained at the same time that "this definition contains essential difference suggestion as a way of mental influence of one person on another from persuasion, which is always produced only through logical thinking and with the participation of personal consciousness.
Everything that enters the sphere of personal consciousness enters into a relationship with our "I", and since everything in personal consciousness, due to the relation to the "I", is in strict correspondence and coordination, which serves as an expression of the unity of the personality, it is obvious that everything entering into the sphere of personal consciousness, should be subjected to appropriate criticism and processing, leading to conviction. But it is also undoubted that in addition to a conviction that acts on another person by the power of logic and indisputable evidence and arises through personal consciousness, one should distinguish between suggestion that acts on the mental sphere "by direct inculcation of mental states, that is, ideas, feelings and sensations," without requiring participation of personal consciousness and logic. Even now I must maintain the same view and believe that suggestion, unlike persuasion, penetrates into the psychic sphere apart from personal consciousness, entering without special processing directly into the sphere of general consciousness and strengthening here, like any other object of passive perception in general.
When, under suggestion, a person develops a spasm in the hand, or, conversely, the hand is completely paralyzed, the question is, what determines the implementation of this suggestion? The direct penetration of the suggested idea into the sphere of consciousness, not coordinated with the "I" of the subject, as a result of which the latter has no power over this suggestion and cannot counteract it. But what prevents the "I" with its volitional attention from allowing suggestion to penetrate into general consciousness? Why does it not introduce him into the sphere of personal consciousness? Because the will is paralyzed by faith in the power of hypnosis and suggestion, and the subject cannot concentrate volitional attention on the suggestion, it is caught only by involuntary attention, which introduces the suggestion into the sphere of general, and not personal consciousness, thereby giving a certain scope to automatism.
Thus, if by suggestion we understood any direct influence on a person in general, apart from his "I" or personal consciousness, then we could identify this form of influence of environmental conditions on us with a form of passive perception that occurs without any participation of the "I" of the subject. But by suggestion it is customary to understand the influence of one person on another, which, obviously, occurs through passive perception, that is, in addition to the participation of the personal consciousness, or "I", of the subject, in contrast to the influence of a different kind, which always occurs through active attention, with the participation of personal consciousness and consisting in a logical conviction, leading to the development of certain views. Suggestion and persuasion, thus, are the two main forms of influence of one person on another, although among the ways of mental influence of some persons on others, in addition to persuasion and suggestion, we can also distinguish between an order as a demand, which implies a force that can force one to fulfill what is ordered, and an example that excites imitation, as well as advice, hopes, desires, etc. But these forms of influence of some persons on others, in my opinion, cannot be ranked among the main ones, except for purely automatic imitation, since in analysis it is easy to verify that, as an order , and example act partly by the same persuasion, partly by suggestion. Undoubtedly, to a certain extent, both command and example act exactly like suggestion and cannot even be distinguished from it; otherwise, both command and example, acting on the mind of a person, can be quite likened to logical conviction.
Thus, the order acts primarily by the force of fear for possible consequences disobedience through the consciousness of the need to fulfill due to the rationality of submission in general, etc. In this respect, the command acts exactly like persuasion. But regardless of this, the command acts, at least in certain cases, directly on the psychic sphere as a suggestion. As is known, the term "suggestion" before its introduction into psychology was preferably used by the public to express the imperious influence of one person on another. best example The influence of an order as a suggestion can be served by a command that, as you know, acts not only through fear of the consequences for disobedience, but also through direct suggestion, without giving the opportunity to reasonably discuss the subject of the command. In the same way, on the one hand, an example undoubtedly acts on the mind by convincing one of the usefulness of what a person sees and hears; on the other hand, an example can also act like a psychic contagion, in other words, by direct suggestion as a completely involuntary and unconscious imitation. In this regard, we will recall the contagious influence of public executions, imitation suicides, the transmission by imitation of convulsive morbid forms, etc.
As for other forms of influence of some persons on others, as a demand, advice, expression of hope or desire, then in essence they mean nothing more than to present material for judgment to another person, and therefore, they mean to support or strengthen in it a certain conviction, although in certain cases these forms of influence can directly influence consciousness, like suggestion. Thus, both command and example, as well as other forms of mental influence of some persons on others, act in some cases by persuasion, in other cases by suggestion, but more often they act simultaneously both as persuasion and as suggestion and therefore cannot be regarded as independent ways the influence of some persons on others, like persuasion and suggestion.
