I. Preconventional level.
At this level, the child reacts already to the cultural rules and scales of "good" and "bad", "fair" and "unfair"; but he understands these scales in terms of the physical or sensual consequences of actions (punishment, reward, exchange of benefits) or in terms of the physical power of the individuals who give meaning to these rules and scales (parents, teachers, etc.).
1 step: Focus on punishment and obedience.
The physical consequences of an action determine its good and evil quality without regard to the human meaning or value of those consequences. Avoidance of punishment and uncomplaining compliance with authority are seen as an end in itself, and not in the sense of respect for the moral order, which is supported by punishment and authority.
2 step: Instrumental-relativistic orientation.
Right activity is action that satisfies one's own needs and sometimes the needs of others as a means (instrumentally). human relations understood in the sense of the exchange relations of the market. Elements of honesty, reciprocity and equality of exchange are present here, but they are understood in a physically-pragmatic way. Reciprocity is an analogy of the “scratch my back, then I scratch yours” case, but not in the sense of loyalty, gratitude and justice.
II. conventional level.
At this level, the end in itself is the fulfillment of the expectations of one's own family, group, or nation, without regard to immediate or obvious consequences. This attitude is determined not only by conformity, adjustment to personal expectations and social order, but also through loyalty, actively maintaining and justifying order and identifying with individuals or groups that act as the bearer of order.
3rd step: interpersonal adjustment or good boy-nice girl orientation.
Good behavior is that which pleases, helps, and is approved by others. There is a complete conformity in relation to stereotypical ideas about "natural" behavior or the behavior of the majority. In addition, the judgment is often made on the basis of the revealed intention - the formula "he wanted good" for the first time acquires importance. The disposition of others is won through pleasantness, "being nice."
4 step: Focus on law and order.
This stage is dominated by an orientation toward authority, fixed rules, and the maintenance of social order. Proper Behavior is to do duty, show respect to authority, and maintain the existing social order for its own sake. .
III. post-conventional level.
This level is dominated by an obvious effort to define moral values and principles that matter and apply independently of the authority of the groups and individuals that represent these principles, and regardless of the individual's identification with these groups.
5 step: Legalist orientation towards the social contract.
Right behavior is defined in terms of universal individual rights and in terms of scale, which are critically tested and accepted by the whole society. There is a clear awareness of the relativity of personal assessments and opinions, and therefore a need for rules for consensus procedures. To the extent that what is right does not rest on constitutional and democratic consensus, it is a matter of personal "values" and "views." From this follows the emphasis on "legal point of view", taking into account the possibility of changing the law in the sense of a reasonable weighing of the public good (in any case, more than freezing in the sense of the "law and order" formula by 4 steps). Regardless of the legal area, free agreement and contract are a binding element of consciousness. This is the "official" morality of the American government and the US Constitution.
6 step: Orientation to the universal ethical principle.
The correct is determined on the basis of the decision of conscience in consonance with self-selected ethical principles, which must be logically interconnected, universal and logically consistent. These principles are abstract (like Kant's categorical imperative); we are talking not about specific moral standards, such as the Ten Commandments. At its core, we are talking about the universal principles of justice, reciprocity and equality of human rights, the principles of respect for the dignity of people as individuals.”
All other psychological states turn into stages of an assertoric approach to this ideal of "pure" morality, so that Kohlberg's theory becomes a practical application to Apel's philosophical calculations. Kohlberg's concept turned out to be handy tool for sociologists to transfer its results to the social and sociocultural dimension. The same desire underlies the attempts of Apel and Habermas to "finish" Kohlberg's concept, which was expressed in disputes about the seventh step.
At the sixth step, we are talking about the categorical imperative of Kant, about the decision "according to conscience." At the same time, each individual has to independently (monologically) double-check the norms for their universal significance. Accordingly, it is logical to assume the existence of a higher (7th) stage, at which the task of interpreting norms becomes the subject of a joint practical discourse. The interpretation of norms in a situation of possible normative conflict at this stage no longer takes place according to the scales adopted from culture, but for the first time takes place directly in society in the discourse of all its participants according to the procedures for resolving individual claims. The participation of the whole society becomes the condition for the moral decision of the individual, the moral competence of each individual becomes the condition for the ethical discourse of the whole society. Thus, the postconventional level expands to the stage of universal communicative ethics, which reflects not so much the level of the individual as the ethical state of the whole society. Of course, these constructions already went beyond the field of psychology and individual moral development, therefore they did not meet with the sympathy of Kohlberg himself.
