What is the name of the population in Arabic? Arabic is one of the most difficult languages in the world

,
Comoros,
Kuwait,
Lebanon,
Libya,
Mauritania,
Morocco,
UAE,
Oman,
Eritrea,
Saudi Arabia ,
Syria,
Somalia,
Sudan,
Tunisia,
Chad,
SADR
() ,
State of Palestine
(partially recognized state)
Somaliland
(unrecognized state).
Organizations:
UN,
African Union,
OIS,
LAG,
GCC,
Agadir Agreement
Regulatory organizations: Royal Moroccan Academy (Morocco), Academy of the Arabic Language (Egypt), Academy of the Arabic Language in Damascus (Syria), Jordan Academy of the Arabic Language (Jordan), Iraqi Scientific Academy in Baghdad (Iraq), Academy of the Arabic Language in Khurtum (Sudan), House of Wisdom Foundation (Tunisia), Academy of the Arabic Language in Jamahiriya (Libya), Israeli Academy of the Arabic Language (Israel).

Total number of speakers:

from 260 to 323 million

Rating : Classification Semitic family West Semitic branch Central Semitic group Arabian subgroup Writing: Language codes GOST 7.75–97: ISO 639-1: ISO 639-2: ISO 639-3: See also: Project: Linguistics Spread of Arabic
The only official One of the official

Arabic (Arab. اللغة العربية ‎‎, al-luġa al-ʿarabiyya listen)) belongs to the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic family of languages. The number of speakers of Arabic and its variants is approximately 240 million (mother tongue), and another 50 million use Arabic as a second language. Classical Arabic, the language of the Qur'an, is used to a limited extent for religious purposes by adherents of Islam around the world (total population of 1.57 billion people).

Dialects

Modern spoken Arabic falls into 5 groups of dialects, which are actually separate languages from a linguistic point of view:

Maghreb dialect group
Egyptian-Sudanese Arabic
Syro-Mesopotamian Arabic
Arabian group of dialects (="language")
Central Asian group of dialects (="language")

The Maghreb language belongs to the Western group, the rest - to the Eastern group of Arabic languages and dialects. (See "language or dialect" problem); It is preferable to use the well-established term “dialect” in Arabic studies ( Arab. لهجة ‎‎)

Literary language (in Western Arabic studies the term English is used. Modern Standard Arabic- modern standard Arabic ) - unified. Literary Arabic combines vocabulary for many things in modern world or science, but at the same time in some Arab countries it is quite rarely used in colloquial speech.

Place of Arabic in the Semitic language group

Classical Arabic differs little from Old Arabic. Many roots of Semitic languages are also found in Arabic. In Semitic studies, there has in the past been a tendency to regard Classical Arabic as the most archaic of the Semitic languages. However, over time, through comparison with other Afroasiatic languages, it was found that much in classical Arabic is not so original.

Story

Over the centuries, the language has constantly changed, which, however, has had little effect on writing, because short vowel sounds, except in the Koran, are not written in the text.

Classical (high) Arabic is not the native language of Arabs today. However, even today, with a modified vocabulary, it is used in almost all newspapers and books, with the exception of Tunisia, Morocco and partly Algeria, where Arabic shares the role of a literary language with French. In scientific and technical literature in other Arab countries, English is often used in places where the necessary vocabulary is lacking. The language is sometimes ironically called Modern High Arabic.

Vocabulary composition

The vocabulary of the modern Arabic literary language is characterized by the fact that its main part is originally Arabic. “The Arabs highly value the word-formation capabilities of their language, seeing the richness and clarity of word-formation paradigms as the key to adapting the Arabic literary language to current state society. Moreover, it should be noted that in modern nomination processes, the most active models are those with a high generalization index. Thus, recently the vocabulary of the Arabic literary language has been significantly replenished by derivative names formed by adding the suffix ية-, which forms a derivative series with the meaning of generalized abstract qualities and properties: استقلالية independence; حركية dynamism, dynamics; شمولية maximalism; totalitarianism; اشكلالية - problem, etc.” . Some part of the vocabulary is general Semitic and only a small part is foreign, such as the words: “TV” - تِلِيفِزْيُونْ [tilifizyon], دكتورة title of doctor, سكرتير secretary, فيلم film. The total number of borrowings from European languages is small and amounts to about one percent of the dictionary.

For the Arabic literary language, four large synchronous sections of vocabulary development are distinguished: the pre-Muslim vocabulary of the communal-tribal system (late 7th and early 8th centuries); expansion of the vocabulary associated with the origin, development and prosperity of the medieval Arabic-speaking civilization (until the 12th century); the period of stagnation and reduction in the range of use of the Arabic literary language (XIII-XVIII centuries) and the beginning of the modern period (from the middle of the 19th century).

Synonymy, polysemy of words and homonymy have become widely developed in the Arabic language. The main methods of word formation are: morphological - according to word-formation models and formulas, syntactic and semantic.

Despite the fact that the vocabulary is very rich, it is often not sufficiently standardized and is often overloaded with linguistic background. For example, there is no word that quite accurately corresponds to the word nation. The word used to denote this concept is (أمة‎, umma) meaning in the past, and in a religious context to this day, “a community of believers (Muslims)”; or, for example, “nationality” (جنسية ‎, jinsiya) generally means “gender,” for example, sex life sounds like (حياة الجنسية ‎, haya: t al-jinsiyya). The word "nationalism" (قومية ‎, Qaumiyya), comes originally from vocabulary nomads kaum and means "tribe" in the sense of "nomadic tribe".

Phonetics

Phonetically, literary Arabic is characterized by a widely developed system of consonant phonemes, especially glottal, emphatic and interdental.

"In the phonetic sections grammatical works either only the articulations of Arabic sounds were described, or also their combinatorial changes. The Indian system of sound classification, based on taking into account the place of articulation and other articulatory features, had a significant influence on the Arabs. The technique of comparing sounds in articulatory and functional terms was used. Avicenna introduced the concept of correlation to establish relationships between sounds. Cases of gemination were classified as the result of complete progressive or regressive contact assimilation. Partial and distant assimilation was described. Questions were studied about the interaction of consonants and vowels, about the replacement of consonants, about metathesis, about the loss of hamza, about elision, about the emergence of a connecting vowel, about palatalization, velarization, about sound symbolism.”

Pronunciation

In many Arab countries, efforts are currently being made to bring pronunciation closer to standard Arabic. The basis is the quotation norm (Ar. tilāwa تلاوة‎) of the Koran. This style of pronunciation is generally used only in religious contexts.

It is certain that the original pronunciation of High Arabic is not exactly known. For example, there is no consensus on the pronunciation of the ending un indefinite nouns ( kitabun etc. kitab). There are arguments in favor of two options, and since there were no vowel marks (vowel marks) in the ancient handwritten script, it is impossible to say with certainty how it was pronounced.