Lowenfeld, by the way, insists on a difference in the definitions of the very process of suggestion (suggeriren) from the result of it, known as the proper suggestion (suggestion). It goes without saying that these are two different processes that should not be mixed with each other. But, in our opinion, only such a definition can be recognized as the most appropriate and more correct, which embraces both the very method of influence characteristic of the process of suggestion and the result of this influence. The fact is that the latter is characterized not only by the result, but also by the very way in which it is achieved, just as the process of suggestion is characterized not only by the very process or method of influencing the mental sphere, but also by the result of this influence. That is why in the word "suggestion" we mean not only the method of influencing one or another person, but also the possible result of this influence, and, on the other hand, in the word "suggestion" we mean not only the result achieved in the mental sphere of a given person, but also to a certain extent the method that led to this result. In our opinion, the concept of suggestion primarily contains an element of immediacy of influence. Whether the suggestion will be made by an outsider through the word, or the impact is made through some phenomenon or action, that is, whether we have a verbal or concrete suggestion, it always affects not through logical persuasion, but directly affects the mental sphere, in addition to the personal sphere. consciousness, or at least without processing by the "I" of the subject, due to which there is a real inoculation of one or another psychophysical state.
In the same way, those states that are known as autosuggestion and that do not require extraneous influences usually arise directly in the mental sphere, when, for example, one or another idea has penetrated consciousness as something ready in the form of a thought that suddenly appeared and struck the consciousness, in the form this or that dream, in the form of a seen example, etc. In all these cases, mental influences that arise apart from extraneous interference are also instilled into the mental sphere directly, bypassing the critical and self-conscious "I" or what we call personal consciousness. Thus, to inspire means to more or less directly inculcate ideas, feelings, emotions and other psychophysical states into the mental sphere of another person, in other words, to influence in such a way that there is no place for criticism and judgment if possible; suggestion should be understood as the direct inoculation into the mental sphere of a given person of an idea, feeling, emotion and other psychophysical states besides his "I", that is, bypassing his self-conscious and critical personality.
If suggestion is something other than the influence of one person on another by direct inoculation of ideas, feelings, emotions and other psychophysical states without the participation of the personal consciousness of the person to whom the suggestion is made, then it is obvious that it can manifest itself most easily when it penetrates into the psychic sphere or imperceptibly, insinuatingly, in the absence of special resistance from the "I" of the subject, or at least when passive attitude the latter to the subject of suggestion, or when it immediately suppresses the mental "I", eliminating any resistance from the latter.
Experience really confirms this, since suggestion can be introduced into the psychic sphere either little by little, by means of constant statements of the same kind, or at once, like an imperative command. But without a doubt, suggestion is most easily accomplished in hypnosis, in which personal consciousness is lost to a greater or lesser extent, and the sphere of general or impersonal consciousness comes into play. When personal consciousness is weakened or lost, as in hypnosis, it is natural that the suggestion enters directly into the sphere of general consciousness, bypassing the subject's "I" and not encountering any opposition from him, at least in the deeper degrees of hypnosis.
If in some cases of hypnosis resistance to suggestions does exist, then the degree of this resistance, in any case, depends on the depth of hypnosis. The deeper the latter, the less resistance the suggestion meets. However, there is no doubt that the nature of the suggestion also affects the resistance of the subject, since only suggestions that contradict the whole disposition of the given person, and especially his moral views, usually meet one or another opposition from the hypnotized person. But this resistance is far from being of such a kind that an experienced hypnotist cannot bypass and overcome it. The fact just mentioned is evidently explained by the fact that in less profound hypnosis the subject's ego, i.e., his personal consciousness, if it remains, is in general far from being as stable as in the normal state, due to which its counteraction is not can be as complete and perfect as under normal conditions.
Hypnosis has been known to people since ancient times. It was used by ministers of religious cults, shamans, healers, magicians, etc.
Studies of Bekhterev's hypnosis are associated with the name of F. Mesmer (1734-1815). Mesmer said that in the process of irradiating the sick, he noticed how they were being treated by some unknown force emanating from the hands. Mesmer gave it the name "magnetic fluid". This is a supernatural power that Mesmer transmitted to his patients through certain movements - "passes".