Of particular importance for sociological extrapolation was the stage 4 ½ identified by Kohlberg - the "teenage crisis" in the transition from the conventional to the post-conventional level. Here is how Kohlberg describes it:
“This level is post-conventional, but it is not yet provided with principles. The decision here is personal and subjective. It is based on feelings. Conscience is seen as arbitrary and relative, just like the ideas of "duty" or "morally right". The point of view that the individual takes at this level is the point of view of an observer external to society, who makes individual decisions without obligations or contract with society. Obligations can be extracted or chosen, but there are no principles for such a choice. (Sartre's existentialism could be a good illustration of this crisis level)."
Stage 4 ½ is the highest stage of conventional morality, however, it carries its own specific dangers, fraught with falling into immorality. This period is characterized by criticism and overthrow of authorities, traditions and values. Instead of stabilizing conventional norms, purely subjective, revolutionizing abstract pseudo-norms can act as a guide to action. overcoming negative consequences state of adolescent crisis requires continued active socialization and integration of the individual into public life. This suggests that public consciousness must already contain the universal norms of the postconventional stage. Thus, the theory of the logic of the stages of individual moral development, according to Apel, fully admits and even presupposes a corresponding social theory that could complement it.
In accordance with the ideas of the universal pragmatics of J. Habermas and the transcendental pragmatics of K.-O. Apel's personality development takes place in the relationship of language, thinking and interaction, in their cognitive unity and interactive development. Accordingly, the development of an individual can be represented as the development of linguistic, interactive and manipulative competencies in the form of universal, formally reconstructed and subject to the rules patterns of behavior. The formation of personality, the identity of the human Self is the building of a system of restrictions in relation to the objectivity of nature, the normativity of society, the intersubjectivity of language and one's own subjectivity. At what exactly language is a medium that establishes the attitude of the individual to different regions of reality. Thus, the self-consciousness of the individual in Apel's philosophy is not something initially given, but a communicatively produced phenomenon.
Already the Kohlberg theory itself was reproached for "strong" statements and seriously criticized with different parties. He himself noted that, according to his observations, no more than 5% of American adults meet the requirements of the 6th step, while no one adheres to them all the time. The scientific community agreed that we are talking about the reconstruction of the age formation of ideas about justice, which can serve for everyday orientation, but without the necessary consequences for individual behavior. Obviously, the extrapolation of theory into the dimension of society further strengthens the theses of the theory. After all, the development of a child is caused by the processes of his physical maturation, the maturation of the psycho-somatic functions of his body, the formation of the abilities of full-fledged activity, and only secondarily by the increase in the experience of interaction with the environment. It is impossible to find analogues to these processes in culture. Cultures do not "mature" in this way, and their sources of experience are different. As a result of this extrapolation, an idea suddenly arises of the historical logic of development, which is characterized by some eschatological and teleological aspiration. In the form of the seventh step is constructed social ideal"the highest moral state of society", which cannot be free from reproaches of utopianism. If in Kohlberg's conception the ability to act according to principles is the natural end of development, but no judgment is made that all or the majority are capable of this, then in the Apel/Habermas picture it is assumed that some critical mass of the population reaches this stage. Finally, an evaluative hierarchy of states is constructed, from the position of which it is possible to divide societies into morally developed and undeveloped ones, and the perspective of which unambiguously coincides with the Eurocentric assessment, even if it has claims to be universal. So, among the morally backward are all cultures with the dominance of traditional morality, regardless of what degree of internal " moral peace» is inherent in them. On the contrary, the European-American culture, characterized by a high level of internal crisis and tension, seems to be a higher model of cultural development. At the same time, the situation of the global crisis of mankind, in which macroethics has become in demand, is directly caused by the development of European-American, and not at all traditional cultures.
six steps
Lawrence Kohlberg
Ann Higgins
Lawrence Kohlberg was 59 years old when he passed away. Despite a serious illness, he always remained energetic, cheerful, constantly looking for new ways to organize a truly moral education and unite people. It was creativity without interruption and without end. He created an atmosphere that inspired employees, carried away by constant searches and powerful interest in the cause. Employees were attracted by his cordiality, kindness and nobility of thoughts. The unity of interests and moral qualities of people very naturally formed what is expressed by the word "center". The center was the focus of research on moral development and the upbringing of children. Richard Graham from Harvard helped organize it in the early 70s. In the last 20 years, the Center has become known as a source of new ideas, theories, projects that were developed by Kohlberg and his colleagues.