№	Arab	Russian
List of Swadesh for Arabic
1	أنا	I
2	أنت	You
3	هو	He
4	نحن	We
5	أنت	You
6	هم	They
7	هذا	this, this, this
8	أن	that, that, that
9	هنا	here
10	هناك	there
11	الذي	Who
12	أن	What
13	حيث	Where
14	عندما	When
15	كما	How
16	ليس	Not
17	جميع	all, all, everything, everything
18	كثير	many
19	بعض	some
20	قليل	few
21	آخر	different, different
22	واحد	one
23	اثنان	two
24	ثلاثة	three
25	أربعة	four
26	خمسة	five
27	عظيم	big, great
28	طويل	long, long
29	واسع	wide
30	سميك	thick
31	ثقيل	heavy
32	صغير	small
33	قصير	short, brief
34	ضيق	narrow
35	رقيق	thin
36	امرأة	woman
37	رجل	man
38	رجل	Human
39	طفل	child, child
40	زوجة	wife
41	زوج	husband
42	والدة	mother
43	والد	father
44	حيوان	beast, animal
45	سمك	fish
46	طائر	bird, bird
47	كلب	dog, dog
48	قملة	louse
49	ثعبان	snake
50	دودة	worm
51	شجرة	tree
52	غابة	forest
53	عصا	stick, rod
54	فاكهة	fruit
55	بذرة	seed, seeds
56	يترك	sheet
57	جذر	root
58	قشرة	bark
59	زهرة	flower
60	عشب	grass
61	حبل	rope
62	جلد	leather
63	لحم	meat
64	دم	blood
65	عظم	bone
66	دهن	fat
67	بيضة	egg
68	قرن	horn
69	ذيل	tail
70	قلم	feather
71	شعر	hair
72	رئيس	head
73	الأذن	ear
74	عين	eye, eye
75	أنف	nose
76	فم	mouth
77	سن	tooth
78	لغة	tongue)
79	مسمار	nail
80	قدم	foot, leg
81	ساق	leg
82	ركبة	knee
83	يد	hand
84	جناح	wing
85	معدة	belly, belly
86	في الداخل	entrails, intestines
87	العنق	neck
88	ظهر	back
89	صدر	breast
90	قلب	heart
91	كبد	liver
92	شرب	drink
93	هناك	eat, eat
94	عض	bite
95	مص	suck
96	بصق	spit
97	تقيؤ	vomit, vomit
98	ضربة	blow
99	تنفس	breathe
100	ضحك	laugh

Writing

Arabic is written from right to left. Moreover, in Arabic, unlike languages with Latin or Cyrillic graphics, there are no capital letters, so proper names are written like any other word, as well as the first word in a sentence.

Anthroponymy

Arabic names are traditionally written in literal order.

Grammar

“Arab scholars usually divided grammar into syntax, morphology and phonetics and paid considerable attention to issues of word formation, and in connection with it etymology, thanks to which in the 11th century. high level The root theory has been achieved. Syntax and morphology are the most original parts of Arabic grammar, having no sources in either Greek or Indian works and focused on the specifics of the Arabic language.

The task of syntax was the structural and semantic analysis of the sentence. It postulated subject-predicate relations between two names or between a name and a verb. There were small/elementary sentences and large ones forming a hierarchy; sentences are nominal, verbal and adverbial - depending on what word is at the beginning of the sentence, and accordingly there are different types of subjects and predicates. Secondary members of the sentence were identified and classified in detail (up to five types of additions, circumstances different types, "applications"). There were different cases of formal and virtual implementation of inflections. The concept of an implied term was introduced to explain the construction. The relationships of coordination, control and adjacency were also analyzed.

In morphology, parts of speech and features of their formation that are not determined syntactically were considered. These included issues such as parts of speech (noun, verb and particles of up to 27 types), root structure, names and their multidimensional classification according to for various reasons(explicit names - nouns, adjectives, hidden names - personal pronouns, common names - demonstrative and relative pronouns, etc.), verbs (with a detailed classification of their forms and meanings), two-case and three-case names, the formation of relative names, the formation of composites , the formation of forms of number and gender, the formation of deminitives, changes in the form of a word due to the presence of weak root consonants, pausal forms, etc. The issue of masdar was also discussed here.

Particularly great successes were achieved in phonetics (Khalil ibn Ahmad; Abu Ali ibn Sina - Avicenna, 980-1037; Sibavaihi).

Arabic characterized by highly developed inflectivity. (The inflectivity and similarity of the inflection of Semitic and Indo-European languages has been questioned by some researchers of languages. Inflection Indo-European languages is a different phenomenon from the inflection of Semitic languages, since it implies a stronger interaction of inflection with the root. The Arabic language is characterized by agglutination. Some scientists, in particular A. A. Reformatsky, believe that the fusion of Semitic languages is special shape agglutination, since the fusion of a Semitic word is a predictable process and follows relatively strict formulas, which Arabic authors like to present using the three-letter root فعل with the meaning do and the vowels themselves that form a fusion are, as a rule, independent of the root. A similar, but not analogous, phenomenon has been observed in a number of non-Semitic languages, in particular Germanic. These are, for example, pairs of words singular and plural in English, like foot - feet, tooth - teeth or changes in root vowels in irregular English verbs or so-called strong verbs German language, but in Germanic languages there is no regularity in the reproduction of so-called fusional formulas. Most words in Arabic can be traced back to the original form of the verb, which usually consists of three- or four- (rarely two- and five-) root consonants.

Although the root is indivisible for the speaker’s consciousness, some familiarity with parsing the root is useful for facilitating the memorization of such an extensive root vocabulary as the Arabic language is endowed with, and for the feasible interpretation of unfamiliar roots when reading without a dictionary.

Root of the word

The Arabic root is most often three-letter, less often two- or four-letter, and even less often five-letter; but already for a four-letter root there is a requirement that it contain at least one of the smooth consonants (vox memoriae (memory): مُرْ بِنَفْلٍ).

According to the famous Russian Arabist S. S. Maisel, the number of triconsonant roots in modern Arabic literary language makes up 82% of the total Arabic root word.

Not just any consonants can participate in the composition of a root: some of them are compatible in the same root (more precisely, in the same cell; see below: b), others are incompatible.

Incompatible:

Laryngeal: غ ع خ ح (if ع and ء are compatible)
Non-laryngeal:

ب and فم

ت and ث

ث and س ص ض ط ظ

ج and ف ق ك

خ and ظقك

د and ذ

ذ and ص ض ط ظ

ر and ل

ز and ض ص ظ

س and ص ض

ش and ض ل

ص and ض ط ظ

ض and ط ظ

ط and ظك

ظ and غ ق

غ and ق ك

ق and كغ

ل and ن

This feature of the composition of the Arabic root makes the task somewhat easier for those reading the manuscript without dots; for example, the spelling of حعفر ‎ should be جَعْفَر ‎

It should be noted that the translation of the cases الرَّفْعُ, الجَرُّ and النَّصْبُ is very conditional, since the genitive and accusative cases Arabic includes such names that, when translated, can appear in any of the remaining three cases of the Russian language:

Zeid cut the rope with a knife ( instrumental case)

We talked about studying ( prepositional)

قُلْ لِمُحَمَّدٍ - الجَرُّ Tell Muhammad (dative case)

قَاوَمَ اَلشَّعْبُ اَلْمُسْتَعْمِرِينَ - اَلنَّصْبُ The people fought against the colonialists (instrumental case)

The signs by which case is recognized are different and they depend on the morphological features of the name.