Magnetic fluid or animal magnetism passes from the one who heals to the one being healed due to the emergence of a kind of invisible channel of "rapport".
Abbot Foria used verbal suggestion to put patients to sleep. J. Brad - English doctor first introduced the concept of "hypnosis". He also showed that "passes" are not the only way to create a hypnotic state. He said that the state of hypnosis can be induced by fixing the gaze on shiny objects with simultaneous verbal suggestion.
J. Brad said that hypnosis does not consist in experiencing the fluid from one person to another, but due to changes in the human psyche under the influence of external stimuli.
Such phenomena have been observed during hypnotic influence as anesthesia
(lack of sensation) and analgesia
(no pain).
Hypnosis, as a rule, is characterized by a decrease or complete absence of the hypnotized person's motor activity.
There is also such a phenomenon as "catalepsy"
- a condition in which the muscles of the euthanized person become waxy and retain any position given to them (a raised hand remains raised).
In the process of hypnosis, the hypnotized person experiences amnesia, that is, forgetfulness of everything that happened during hypnosis with a person.
Post-hypnotic suggestion (suggestion for a period) - the hypnotic performs the suggestion made by him after a certain predetermined period of time, 1-2 hours after the session. The previously hypnotized person performs these actions exactly while fully awake. Hallucinations can also be hypnotically suggested.
In the 19th century, in the 1960s and 1970s, two directions emerged in understanding the essence of hypnosis.
1. The teachings of the Paris School, led by Charcot.
Hypnosis was understood as a kind of neurosis, or neurotic state, which is expressed in 3 states: lethargy, catalepsy and somnambulism. Hypnosis is caused by physical techniques.
2. Teachings of the Nancy School of Bernheim.
According to this trend, hypnosis is a normal mental phenomenon, caused by verbal suggestion, it is a suggested dream, all phenomena in it are the result of mental influences.
An essential feature of hypnosis is its increased suggestibility.
V.M. Bekhterev identified several reasons for the increased suggestibility that occurs during hypnosis:
- The inaction of the mind and will of the lulled;
- Suggestion in hypnosis has the character of more vivid sensory images than dreams during natural sleep;
- The hypnotist subjugates the will of the hypnotized and enjoys his full confidence;
- Limited perception of the outside world.
Along with external suggestion, self-hypnosis is also possible. Autosuggestion is the inoculation of mental states to internal factors, the source of which is in the mental sphere of the person who has undergone autosuggestion.
The term telepathy was introduced by English researchers E. Gurney, F. Myers and F. Podmore in 1886. Telepathy is feeling at a distance.
V.M. Bekhterev distinguished 2 forms of awareness of mental processes:
- "levels of clarity of consciousness";
- The presence in the mind of various mental processes that differ in their content and relation to the personality of a person, to his "I".
Within the framework of the concept of consciousness V.M. Bekhterev paid great attention to the phenomena of perception and apperception. Perception- this is a process due to which one or another impression comes to consciousness (V.M. Bekhterev).
Apperception is the process by which external impressions enter the realm of clear, "full" consciousness. (V.M. Bekhterev).
There are two people involved in hypnosis: the hypnotist and the hypnotized. During the session, the patient's personal consciousness is suppressed and the hypnotist's personal consciousness takes its place. The hypnotist can introduce into the “general consciousness” of the put to sleep any mental content that is transformed there.
"Common Consciousness"
- this is a level of organization of psycho-physiological processes, where there is still no opposition of the subjective to the objective, the language of the mental is understandable to the somatic sphere.
References:
V.M. Bekhterev - Hypnosis, suggestion, telepathy. - M: Thought, 1994. - 364 p.
Hypnosis. Suggestion. Telepathy
Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev
Monographpublishing house: Thought
Format: PDF/DOC
Year: 1994
ISBN:5-224-00549-9
Pages: 366Description : Miraculous healings, healers and soothsayers for every taste, psychotherapy telesessions, mass fascination with psychics, thought transmission at a distance and bioenergy transmission, witchcraft, communication with aliens, etc. filled our daily routine. A truthful and truly scientific word about these phenomena has an invaluable socio-political, educational and medical value.