Lawrence Kohlberg was the first to start research into moral judgment and moral development. In American psychology, he was practically the only one of his kind. The Center for Moral Education he created became an "invisible college" (definition by L. I. Novikova).
In the 1950s, American behaviorists used only such terms as "attitude, custom, norm, and value" because they considered them only suitable for the scientific study of the thinking of people representing different cultures, as well as the problems of social management. American behaviorists strove to be "free from values" when developing hypotheses, did everything so that their own value orientations did not affect scientific research. The prevailing belief was that anthropologists had "proved" that the values of different cultures had little in common and
therefore, representatives of these cultures are “fenced off” from each other, primarily by different moral standards. In a word, value (cultural) relativism was perceived as an unconditional norm.
In 1958 Kohlberg completed his Ph.D. thesis at the University of Chicago. He completed a study of the moral judgments of 98 American boys aged 10 to 16. In his dissertation, the scientist argued that childish, moral thinking, developing, goes through six stages (up to adolescence). The first 3 steps were the same for Kohlberg as for Piaget, and the next 3 - were defined as steps of a higher (advanced) level, because the highest of them was crowned with "universal principles of justice", that is, anti-relativism was affirmed here.
Lawrence Kohlberg, using the Pia method, presented the children with problems and then asked how they solved them. What were these tasks? Moral problems (dilemmas), : gleaned from the philosophical and fiction. Gainz's dilemma (named after a ten-year-old boy with whom Kohlberg worked) was most famous. The dilemma is this. |
Gainz's mother dies. The medicine created by the pharmacist of their town can save her. Gainz does not have as much money as the pharmacist asks. And the pharmacist doesn't want to give away the medicine for free.
Should Gainz have stolen the medicine, if yes, why? If "no" - why? These and other questions were asked to children, one might say, everywhere. Kohlberg was waiting for an answer. I waited for the children to justify Gainz's theft. Will they, like true jurists, assert that the law against theft, or will they still not be satisfied?
mess with it? The answers were supposed to have 5 or 6 logical arguments, which can be represented as a hierarchy.
The scientist put forward a hypothesis, and then proved that the ways that allow children to solve the problem of moral conflict can be foreseen in advance, that is, all children in their reasoning consistently move from a lower level to a higher, adequate one, and these methods, steps, levels thinking is universal. Representatives of 50 different cultures have found a unity of logical means (methods) in solving moral problems, although certain moral problems, of course, differ when we go from culture to culture, from one studied group to another.
Being in direct opposition to behaviorism, Kohlberg believed that the study of morality cannot be carried out on a "value-free" basis; he argued that the empirical study of the meaning of morality should be based on clear philosophical, psychological definitions and premises. The philosophical basis on which Kohlberg's system of ideas and his theory of the stages of moral development was built is the understanding of "morality as justice."
Kohlberg was convinced that Kant's principle of the categorical imperative ("Treat every person not only as a means, but also as an end and result") was a fundamental moral foundation. For Kohlberg, people's mutual respect for their human dignity was the very essence of justice. Sn wrote: “In my opinion, mature principles are neither rules (means) nor values (results), but they are a guide to the perception and integration of all elements related to morality within each specific situation. They reduce all moral obligations to the interests and beliefs of specific individuals in specific situations; they tell us how to choose the only right decision in every situation when it comes to human life ... When principles, including attention to human well-being, are reduced to the level of the above-mentioned beliefs, they become the expression of a single principle: justice.
Thus, Kohlberg sought to find a manifestation of the principle of justice in the life practice of solving moral dilemmas by children. And this means that he perceived each child as a natural philosopher, that is, a person concerned
problems of the surrounding world, time, cause-and-effect relationships, the meaning of reality, the confrontation between good and evil - all the problems that concern genuine philosophers.
The child as a moral philosopher (ethicist) is all that he knows about what is "right" and "wrong". And since the approach to determining right and wrong in all children has much in common, this approach is objective. The child can, together with other children, judge what is right and wrong, considering his position as personal, objective and recognizing the same rights for others, accepting their point of view.