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Noun

A noun in Arabic is characterized by such morphological concepts as gender, number - singular, dual (very rarely used in dialects) and plural, case and state, as well as the categories of definiteness, uncertainty and neutral status.

Genus. There are only two genders in Arabic: masculine and feminine. For names with a characteristic ending [atun], the feminine gender is often characteristic. In general, whether a name belongs to one gender or another is associated with meaning, for example, with gender.

For example, the noun أُمٌّ ["ummun]-(mother), despite its ending is feminine. For many nouns denoting the name of a profession or type of activity, the feminine gender is formed simply by adding the ending [-atun] to the corresponding masculine noun. For example:

طَالِبٌ [ student]

طَالِبَةٌ [ student]

To convey feminine endings in a letter, ﺓ [tā’ marbuta], a letter that is not in the alphabet, is used. It is a graphic variant of the usual ت [t], which is called [tā’], or “stretched t”. By connecting the ends of the “stretched t” to each other, we get ﺓ [tā’ marbuta]. In Semitic languages [t] is one of the main indicators of gender. When agreeing with names, ت is used in verbs, and ﺓ in names. [tā’ marbuta] is written only at the end of a word and can have two styles: without a connection - ﺓ ‎ and with a connection on the right - ﺔ ‎.

Verb

The verb is characterized by a great development of verb forms, called breeds: a unified conjugation system for all verbs; a developed system of tense forms (three simple and three complex tenses); two voices (active and passive); five moods (indicative, subjunctive, conditional, imperative and reinforced); a system of verbal names associated with breeds (the so-called “masdars”).

A verb denotes an action or state of a person or thing and acts as a predicate in a sentence. The most common type of Arabic verb is the three-consonant verb. Three consonants standing next to each other and voiced by fatha (the middle radical can also be voiced by damma or kasra) represent a 3rd person masculine singular verb of the past tense. This verb form has the formula فَعَلَ. As the simplest, this form is taken as the initial one in the formation of derivative forms and is conventionally translated in dictionaries by the infinitive. When conjugating an Arabic verb, personal pronouns are omitted, since person, number and gender are quite fully expressed in personal endings.

Past tense of verb - The past tense of an Arabic verb serves to express an action that occurred before the moment of speech, and is formed by replacing the ending of the 3rd person singular masculine with the corresponding personal endings. The Arabic verb, unlike the Russian one, does not receive a clear aspectual meaning in the past tense form, and therefore, depending on the meaning of the sentence, it can be translated either by the perfect form or by the imperfect form of the Russian verb. For example:كَتَبَ “he wrote” or “he wrote.”

Present-future tense Arabic verb expresses an action that is incomplete in nature, occurring or beginning simultaneously with the moment of speech or with some other moment directly or indirectly indicated in this statement. The present-future form is formed from the past tense by adding the appropriate prefixes and endings; in this case, the first radical loses its vowel (a sukun appears above it), and the second receives fatha, damma or kasra, which is called a typical vowel and is indicated in dictionaries by the corresponding letter (a, i, y), placed in brackets after the verb.

Future verb tense is formed on the basis of the present tense form by adding the prefix سوف to it [saufa] or its abbreviated version س [sa]. Unlike س, which is written together with the verb form, سوف is written separately with it. Both prefixes have no independent meaning. The conjugation of the verb in this tense form is basically similar to the conjugation in the present-future tense.

In modern Arabic, especially in periodicals, the verb of the second type, formed from the prefix سوف, is actively used, as well as the masdar of this verb تسويف, in the meaning of “endless delay”, “constant postponement for an indefinite future” in relation to any plans, promises or obligations, for example, election ones, etc.].

Conjugation of the verb كَتَبَ (write)
V past tense

Face	Genus	Unit number	Dual number	Plural number
1-oe	-	كَتَبْتُ [katabtu]	-	كَتَبْنَا [katabna:]
2nd	M.	كَتَبْتَ [katabta]	كَتَبْتُمَا [katabtuma:]	كَتَبْتُمْ [katabtum]
2nd	AND.	كَتَبْتِ [katabti]	كَتَبْتُمَا [katabtuma:]	كَتَبْتُنَّ [katabtunna]
3-e	M.	كَتَبَ [kataba]	كَتَبَا [kataba:]	كَتَبُوا [kataboo:]
3-e	AND.	كَتَبَتْ [katabat]	كَتَبَتَا [katabata:]	كَتَبْنَ [katabna]

Conjugation of the verb كَتَبَ (y) (write)
V present-future tense

Face	Genus	Unit number	Dual number	Plural number
1-oe	-	أكْتُبُ [aktubu]	-	نَكْتُبُ [naktubu]
2nd	M.	تَكْتُبُ [taktubu]	تَكْتُبَانِ [taktuba: ni]	تَكْتُبُونَ [taktubu: on]
2nd	AND.	تَكْتُبِينَ [taktubi: on]	تَكْتُبَانِ [taktuba: ni]	تَكْتُبْنَ [tactubna]
3-e	M.	يَكْتُبُ [yaktubu]	يَكْتُبَانِ [yaktuba: ni]	يَكْتُبُونَ [yaktubu: on]
3-e	AND.	تَكْتُبُ [taktubu]	تَكْتُبَانِ [taktuba: ni]	يَكْتُبْنَ [yaktubna]

Conjugation of the verb كَتَبَ (write)
V future tense

Face	Genus	Unit number	Dual number	Plural number
1-oe	-	سَأكْتُبُ [saaktubu] سَوُفَ أكْتُبُ	-	سَنَكْتُبُ [sanaktubu] سَوُفَ نَكْتُبُ
2nd	M.	سَتَكْتُبُ [sataktubu] سَوُفَ تَكْتُبُ	سَتَكْتُبَانِ [sataktuba:ni] سَوُفَ تَكْتُبَانِ	سَتَكْتُبُونَ [sataktubu: on] سَوُفَ تَكْتُبُونَ
2nd	AND.	سَتَكْتُبِينَ [sataktubi: on] سَوُفَ تَكْتُبِينَ	سَتَكْتُبَانِ [sataktuba:ni] سَوُفَ تَكْتُبَانِ	سَتَكْتُبْنَ [sataktubna] سَوُفَ تَكْتُبْنَ
3-e	M.	سَيَكْتُبُ [sayaktubu] سَوُفَ يَكْتُبُ	سَيَكْتُبَانِ [sayaktuba: ni] سَوُفَ يَكْتُبَانِ	سَيَكْتُبُونَ [sayaktubu: on] سَوُفَ يَكْتُبُونَ
3-e	AND.	سَتَكْتُبُ [sataktubu] سَوُفَ تَكْتُبُ	سَتَكْتُبَانِ [sataktuba:ni] سَوُفَ تَكْتُبَانِ	سَيَكْتُبْنَ [sayaktubna] سَوُفَ يَكْتُبْنَ

Most common words

The three most common words are particles that are written together with the next word. These include الـ ‎ al (definite article), و ‎ va(conjunction “and”), and بـ ‎ bi(preposition “through”).

Eight Most Common Single Words

في ‎ fi(V)
من ‎ min(from, from)
على ‎ " ala(on the)
أن ‎ Anna(what (conjunction))
إن ‎ Inna(truly)
إلى ‎ silt(to, to, to)
كان ‎ ka: on(be)
هذا، هذه ‎ ha:a, ha:pihi(this[t], this)

The modern world is conventionally divided into several parts, characterized by certain features. Western and Eastern, European and Arab cultures have their own geopolitical “link”. Today, the term “Arab countries” refers to states where the bulk of the population speaks Arabic.