Acquaintance with V.M. Ankylosing spondylitis with a wealth of ideas, facts, observations, advice and warnings in this most complex area of medicine is now more than ever necessary. It will also contribute to the scientific development of many problems associated with hypnosis, suggestion and telepathy.
The book is a collection of psychological and psychiatric works of the great Russian and Soviet scientist V. M. Bekhterev, devoted to the problems of suggestion, hypnosis, psychotherapy, telepathy, etc. The works of V. M. Bekhterev have not only priority, but also historical meaning, are relevant today, when interest in hypnosis, suggestion, autogenic training is becoming widespread.Add. information: Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (born January 20, old style, 1857 in the village of Sorali, Vyatka province, now the village of Bekhterevo, Yelabuga region of Tatarstan; died December 24, 1927 in Moscow) - the largest scientist: doctor, neuropathologist, psychiatrist, psychologist, physiologist and morphologist.
Bekhterev studied a wide range of psychiatric, neurological, physiological, morphological and psychological problems. In his approach, he always focused on a comprehensive study of the problems of the brain and man. Carrying out the reformation modern psychology, developed his own teaching, which he consistently designated as objective psychology (from 1904), then as psychoreflexology (from 1910) and as reflexology (from 1917). paid Special attention the development of reflexology as a complex science of man and society (different from physiology and psychology), designed to replace psychology.
CONTENT
About V. M. Bekhterev - scientist and hypnologist
Hypnosis
On the Objective Signs of Suggestions Tested in Hypnosis
Objective signs of suggested changes in sensitivity in hypnosis (V. M. Bekhterev and V. Narbut)
On the Treatment of Obsessions with Hypnotic Suggestions
Suggestion
What is a suggestion?
The role of suggestion in public life
Suggestion and education
Suggestion and miraculous healings
Hypnosis, suggestion and psychotherapy and their therapeutic value
Facts from ancient history pertaining to suggestion
The use of hypnosis and suggestion by different hypnotists
The beginning of the scientific study of hypnosis and suggestion
Controversy in the doctrine of the nature of hypnosis
Criticism of both views
Convergence of hypnosis with ordinary sleep
Convergence of hypnosis with painful sleep changes
On the nature of hypnosis as a modification of sleep
Different phases of hypnosis and its classification
Ways to induce hypnosis
On the conditions hindering the development of hypnosis, and on the prevalence of hypnosis
On the objective signs of hypnosis and suggestion
On the nature of hypnotic suggestion
Therapeutic use of hypnosis and elucidation of the role of suggestion
Importance of hypnotic suggestion
The imaginary danger of hypnotism
The question of the dangers of hypnosis sessions
Post-hypnotic suggestions
Effect of suggestion on pathological disorders
About treatment by suggestion in the waking state
The Importance of Faith in Suggestive Healing
Mental suggestion and suggestion through objects
Self-hypnosis as a healing factor
Re-education treatment
Treatment by so-called persuasion and treatment by exercise
Treatment with ideals
Psychoanalysis and confessional treatment
Combined treatment method and conclusion
Telepathy
Mental suggestion or trick?
How does the so-called guessing of thoughts take place on the stage of theaters?
On experiments on the "mental" influence on the behavior of animals
Notes
Cited Literature
Every day more and more people are interested in secret knowledge, the influence of the power of thought, ways to influence human consciousness and actions. And yet, for many, these topics are incomprehensible, and the questions raised seem to be something from the realm of magic. But the further science goes, the easier it becomes to explain the inexplicable. V. M. Bekhterev devoted his whole life to the study of these issues and learned a lot of new things. He was at the head of the Institute of the Brain, where he conducted research to scientifically explain many things. In the book "Hypnosis. Suggestion. Telepathy” presents facts from his biography, as well as his works on the topics of human impact.
From the book, readers will learn about how hypnosis and suggestion work. The author talks about how you can influence an individual or a crowd, explains what the difference is. He talks about hypnosis, but also explains how you can influence a person in the waking state. An interesting part of the story will be devoted to how people are "processed" in sects. And in modern world this issue is very relevant, just like the topics of influencing people for profit, including the influence of the media and special manipulations in negotiations or in sales. This book will be of interest to both psychologists and psychotherapists, and ordinary people, who do not have a special education, but who want to learn about what hypnosis is from a scientific point of view.
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