Two of Kohlberg's other philosophical propositions: the first is that the steps that allow people to evaluate moral conflicts are hierarchical; this means that each subsequent stage of moral consciousness is more adequate.
The meaning of the second proposition is that moral steps are universal. Kohlberg argued this because he understood that a moral judgment, | interest in the moral side of reality is a universal quality inherent in man; it is a natural response to the universal experience of man, to the diversity of social structures. Quite logically, the scientist put forward the hypothesis that moral judgment, moral thinking is thinking in terms of justice, and the idea of a hierarchy of different ideas, different judgments about justice can be understood as the idea of a hierarchy of steps of increasing adequacy and, most importantly, all people, regardless from the culture that brought them up, gender, racial and religious affiliation, will certainly follow the same moral judgments common to all, although not everyone will be able to reach the highest level of moral thinking.
When Kohlberg finished his doctoral dissertation, he was sure that he had not created a universal theory at all. He knew he had done a lot of work, empirically studying both the evolutionary and the universal (nature of moral judgments. Of course, it is impossible to test philosophical assumptions using only psychological research. But Kohlberg thought: if the psychological theory of the development of moral judgments is seriously studied, then the result of this achievement can be be parallel philosophical ideas, and then there will be new opportunities for organizing the upbringing of children.
relativistic proposition: "The personal or cultural values of one person are as good as the corresponding values of another person." Tolerance is determined by such relativism. This relativism is an introduction to the principled or post-social level of thinking. Tolerance towards different value systems is transformed into the principle of justice. The principle of equal respect for the human dignity of each person, naturally developing in the direction from traditional to post-traditional, post-social morality.
Larry Kohlberg graduated from boarding high school in 1945 and immediately enlisted in the US Navy so as not to be left out of the war, since he never doubted the justice of the combined Allied forces against Nazism. Well, then he volunteered to work for free as a mechanic on a ship carrying Jewish refugees during the British blockade of Palestine. Life experience, his experience in helping illegal immigrants raised a new question for Kohlberg: are harsh measures acceptable if they involve fair results? Thus, Lawrence Kohlberg tried to solve the problem of interdependence: thinking and intentions, on the one hand, and actions, as well as their consequences, on the other hand.
What does morality mean in this case, what does it define? This is the question Kohlberg asked himself over and over again. His answer partly explains why a person concerned about the injustices in the world first tries to understand the motives of a person's action or inaction, rather than jumping to categorical conclusions about these actions. Kohlberg was convinced that a person's actions cannot be considered moral or immoral, only by considering them "objectively". In 1984, the scientist wrote: “This does not mean that an action is moral just because the subject of this action finds it moral. On the contrary, we believe that an assessment of the morality of behavior is impossible without taking into account the reflections that led to this behavior.
Fascinated by the problems of the moral significance of people's actions, the moral significance of human life, Lawrence Kohlberg began his research at the University of Chicago, where the need for a decent life was always promoted, where students were taught life on the "great books", from Plato to American philosophers: Thomas Jefferson and Joe -
Mr. Dewey. He graduated from the university, already knowing for sure that he wanted to bring justice either by helping people as a clinical psychologist, or by contributing to the establishment of social justice through laws, that is, as a lawyer. Lawrence chose the former. He became a clinical psychologist. It never occurred to him to consider his scientific field as a career. His dissertation research paved the way real help people, "their real awareness of the moral side of their decisions and actions. What is the main essence of this work? However, more specific questions are needed here: what are the stages (steps) of the moral growth of the human personality and why the movement-ascent along these steps can be considered as way of moral education and education in general?
One of the elements of social interaction, which is extremely important for the development of a child, is the emotional tone of the relationship, that is, it is about trust, respect and love, since it is they who set a positive tone for relations between adults and children, and then between children themselves. Kohlberg's colleagues, especially Robert Selman of Harvard University, emphasize the importance of the nature of relationships in the development of children's moral judgments. Kohlberg himself wrote: “Concern for the well-being of other people, “empathy”, or “taking on the role of another person,” is a necessary condition for preventing moral conflict ... From a psychological point of view, concern for the well-being of people (empathy and taking on the role of another person ), as well as concern for justice - these are the origins of morality and incentives to move forward and higher on the moral steps. Selman showed the importance in the psychological structure of "taking on the role of another": it makes further movement possible, accompanies each subsequent step, therefore its meaning and significance is in the adoption of a social perspective. So what is the stimulus in the development of moral judgments? Of course, the moral concern for people, it determines the social perspective of moral development. Together, they constitute the structure of each stage of the "moral ascent" of the individual.