Unification of Arab States

22 such countries united into an international organization - the League of Arab States. total area The territory in which the Arabic-speaking population lives is approximately 13 million km 2. This formation is located in the zone of connection of three continents - Asia, Africa and Europe. Thus, the Arab countries represent practically a single geocultural space, located from Persian Gulf to the Atlantic Ocean, most of the population of which is of Arab origin.

Linguistic and cultural characteristics

The main formative element of any Arab state is the language and culture developing on its basis. Today such a culture is open and exposed to others, such as Indian, Mongolian, Andalusian. However, Western traditions have the strongest influence.

Religion

In the Arab community, religion such as Islam plays a dual role. On the one hand, it unites Arabs in social and political life, and on the other, it causes disagreements and even armed conflicts between supporters of different movements within. It should be understood that Arab and Muslim countries are not identical concepts. Not all Arab states in the world profess Islam; in some, several coexist at the same time. religious denominations. In addition, it should be remembered that Muslim countries also include those where the majority of residents are not Arabs.

Islam is a powerful cultural factor, thanks to which, along with language, the entire Arab world is united, but it can also divide and lead to bloody wars.

Countries of the Arab world

There are 23 Arab countries in total, a list of which is presented below:

Republic of Djibouti;
Algerian Republic;
Kingdom of Bahrain;
Kingdom of Jordan;
Arab Republic of Egypt;
Republic of Yemen;
Republic of Iraq;
Lebanese Republic;
Union of Comoros;
State of Kuwait;
State of Qatar;
Syrian Arab Republic;
State of Libya;
Islamic Republic of Mauritania;
Kingdom of Morocco;
Oman;
Saudi Arabia;
Republic of South Sudan;
Federal Republic of Somalia;
Republic of Tunisia;
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (Western Sahara);
Autonomous region of Palestine.

It should be noted that not all Arab countries, the list of which is presented, are recognized by other states. Thus, the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, which is not part of the League of Arab States (LAS), is officially recognized by only fifty countries in the world. Moroccan authorities exercise control over most of its territories.

In addition, the State of Palestine, which is part of the Arab League, is recognized by 129 states. This country has two borderless regions: the Gaza Strip and the West Bank.

The countries of the Arab world are geographically divided into three large groups:

African (Maghreb);

Arabian;

Eastern Mediterranean.

Let's briefly look at each of them.

Arabic or Maghreb

In the strict sense, only those states located to the west of Egypt are called Maghreb (West). However, today it is customary to call all North African Arab countries such as Mauritania, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria. Egypt itself is considered the center, the heart of the entire Arab world and is part of the Great Maghreb Arc. Besides it, it includes such countries as Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Mauritania, Libya and

Countries of the Arabian Peninsula

The largest peninsula on our planet is the Arabian. It is where most of the oil supplying countries are located. For example, consisting of seven independent states. In addition, it is on its territory that countries leading in oil production such as Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar are located. In earlier times, countries located on the Arabian Peninsula acted only as transit points and intermediate points on trade routes leading to Iraq and Iran. Today, thanks to the huge oil reserves discovered in the middle of the last century, each of the Arab countries of the Arabian region has its own significant political, strategic and economic weight.

In addition, the countries located in the Persian Gulf are historical centers of the birth and development of Islam, from where it spread to other regions.

Eastern Mediterranean countries

The East Mediterranean Asian region, called Mashriq, includes such countries of the Arab East as the Republic of Iraq, the Kingdom of Jordan, Syria, Libya and Palestine, which has only autonomous status. Since the formation of the State of Israel in the late forties of the twentieth century, Mashriq has been the most restless, almost constantly warring zone of the Arab world. Throughout the twentieth century, Arab-Israeli wars and conflicts constantly took place here. Let us dwell in more detail on such Eastern Mediterranean states as Iraq, Jordan and Palestine.

Republic of Iraq

This Arab state is located in the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, in the Mesopotamian lowland, and is washed from the southeast by the waters of the Persian Gulf. The country borders Kuwait, Iran, Turkey, Syria, Saudi Arabia and Jordan. Armenians are located in the north and northeast of Iraq and are characterized by high seismic activity.

The country of Iraq, of which Baghdad is the capital, is the second largest Arab country in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle Eastern region, with a population of more than 16 million people.

The revolution of 1958 led to the fall of the monarchy in this country, and since 1963, the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (PASV) began to gain increasing political power. As a result of a fierce struggle in the sixties of the last century, this party came to power in 1979, led by S. Hussein. This event became a significant stage in the life of the state. It was this politician who managed to eliminate all his rivals and establish a regime of totalitarian power. Hussein, by liberalizing economic policy and uniting the nation around the idea of a “common enemy,” managed to ensure the growth of his own popularity and gain almost unlimited power.

Under his leadership, Iraq launched a war against Iran in 1980, which lasted until 1988. The turning point was 2003, when US-led coalition forces invaded Iraq, resulting in the execution of Saddam Hussein. The consequences of this invasion are still felt today. The once strong country has become a huge battlefield, in which there is neither developed industry nor peace.

Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

In southwest Asia, at the northwest end Arabian Peninsula, west of Iraq and south of the Syrian Republic is the Kingdom of Jordan. A map of the country clearly shows that almost its entire territory consists of desert plateaus and various hills and mountains. Jordan borders Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Israel and the autonomous region of Palestine. The country has access to the Red Sea. The capital of the state is Amman. In addition, we can highlight the large cities of Zarqa and Irbid.

From 1953 to 1999, until his death, the country was ruled by King Hussein. Today the kingdom is led by his son, Abdullah II, who is a representative of the Hashemite dynasty and, as is commonly believed, one of the direct descendants of the Prophet Muhammad in the 43rd generation. As a rule, the ruler in Arab countries has unlimited influence, but in Jordan the power of the monarch is regulated by the Constitution and Parliament.

Today this is the most peaceful territory of the Arab East in all respects. The main income of this country comes from tourism, as well as assistance from other, wealthier Arab states.

Palestine

This autonomous region of the eastern Mediterranean consists of two non-adjacent regions: the Gaza Strip, bordering Israel and Egypt, and which only touches Jordan on the east, and is surrounded on all other sides by Israeli territory. Naturally, Palestine is divided into several regions: a fertile lowland located along the Mediterranean coast, and a hilly highland to the east. In the very east of the country the steppes begin, gradually turning into the Syrian Desert.

In 1988, after many Arab-Israeli military conflicts and the abandonment of claims to Palestinian territories by Jordan and Egypt, the Palestinian National Council declared the creation of an independent state. The first president of the autonomy was the legendary Yasser Arafat, after whose death, in 2005, Mahmoud Abbas, who is still in power today, was elected to this post. Today, the ruling party in the Gaza Strip is Hamas, which came to power as a result of winning the elections in this autonomy. In the West Bank he controls the entire government activities Palestinian National Authority.

Relations between Palestine and Israel are in an extremely tense state and are permanently turning into armed confrontation. The borders of the Palestinian state are controlled from almost all sides by the Israeli armed forces.