Lawrence Kohlberg begins his theory of hierarchy, the development of moral judgments with a story about how young children, not yet able to realize the prospect of society and different social groups seek to understand and resolve moral
conflicts that come up them, from your own perspective. This ability to accept the perspective and moral norms of his group, Kohlberg characterizes as a pre-social level of thinking. This level is represented by two steps (I and II). Moral realism prevails here: correct behavior is one that is followed by encouragement, incorrect behavior that leads to punishment, undesirable consequences. The next two steps (III and IV) constitute the social level at which personality is already a connotation member of the group and society. Kohlberg called the last (higher) two stages post-social, since here the perspective again goes beyond the limits of society. But tight a fundamental difference from the pre-social level (stages I and II): at the highest stages, a person is guided by an ideal, evaluates actions from the standpoint of moral principles, which he uses to evaluate both social actions and his own actions in a situation of a particular moral dilemma.
When Kohlberg spoke to rural children in Taiwan, his Taiwanese companion, an anthropologist and translator, burst out laughing at the responses to Gainz's locally tailored dilemma for young respondents: Gaini had to decide whether or not to steal food for his dying wife? One boy said: "He must steal for his wife, because if she dies, he will have to pay for the funeral, it will be very expensive." The anthropologist laughed, and Kohlberg discovered what he had been waiting for: “the classical pre-social stage (II), which is characterized by honesty, based on “objective” and equivalent exchange.”
In the rural areas where the aborigines lived, the children answered that Gainz had to steal food to save his wife, since he needed her as a laborer who prepared food for him. And it was the same classical stage II - an equal exchange, when everyone, in this case Gainz, pursues only his own benefit, here only his "prospect", only his good is taken into account. Kohlberg's interpreter laughed because the principle of children's moral thinking was strikingly different from his own. It was a wonderful case: the interpreter and the children represented different stages of development. Kohlberg wanted just such an argument in favor of his theory. But most importantly, the stages of moral development convincingly showed their universality, internationality, they were lucky.
de were the same, regardless of belonging to a particular culture.
Now let's try to give a more systematic picture of Lawrence Kohlberg's "six steps". Let's take as an example .. the argument in favor of the need to fulfill the data promised
Jill says that the promise must be kept, here are her motives: “I don't like to lie. I don't think anyone likes liars or fabricators. If she (the heroine of the story told to her.- E.X.) tells lies to her sister, her sister will beat her.”
We have step 1. Jill perceives the word "liar" as a label that defines the quality of a person and an act. The girl believes that people who tell a lie or do not keep their promise, necessarily deserve punishment, for example, they can be beaten. This idea that labels make a person good or bad is a sign of Stage I. At this stage, a person's actions are perceived as correct if they are performed by authoritative people, for example, parents, whose actions “simply cannot but be moral”, since parents have the authority of strength and power.
But Sam's reasoning. in the spirit of the children of rural Taiwan (IIstage). In response to the question why it is so important to keep the promise, the boy says: “Very simple. If someone asked you, for example, to borrow a dollar for him and you promised, and then did not give the dollar and did not fulfill your promise, then they will not give you a cent if you ever ask for a loan. As you are, so are you." Sam is guided by prudence and the principle of equal exchange.
It is very difficult for children who think at the presocial level to foresee the direct or secondary consequences of actions. ;It is also difficult for them to imagine the feelings and opinions of other people, because they know only their own feelings and thoughts, which they will project, attributing "Own" to other people. This phenomenon Kohlberg called, like Piaget, egocentric role-taking. ! But Joseph's reasoning represents stage III, that is, the first of the social ones.<3н отвечал на вопросы, почему следует быть верным обещанию, которое даешь незнакомцу, хотя его ты, скорее всего, больше никогда не увидишь. Джозеф сказал: «Если вам нравятся люди только потому, что они могут принести вам какую-нибудь пользу, тогда старайтесь использовать каждого, говоря себе: «Я скажу этому парню, что-
He would get me what I want, and then I don't care anymore. But if you do this, then you will have to tell yourself that you are putting yourself down. You are unfair to yourself because you lower your own standards.” Joseph reflects at the Stage III level when he tries to correlate what he wants in the present with how he will feel in the future after the act. Here we see what we call the “third person perspective”. In other words, Joseph understands that people make decisions and behave in accordance with ideas and norms, values that they have borrowed and recognize as their own.
Having reached Stage II and developing further, the child comes to understand and consciously apply the Golden Rule of morality. At Stages I and II, the Golden Rule is misinterpreted: as “do this to another. what he has done to you” or “do” to the other what he can do to you.” At Stage III, an adequate moral perception of the role begins. viewpoint and the "perspective" of another person, correlating these two points of view with the "perspective" of a third person. At Stage III, the Golden Rule of morality already means dually: "Do towards others as you would like them to do towards you".
The next step of the social level - iv - was represented by a girl named Norma. When asked why promises should be kept, the girl replied: “If promises were not kept, I believe that normal relations could not be established between people. People would not trust each other, and to a greater or lesser extent, each would consider the other a fraud. "Then she was asked why trust is so important. She replied:" This is the only condition for decision-making in our society. Norm understands that trust plays an exclusive role in society and that the degree of trust (mutual trust) depends on the ability of people to be true to their promises, that is, to fulfill them.It is true that society is impossible without mutual trust.
At the post-social level - stage Y^ - the personality moves one more step forward. In this case, a person is not only convinced that trust is absolutely necessary for society, he also understands why society
Being by its very nature presupposes trust and why he must be a person who is trusted if he wants to belong to a given society and participate in its life.
Joe, a 24-year-old young man, explained why this promise should be kept: (“I think that human relationships in general should be built on trust, on faith in people. If you don’t trust anyone but yourself, you are with no one you will not be able to communicate, and then each person will live only for himself.
Joe considers the problem of loyalty to a promise from a general or "moral" point of view. In contrast to the Norm, which proceeded only from an understanding of the danger to society, Joe understands that people, in fulfilling their social roles, should be guided by a "moral point of view", recognizing the priority of human rights and moral duties, because it is they, according to Joe determine the social responsibilities of each person.
Kohlberg wrote about six steps, naming contemporaries who, in his opinion, illustrate the sixth step. However, the definition of this stage remains not entirely clear. We will not go into too much detail, but consider the aspects that Kohlberg considered the most important in determining the "highest levels of moral thinking." These aspects are discussed in the article by Kohlberg himself (co-authors - D. Boyd and C. Levin). At stage VI, the moral point of view should "be principled, based on the principle of justice as equality, respect for the dignity of all people and inspired by empathy, sympathy, love for people. It should seek to solve Moral problems in such a way that the good and one of a person and many people, so that no one’s rights and dignity are belittled, here ultimately it means good for everyone. Kohlberg sometimes calls the VI stage a higher level of the Golden Rule. He said: “We think that it is this stage that makes the Golden Rule so necessary and immortal, the interpretation of which "Do to others what you would like them to do to you" expresses a universal and active sympathy that extends to all people.On the other hand, such an interpretation as "Do not do to others what you would not to be done to you”, represents justice as respect for the rights and independence of each and all people.