Geographically, the Arab world covers the region from the Atlantic Ocean near the northern part of East Africa to the Arabian Sea. A wide swath of the planet, including territory throughout North Africa, a large cluster in South-West Asia and the Arabian Peninsula, is connected by the Arabic language.

A Semitic language related to Hebrew, spoken by citizens of member states of the Arab states, founded in 1945 to represent the interests of the Arab people and achieve the political unification of Arab countries.

The political boundaries of the Arab world have historically diverged, leaving Arabs as minorities in the non-Arab countries of the Sahel and Horn of Africa and Middle Eastern countries (Cyprus, Turkey and Iran). At the same time, non-Arab minorities remained in Arab countries. However, the underlying geography - sea, deserts and mountains - provides strong natural boundaries for the region.

Kingdom of Bahrain

capital - Manama;
The official language is Arabic.

Located in the Persian Gulf on the Bahrain archipelago, in southwest Asia. The state has been governed as a constitutional monarchy since 2002 under the leadership of Sunni King Hamad ibn Isa Al-Khalifa, whose family holds all major political and military positions in the government. The gap between the Shia majority and the Sunni population led to long-term tensions that periodically erupted into civil disobedience.

Bahrain is one of the first countries in the Persian Gulf to discover oil (production began in 1932) and build an oil refinery. The energy sector remains the backbone of the kingdom's economy, making up a significant share of government revenue, but its share of GDP has also been declining due to earlier efforts to diversify the economy away from hydrocarbons.

Not reaching production levels like Kuwait or Saudi Arabia, Bahrain was forced to diversify its economy. This led to the kingdom becoming one of the main financial centers in the region. Transport links are being modernized and expansion work is underway. international airport Bahrain, which is expected to enhance the country's status as a transit and logistics hub.

Iraq

capital - Baghdad;
official languages are Arabic and Kurdish.

Once a country of great civilizations, Iraq, located in western Asia, in modern history has become a battleground for competing forces with high levels of sectarian violence since the US-led overthrow of President Saddam Hussein in 2003. The Shiite-led governments that have held power since then have struggled to maintain order, but the country has had only brief respites.

Archaeological sites of Samarra, Iraq

Chaos and violence are preventing the revival of an economy destroyed by decades of conflict and sanctions. Iran is the third largest country in the world in terms of crude oil reserves. The economy is expected to grow slightly in 2019, but much depends on the rise and fall of oil production and economic consequences insurgency of the Islamic State (IS). The budget deficit is constantly growing.

The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds. Others are Assyrians, Turkmens, Shabakis, Yezidis, Armenians, Mandaeans, Circassians and Kavliyas.

capital - Doha;
The official language is Arabic.

Since gaining independence in 1971, Qatar has quickly become a leader regionally and internationally. Economic, political and cultural center of the Middle East. With a relatively small local population and significant revenues derived from natural gas, Qatar has the world's highest GDP per capita (averaging around US$100,000).

Until 2010, the country was mainly known internationally as the home of the Al Jazeera media network, but that all changed when Qatar won the bid to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup in December 2010.

Numerous large billboard infrastructures continue to expand the construction industry. By emphasizing extensive international investment, ample spending on significant infrastructure projects, labor migration issues, and state involvement in foreign and regional affairs, Qatar has made a name for itself on the international stage.

Qatar's significant oil and natural gas reserves underpin rapid economic growth.

The country is the world's fourth largest producer of dry natural gas and largest producer liquefied natural gas, resulting in hydrocarbon revenues making up the bulk of national income.

Although the fall in global energy prices has impacted export earnings, last years Strong diversification of the economy has led to dividends, with non-hydrocarbon growth reaching 7.7% in 2015, compared with a 0.1% contraction for hydrocarbon growth over the same period. The country's financial sector continues to develop; Islamic banking in particular has witnessed significant progress.

Jordan

capital - Amman;
The official language is Arabic.

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan lies in the heart of the Middle East, in a region often called the Levant. Jordan's importance stems from its strategic location - at the crossroads of what Christians, Jews and Muslims call the Holy Land.

Shares land borders with Israel, Palestine, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Syria. In the south it has access to the Red Sea through the Arabian Gulf. In Jordan a small amount of natural resources, but she played an important role in the struggle for power in the Middle East. Key US ally. One of two Arab countries (along with Egypt) to have concluded a peace agreement with Israel.

capital - Sana'a;
language - Arabic.

Despite its ancient roots as a crossroads of Africa, the Middle East and Asia, modern Republic Yemen is a relatively young state. Founded in 1990 as a result of the merger of North Yemen (officially the Yemen Arab Republic) and South Yemen (officially the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen).

Yemen is the poorest country in the Middle East. The ongoing conflict in the country has caused a catastrophic humanitarian crisis. As of 2019, approximately 17 million Yemenis (60 percent of the total population) are in need of any kind of humanitarian assistance, and 7 million are experiencing severe food shortages.

(Kuwait; Arabic).

Kuwait is a small country located in southwest Asia, in the upper part of the Persian Gulf region, surrounded by powerful neighbors: Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Iran. Its strategic location and vast oil reserves make Kuwait one of the richest countries in the world (5th highest GDP per capita). US ally.

A conservative state (sheikhdom) with a Sunni Muslim majority, Kuwait stands out among other monarchies in the Gulf region for being the most open political system. As a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council and the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, Kuwait is perhaps the most politically dynamic in the region, and tensions persist between the parliament and the cabinet controlled by ruling family Al-Sabah. The government faces growing opposition calls for radical political reform.

As Kuwait continues its efforts to diversify its economy and reduce its dependence on oil revenues, it is increasing momentum on several major infrastructure projects that should help further integrate the country into the global economy.

To visit the country you need.

(Beirut; Arabic).

With high levels of literacy and traditional cash crops, Lebanon has always been important shopping center in the Middle East. Situated on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, between Israel and Syria, Lebanon is the smallest country in the Middle East. But, despite its compact size, throughout its history it has played an important role in regional politics and security. Shia Muslims, Sunni Muslims, Christians and Druze represent the main population groups in the country, which has always remained a haven for the region's minorities.

After years of political turmoil, Lebanon has regained its former reputation as the "Switzerland of the Middle East" and is becoming an important international direction, both for leisure and for business. Pristine natural beauty, wonderful mountain and sea resorts, excellent weather, great food, European architecture, exciting nightlife, casinos, international hotels attract wealthy travelers from Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar and the UAE.

If you plan to visit the country and stay there for more than 30 days, then it is necessary.

(Abu Dhabi; Arabic).

United United Arab Emirates(UAE) - a federation of seven emirates - one of the most important economic centers in the Middle East. Before oil was discovered in the 1950s, the UAE's economy depended on fishing and pearling. The UAE has diversified and has become a regional trade and tourism hub. UAE companies have invested heavily in foreign countries.

Despite its traditional conservatism, the UAE is one of the most liberal countries in the Gulf. However, politically they remain an authoritarian state. Federal absolute monarchy. The two most famous emirates are cosmopolitan Dubai and oil-rich Abu Dhabi.

In recent years, both have played key roles in managing trade and investment between the region and the rest of the world. Lesser-known emirates are Umm al-Quwain, Ajman, Sharjah, Ras al-Khaimah and Fujairah. Although recently they have also become important shopping centers.

Relations with neighboring Iran remain tense due to the ongoing territorial dispute over the Persian Gulf islands. The UAE was one of three countries that recognized Taliban rule in Afghanistan.

Oman

(Muscat; Arabic).

Located in the southeastern part of the Arabian Peninsula, Oman is the only member of the Gulf Cooperation Council located outside the Gulf itself (at the mouth of the Persian Gulf in the southeastern corner of the Arabian Peninsula). Taking advantage of its strategic location, it invested in infrastructure with the goal of becoming a global logistics hub.

The country has smaller hydrocarbon reserves than neighboring Arab Gulf states and has made efforts to diversify the sultanate, becoming driving force economic growth. The long-term development strategy, Oman Vision 2020, emphasizes industrialization, privatization and Omanization. Logistics, tourism, mining, fishing and industrial production identified as potential future economic forces and are the focus of development within Vision 2040.

The oldest independent state in the Arab world, Oman is one of the most traditional countries in the region. Oman has not been immune to political dissent in the region. Protests in 2011 demanding reform were dispersed by police, and in next year The government began cracking down on online criticism.

Those wishing to travel to the country must.

Saudi Arabia

(Riyadh; Arabic).

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is one of the main players in the Arab world. Authority is built on geographic size, prestige as the birthplace of Islam and its status as a colossus as an oil producer. It stands out for its support of the puritanical version of Sunni Islam, which welcomes harsh punishments, executions (public beheadings), and the oppression of women. It doesn't just come out that way.

State of Palestine

capital - Ramallah;
language - Arabic.

A de jure sovereign state in the Middle East. The West Bank - bordering Israel and Jordan - and the Gaza Strip - bordering Israel and Egypt - with East Jerusalem as the designated capital, although the administrative center is located in Ramallah. The Palestinians seek self-determination but have achieved only limited control over their territories. The economy is fragmented and subject to Israeli restrictions. A significant portion of the population depends on international food aid.

The Palestinian population - some ten or eleven million people - is divided between historical Palestine and a diaspora in neighboring Arab countries. Efforts to create a Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza on the Mediterranean coast have been thwarted by the ongoing conflict with Israel and disputes over the status of diaspora Palestinians.

The war that followed Israel's declaration of independence in 1948 saw the former British Mandate of Palestine divided between Israel, Trans-Jordan and Egypt. Hundreds of thousands of Palestinians fled or were forced from their homeland during the war - the Palestinian exodus, which they call the Nakba (catastrophe).

Syria

The capital is Damascus.

Once the center of the Islamic Caliphate, Syria occupied territory that had experienced invasions over the centuries, from the Romans and Mongols to the Crusaders and Turks. A land of fertile plains, high mountains and deserts, home to a variety of ethnic and religious groups, including Kurds, Armenians, Assyrians, Christians, Druze, Alawite Shiites and Arab Sunnis, the latter of whom make up the majority Muslim population.

Modern Syria gained independence from France in 1946, but has experienced periods of political instability due to the conflicting interests of these various groups.
Since 2011, political power in the hands of a small elite has been contested in a brutal civil conflict, initially sparked by the Arab Spring, that has evolved into a complex war involving regional and international powers.

Algeria's national commitment to pan-Arabism and the Arab world in the Middle East and North Africa has led to an active role in the region. It joined the League of Arab States (LAS) immediately after the declaration of national independence in 1962.

To go to Algeria you need.

Djibouti

capital - Djibouti;
languages - Arabic, French.

Located on the northeastern coast of Africa, in the Bab el-Mandeb Strait, Djibouti - officially the Republic of Djibouti - is bordered to the east by the Gulf of Aden and bordered by Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia.

Thanks to geographical location Djibouti is of significant geopolitical interest, controlling access to and access to the main waterway of the Red Sea and one of the world's busiest shipping routes, the Suez Canal. Djibouti was a French protectorate (first a colony, then an overseas territory) until 1977. Supports foreign military presence: In 2002, the United States of America established the largest American military base in Africa (Camp Lemonnier) in Djibouti.

The seaport is the main source of the economy, providing the largest source of income and employment. In terms of metals and minerals, there are some deposits of gold, granite, limestone and marble. Djibouti is also seeking to exploit its significant geothermal resources to meet domestic energy demand.

capital - Cairo;
language – Arabic.

Illustrious ancient civilization Egypt, the largest Arab country, plays a central role in Middle Eastern politics and modern era. Egypt's major cities and almost all agricultural activity are concentrated along the banks and delta of the Nile. Most of the country is desert.

The economy is highly dependent on Agriculture, tourism and remittances from Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf countries. However fast growth population and limited arable land strain the country's resources and economy, and political instability often paralyzes government efforts to solve problems.

Egypt's great past and the fact that it was one of the first countries in the Middle East to open up to the Western world after Napoleon's invasion gives it the right to claim the role of intellectual and cultural leader in the region. Al-Azhar Mosque ( Mosque of the Most Shining One) in Cairo is a symbol of Islamic Egypt and is extremely revered in the Sunni Muslim world.

The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), declared by the Polisario Front in 1976, is now recognized by many governments and is a full member of the African Union. A buffer strip with landmines and fortifications runs the length of the disputed territory and separates the Moroccan-based western part from the eastern region controlled by the Polisario Front.

In addition to phosphate reserves and rich fishing grounds off the coast, Western Sahara is believed to have offshore oil fields.

Libya

capital - Tripoli;
language - Arabic.

Libya, located in northern Africa's Maghreb region, is a largely desert, oil-rich country with ancient history. It is washed in the north by the Mediterranean Sea and borders Egypt, Sudan, Chad, Niger, Algeria and Tunisia. In modern history, it is known for the 42-year rule of Colonel Muammar Gaddafi and the chaos that followed his overthrow in 2011 as a result of an armed rebellion facilitated by Western military intervention. In recent years, Libya has been a key staging area for migrants heading to Europe.

There are serious concerns about the rise of Islamist militancy. Libya's economy continues to shrink. The influx of foreign direct investment has virtually ceased, and unemployment has risen sharply. The current account deficit accounted for almost half of GDP in 2017, while exports fell sharply. Crude oil production has been declining since 2013. The economy could recover in the next few years, but this largely depends on a stable government and improved security.