Stage VI allows you to balance
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Level and stage of moral reasoning |
Proper Behavior |
Principles that determine the correctness of the act |
Social prospects stage |
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LEVEL I. Pre-social. Stage 1 outward morality |
The desire not to break the rules in order to avoid punishment; obedience as an end in itself; the desire not to cause physical damage to people, their property. - |
The desire to avoid punishment; dominance of the ascending power of authority. |
egocentric point of view. Not a prince, takes into account the interests, idiosyncrasies of other people. Actions are considered, rather from the physical than psychological) side. The point of view of an authoritative person is mixed with his own. |
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Stage 2 individualism, pragmatic goal, interchange |
Following the rules only if it contributes to the achievement of immediate interests; actions aimed at achieving their own benefits, giving the right to others to act accordingly. What is right is what is honest, as an equal exchange. |
Meeting one's own needs and interests in a world that recognizes that others have their own interests. |
Concrete-individualistic pers ^ "pectin. Awareness that everyone ^ has their own interests, and that they can contradict each other; thus the correctness of the act is relative (in the "concretely individualistic sense) |
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LEVEL P. Social. Step 3 mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships; interpersonal conformity |
Living in accordance with the expectations of those close to you, with what is usually expected from a son, brother, friend, etc. Right behavior is important, it also means having good motives, showing concern for others. It also means a relationship of trust, respect, mutual gratitude. |
The need to be a good person in one's own eyes and in the eyes of others. Caring for others. Faith in the Golden Rule. The desire to maintain the rules and authority that support the stereotype of good behavior. |
The perspective of the individual in relation to other individuals. Awareness of shared feelings, agreements, expectations that take precedence over individualistic interests. Correlation of points of view with the Golden Rule, the ability to put oneself in the place of another. The generalized systems perspective is not yet taken into account. |
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Step 4(social system and consciousness. |
Fulfillment of actual duties to which consent has been given. Laws must be respected, except in extreme cases where they conflict with other social obligations. What is right is that which promotes |
Preserve the operation of a social institution as a whole, avoid the destruction of the system if everyone did so, or the imperative of the need to fulfill certain obligations (it is easy to walk with faith in the rules |
Sees the difference between a social setting and an interpersonal agreement or motive. Adopts the order of the system that defines roles and rules. Considers individual relationships in terms of their place in the system |
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LEVEL III. Postsocial Step 5(social contract or benefit and individual rights |
The realization that people have different values and views, that most values and rules are relative, dependent on belonging to a social group. These relative rules, however, must generally be observed in the public interest, since they are the result of a social contract. Some absolute values and freedom must nevertheless be observed in any society and regardless of the opinion of the majority. |
A sense of duty to the law as a result of entering into a social contract that defines obedience to the laws for the benefit of all and in order to protect the rights of all people. A sense of self-imposed commitment to family, friendship, trust, work. Care that laws and duties be based on a rational definition of general utility, the greatest good for the majority. |
society. The perspective of a rational person who is aware of values and rights as primary in relation to social relations and contracts. Integrates perspectives through formal mechanisms of agreement, contract, objective impartiality, following legal procedure. Considers moral and legal points of view; recognizes that they sometimes come into conflict, understands the difficulty of their integration. | ||||
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Step 6 universal moral principles |
Following self-chosen ethical rules. Specific laws or social agreements are valid because they are based on these principles. If the laws violate the principles, act according to the principles. Universal principles of justice: equality of human rights and respect for the dignity of human beings as individuals. |
The rational person's belief in the need for universal moral principles, a sense of personal commitment to these principles. |
The moral perspective from which social conventions emerge. The perspective of any rational person who recognizes the nature of morality and the fact that people are an end, not a means, and that they should be treated accordingly. | ||||
Levels of moral development of the individual (according to L. Kolberg)
In the process of development, children somehow learn to distinguish between good and evil, good deeds from bad deeds, generosity and selfishness, cordiality and cruelty. There are several theories about how children learn moral standards. And I must say that the unity of the authors on this issue is not observed. Adherents of the theory of social learning believe that children learn morality due to the regulatory influence on the part of adults, encouraging or punishing children for various types of behavior - moral or not consistent with the requirements of morality. In addition, children's imitation of adult behavior patterns plays an important role. Other psychologists believe that morality develops as a defense against the anxiety associated with the fear of losing the love and approval of parents. There are other theories.
One of the most famous theories of moral development is the theory Lawrence Kohlberg which he developed in the 1980s.
Kohlberg offered his subjects, which included children, adolescents and adults, short stories of a moral nature. After reading the stories, the subjects had to answer some questions. In each story, the main character had to solve a moral problem - a dilemma. The subject was asked how he would resolve this dilemma in this situation. Kohlberg was not interested in the decisions themselves, but in the rationale for the decisions.
Dilemma example:
One woman was dying from a rare type of cancer. Only one medicine could have saved her. This medicine is a preparation of radium, which was invented by a local pharmacist. The preparation of the medicine was very expensive for the pharmacist, but for the finished medicine he asked for a price 10 times the cost of the costs. To buy the medicine, one had to pay $2,000. The woman's husband, whose name was Heinz, bypassing all his friends and acquaintances, managed to collect $ 1,000, that is, half the required amount. He asked the pharmacist to lower the price or sell him the medicine on credit, because his wife was dying and she needed the medicine urgently. But the pharmacist said, “No. I have discovered this medicine and I want to make money from it.” The woman's husband was in despair. At night, he broke down the door and stole medicine for his wife.”