To travel to Libya, foreigners must

[ ] - minor or extremely small population groups

Regions Arab world Official status

Algeria Algeria,
Bahrain Bahrain,
Djibouti Djibouti,
Egypt Egypt,
Israel Israel,
Jordan Jordan,
Iraq Iraq,
Yemen Yemen,
Qatar Qatar,
Comoros Comoros,
Kuwait Kuwait,
Lebanon Lebanon,
Libya Libya,
Mauritania Mauritania,
Morocco Morocco,
UAE UAE,
Oman Oman,
Eritrea Eritrea,
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia ,
Syria Syria,
Somalia Somalia,
Sudan Sudan,
Tunisia Tunisia,
Chad Chad,
SADR SADR
() ,
State of Palestine State of Palestine
(partially recognized state)
Somaliland Somaliland
(unrecognized state) .
Organizations:

Regulatory organization Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo [d] And Academy of the Arabic Language in Damascus Total number of speakers from 260 to 323 million Rating 5 Status safe [d] Classification Semitic family Western Semitic branch Central Semitic group Arabian subgroup Writing Arabic alphabet Language codes GOST 7.75–97 ara 050 ISO 639-1 ar ISO 639-2 ara ISO 639-3 ara Ethnologue ara Linguasphere 12-AAC IETF ar Glottolog See also: Project: Linguistics

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Subtitles

Dialects

Modern spoken Arabic falls into 5 groups of dialects, which are actually separate languages from a linguistic point of view:

Maghreb dialect group
Egyptian-Sudanese Arabic
Syro-Mesopotamian Arabic
Arabian dialect group
Central Asian group of dialects

The Maghreb language belongs to the Western group, the rest - to the Eastern group of Arabic languages and dialects. (See Problem of language or dialect ); It is preferable to use the well-established term “dialect” in Arabic studies ( Arab. لهجة ‎)

The literary language (in Western Arabic studies the English term Modern Standard Arabic is used) is single. Literary Arabic combines the vocabulary for many things in the modern world or science, but at the same time in some Arab countries it is quite rarely used in spoken language.

Place of Arabic in the Semitic language group

Story

Over the centuries, the language has constantly changed, which, however, has had little effect on writing, because short vowel sounds, except in the Koran, are not written in the text.

Vocabulary composition

The vocabulary of the modern Arabic literary language is characterized by the fact that its main part is originally Arabic. “Arabs highly value the word-formation capabilities of their language, seeing the richness and clarity of word-formation paradigms as the key to adapting the Arabic literary language to the modern state of society. Moreover, it should be noted that in modern nomination processes, models with a high generalization index are the most active. Thus, recently, the vocabulary of the Arabic literary language has been significantly replenished due to derivative names formed by adding the suffix ية- ‎, forming a derivative series with the meaning of generalized abstract qualities and properties: استقلالية ‎ independence; حركية ‎ dynamism, dynamics; شمولية‎ maximalism; totalitarianism; اشكلالية ‎ - problem, etc.” . Some of the vocabulary is general Semitic and only a small part is foreign, such as the words: “television” - تليفزيون ‎, دكتورة ‎ doctor’s title, سكرتير ‎ secretary, فيلم ‎ film. The total number of borrowings from European languages is small and amounts to about one percent of the dictionary.

Despite the fact that the vocabulary is very rich, it is often not sufficiently standardized and is often overloaded with linguistic background. For example, there is no word that quite accurately corresponds to the word nation. The word used to denote this concept is (أمة‎, umma) meaning in the past, and in a religious context to this day, “a community of believers (Muslims)”; or, for example, “nationality” (جنسية ‎, jinsiya) generally means “gender,” for example “sex life” sounds like (حياة الجنسية ‎, haya: t al-jinsiyya). The word "nationalism" (قومية ‎, Qaumiyya), comes originally from the vocabulary of nomads kaum and means "tribe" in the sense of "nomadic tribe".

In a similar way, very old and very old are often intertwined in one word. modern concepts, without the slightest connection in terms of word origin. There are also loanwords from Aramaic, Greek and many modern terms from English.

Phonetics

Phonetically, literary Arabic is characterized by a widely developed system of consonant phonemes, especially glottal, emphatic and interdental.

“In the phonetic sections of grammatical works, either only the articulations of Arabic sounds were described, or also their combinatorial changes. The Indian system of sound classification, based on taking into account the place of articulation and other articulatory features, had a significant influence on the Arabs. The technique of comparing sounds in articulatory and functional terms was used. Avicenna introduced the concept of correlation to establish relationships between sounds. Cases of gemination were classified as the result of complete progressive or regressive contact assimilation. Partial and distant assimilation was described. Questions were studied about the interaction of consonants and vowels, about the replacement of consonants, about metathesis, about the loss of hamza, about elision, about the emergence of a connecting vowel, about palatalization, velarization, about sound symbolism.”

Pronunciation

Writing

Anthroponymy

№	Arab	Russian
List of Swadesh for Arabic
1	أنا	I
2	أنت	You
3	هو	He
4	نحن	We
5	أنتم	You
6	هم	They
7	هذا	this, this
8	ذلك	that, that
9	هنا	here
10	هناك	there
11	من	who (question of places)
12	ما	what (issue of place)
13	أين	where (issue of location)
14	متى	when (issue of place)
15	كيف	how (question of places)
16	لا,ما	not (ما - negation of verb pr.v.)
17	كل	all, all, everything, everything
18	كثير	many, numerous
19	بعض	some
20	قليل	small, few (eg قبل قليل - some time ago)
21	آخر	different, different
22	واحد	one
23	اثنان	two
24	ثلاثة	three
25	أربعة	four
26	خمسة	five
27	عظيم,كبير	big, great
28	طويل	long, long, tall
29	عريض, واسع	wide
30	سميك	thick
31	ثقيل	heavy
32	صغير	small
33	قصير	short, brief, stunted
34	ضيق	narrow
35	رقيق	thin
36	امرأة	woman
37	رجل	man
38	رجل, إنسان	Human
39	طفل	child, child
40	زوجة	wife
41	زوج	husband
42	أم,والدة	mother
43	والد, أب	father
44	حيوان	beast, animal
45	سمك	fish
46	طائر	bird, bird
47	كلب	dog, dog
48	قملة	louse
49	ثعبان	snake
50	دودة	worm
51	شجرة	tree
52	غابة	forest
53	عصا	stick, rod
54	فاكهة	fruit
55	بذرة	seed, seeds
56	ورق	sheet
57	جذر	root
58	قشرة	bark
59	زهرة	flower
60	عشب	grass
61	حبل	rope
62	جلد	leather
63	لحم	meat
64	دم, دماء	blood
65	عظم	bone
66	دهن	fat
67	بيضة	egg
68	قرن	horn
69	ذيل	tail
70	قلم	pen (writing implement)
71	شعر	hair
72	رأس	head
73	الأذن	ear
74	عين	eye, eye
75	أنف	nose
76	فم	mouth
77	سن	tooth
78	لغة	language (adverb, dialect)
79	مسمار	nail
80	قدم	foot
81	ساق	leg
82	ركبة	knee
83	يد	hand
84	جناح	wing
85	معدة	belly, belly
86	في الداخل	entrails, intestines
87	عنق	neck
88	ظهر	back
89	صدر	breast
90	قلب	heart
91	كبد	liver
92	شرب	drink
93	أكل	eat, eat
94	عض	bite
95	مص	suck
96	بصق	spit
97	تقيؤ	vomit, vomit
98	ضرب	hit, hit
99	تنفس	breathe
100	ضحك	laugh

Arabic names are traditionally written in literal order.

Grammar

Arab scholars usually divided grammar into syntax, morphology and phonetics and paid considerable attention to issues of word formation, and in connection with it etymology, thanks to which in the 11th century. The root theory has reached a high level. Syntax and morphology are the most original parts of Arabic grammar, having no sources in either Greek or Indian works and focused on the specifics of the Arabic language.

The task of syntax was the structural and semantic analysis of the sentence. It postulated subject-predicate relations between two names or between a name and a verb. There were small/elementary sentences and large ones forming a hierarchy; sentences are nominal, verbal and adverbial - depending on what word is at the beginning of the sentence, and accordingly there are different types of subjects and predicates. The secondary members of the sentence were identified and classified in detail (up to five types of additions, circumstances of different types, “applications”). There were different cases of formal and virtual implementation of inflections. The concept of an implied term was introduced to explain the construction. The relationships of coordination, control and adjacency were also analyzed.

In morphology, parts of speech and features of their formation that are not determined syntactically were considered. This included questions such as parts of speech (noun, verb and particles of up to 27 types), root structure, names and their multidimensional classification on different grounds (explicit names - nouns, adjectives, hidden names - personal pronouns, common names - demonstrative and relative pronouns, etc.), verbs (with a detailed classification of their forms and meanings), two-case and three-case names, the formation of relative names, the formation of composites, the formation of number and gender forms, the formation of deminitives, changes in the form of a word due to the presence of weak root consonants , pause forms, etc. The issue of masdar was also discussed here.

Particularly great successes were achieved in phonetics (Khalil ibn Ahmad; Abu Ali ibn Sina - Avicenna, 980-1037; Sibawayhi).

The Arabic language is characterized by highly developed inflection. (The inflectivity and similarity of inflection of Semitic and Indo-European languages has been questioned by some researchers. The inflection of Indo-European languages is a different phenomenon from the inflection of Semitic languages, since it implies a stronger interaction of inflection with the root. The Arabic language is characterized by agglutination. Some scientists, in particular, A. A. Reformatsky, believe that the fusion of Semitic languages is a special form of agglutination, since the fusion of a Semitic word is a predictable process and follows relatively strict formulas, which Arabic authors like to present using the three-letter root فعل with the meaning do, and the vowels themselves forming a fusion are, as a rule, independent of the root. A similar, but not analogous, phenomenon has been observed in a number of non-Semitic languages, in particular Germanic. These are, for example, pairs of singular and plural words in English, such as foot - feet, tooth - teeth, or changes in root vowels in irregular English verbs or so-called strong verbs in German, but in Germanic languages there is no regularity in the reproduction of so-called fusional formulas. Most words in Arabic can be traced back to the original form of the verb, which usually consists of three- or four- (rarely two- and five-) root consonants.

Root of the word

According to the famous domestic Arabist S. S. Maisel, the number of triconsonant roots in the modern Arabic literary language is 82% of the total number of Arabic roots.

Not just any consonants can participate in the composition of a root: some of them are compatible in the same root (more precisely, in the same cell; see below: b), others are incompatible.

Incompatible:

Laryngeal: غ ع خ ح (if ع and ء are compatible)
Non-glottal:

ب and فم

ت and ث

ث and س ص ض ط ظ

ج and ف ق ك

خ and ظقك

د and ذ

ذ and ص ض ط ظ

ر and ل

ز and ض ص ظ

س and ص ض

ش and ض ل

ص and ض ط ظ

ض and ط ظ

ط and ظك

ظ and غ ق

غ and ق ك

ق and كغ

ل and ن

This feature of the composition of the Arabic root makes the task somewhat easier for those reading the manuscript without dots; for example, the spelling of حعڡر ‎ should be جَعْفَر ‎

It should be noted that the translation of the cases الرَّفْعُ, الجَرُّ and النَّصْبُ is very conditional, since the genitive and accusative cases of the Arabic language include names that, when translated, can appear in any of the remaining three cases of the Russian language:

Zeid cut the rope with a knife (instrumental case).

We talked about studying (prepositional case).

قُلْ لِمُحَمَّدٍ - الجَرُّ Tell Muhammad (dative case).

The people fought against the colonialists (the instrumental case).

The signs by which case is recognized are different and they depend on the morphological features of the name.

Noun

Genus. There are only two genders in Arabic: masculine and feminine. Names with a characteristic ending [atun] are often feminine. In general, whether a name belongs to one gender or another is associated with meaning, for example, with gender.

For example, the noun أُمٌّ ["ummun]-(mother), despite its ending, is feminine. For many nouns denoting the name of a profession or type of activity, the feminine gender is formed simply by adding the ending [-atun] to the corresponding masculine noun. For example:

طَالِبٌ [ student]

طَالِبَةٌ [ student]

Verb

Arabs write from right to left - almost everyone knows about this. However, only this Interesting Facts, concerning this very unusual, rich and very popular language are not limited. Much more can be said about him.

1. Arabic belongs to the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic group. Today it is one of the most common and its importance is gradually increasing. According to various estimates, there are from 250 to 350 million people in the world who speak this language. It is public in 26 countries in the East and Africa. Also, to one degree or another, this language is familiar to numerous followers of Islam around the world.

2. There are 5 groups of Arabic dialects. Speakers of individual dialects belonging to different groups can hardly understand each other, and more often they do not understand at all. The most common of them is Egyptian, since it is in Egypt that the largest number of Arabic speakers live (about 70 million). At the same time, there is a single literary or standard language.

3. Standard Arabic is one of the 6 official languages UN. It publishes a huge amount of printed materials. This is the language of literature and business communication. And thanks to the widespread use of the Internet, the differences between individual dialects and the standard language are gradually disappearing.

4. The oldest work written in Arabic (classical Arabic literary language) is the Koran. There are many cases where people have successfully studied Arabic precisely for the purpose of reading the Holy Book in the original language. There are also many other wonderful literary monuments. For example, the tales of “A Thousand and One Nights”, the rubai of Omar Khayyam and much more.

5. As modern literary Arabic continues to develop, the number of differences between it and classical Arabic gradually increases. At the same time, not only vocabulary changes, but also grammar.

6. There is an opinion that Arabic is one of the richest languages, containing a huge number of concepts that are very difficult to translate into other languages. It should be noted that Arabs have historically been reluctant to borrow other people's words, preferring to create their own. Fortunately, the word-forming capabilities of this language are truly enormous. However, a lot depends on the dialect. Thus, in the Egyptian dialect there are a lot of borrowings from French.

7. At the same time, there is a lot modern concepts and names from Arabic (Arabisms) came to other languages. These are words such as “algebra”, “algorithm”, “Aldebaran”, “giraffe”, “coffee”, “syrup” and many others.

8. The Arabic language has had a huge influence on the modern language. Not surprising, since a significant part of the Iberian Peninsula for a long time was under Arab rule. At least 10% of the words in modern Spanish come from Arabic. In addition, there was a noticeable impact on grammar and phonetics.

9. Arabic writing is a special topic. The alphabet of this language includes 28 letters that allow you not just to compose words, but to create entire written designs and patterns. Needless to say, Arabic calligraphy is a whole area of decorative art, the origin of which has long been debated by scientists. But for now everything remains only a matter of hypotheses.

10. There are no capital letters in Arabic, punctuation marks are also written from right to left, and underlining is used instead of underlining. Arabic writing was formed in Arabia in the 3rd-4th centuries. AD Interestingly, Arabs studying Western languages, often make the same mistake - they forget to put capital letters.

11. Arabic is considered one of the most difficult languages to learn. This is facilitated by unusual writing, in which it can be difficult to separate some letters from others, as well as very complex grammar. The matter is not limited to cramming alone; you need to radically change your way of thinking and work a lot on pronunciation.