The subjects were asked: “Should Heinz steal the medicine? Why?”, “Was the pharmacist right in setting a price many times higher than the cost of the drug? Why?”, “Which is worse, letting a man die or stealing to save him? Why?".
Of course, people answered the questions differently.
After analyzing their answers, Kohlberg came to the conclusion that certain stages can be distinguished in the development of moral judgments. At first, people in their development rely on external criteria, and then on personal criteria. He identified 3 main levels of moral development(pre-moral, conventional and post-conventional) and 6 stages - two stages at each level.
Level 1 . Based on punishment and reward. 4-10 years. Actions are determined by external circumstances and the points of view of other people are not taken into account.
Stage 1 - The desire to avoid punishment and be obedient. The child believes that one must obey the rules in order to avoid punishment.
2nd stage - Orientation to utility. Striving for personal gain. The nature of the reasoning is as follows: one must obey the rules for the sake of reward or personal gain.
Level 2 . Based on social consent.10-13 years. They adhere to a certain conditional role and at the same time are guided by the principles of other people.
Stage 3 - Orientation towards maintaining good relationships and approval from other people (being a "good boy" or "good girl"). A person believes that one must obey the rules in order to avoid disapproval or hostility from the people around them.
Level 3 . Postconventional. 13 years and >. Based on principles. True morality is possible only at this level. Man judges according to his own criteria.
Stage 5 - Focus on the social contract, individual rights and democratically adopted law. A person believes that it is necessary to observe the laws of a given country for the sake of the general welfare.
6th stage - Focused on universal human moral standards. laws of free conscience of each person. People believe that universal ethical principles should be followed, regardless of legality and other people's opinions.
Each successive stage builds on the previous one. Transforms it and includes it. People in any culture go through all the stages in the same order. Many people don't get past stage 4. Less than 10% of people older than 16 reach the 6th stage. They pass at different speeds and therefore the age limits are arbitrary.
A person develops throughout life. Including morally. Lorenz Kohlberg, an American psychologist, a specialist in the field, in his theory of moral development, identified three levels of the formation of morality and ethical principles through which a person passes throughout life. What stage are you at?
Pre-conventional level
At the preconventional level, a person judges the moral permissibility of an action by its direct consequences. He focuses on external consequences because he has not yet learned how to internalize social norms and public understanding of good and bad.
Example:
The boy was riding a bicycle along a path located on the edge of a cliff. He began to lose his balance and another boy pushed him and threw him to the ground so that he would not fall into the abyss. A person with a pre-conventional level of moral development will say that this was a bad deed, because the first boy got hurt, and in general you can’t push anyone off the bike.
This level is characteristic of children, but in some cases it can also occur in adults. On it, the child's behavior is conditioned only on the principle of benefit and is evaluated according to further consequences.
The two stages of this level are:
First: The child behaves obediently to avoid punishment. He does not yet understand “ugly”, “shameful” or “indecent”, but he understands “no” and “stop”. In other words, the child does not understand what is good and what is bad, but is already beginning to understand what he can and cannot do. Behavior is determined by prohibitions and punishments for their violation.
Second: The child behaves obediently in order to receive a reward. He does the right thing because he gets something for it. And he considers “correct” just those actions for which he is rewarded. There are still no moral judgments, only the principle of personal gain.
The preconventional level is based on the child's egocentrism. The course of action is dictated by parents, their restrictions and rewards.
Conventional level
A person judges the morality of an act based on the opinion of society. The conventional level is typical for teenagers and adults. Moral judgments are formed from outside.
A person follows the rules of the society in which he lives, observes the moral laws honored in it and tries not to violate the given moral principles. Virtually absent. Social rules are rarely subject to scrutiny and questioning.
This level is accompanied by an effort to meet public expectations and the sacrifice of personal interests in favor of the opinion of society.
First stage: The child has learned to look at himself from the side, from the position of the people around him. He is already aware of the power of public opinion and understands what shame is. There is a feeling of respect and gratitude. Behavior is determined by the desire to be good in the eyes of the majority.
Second stage: The child begins not only to comply with social rules, but also to defend his rights, relying on them. Laws must be followed. The concept of good and bad is dictated by society, morality is determined by external forces.
This level, especially its second stage, is typical for most people.
Postconventionallevel
Autonomy in the formation of moral judgments. A person realizes that he is separate from society and can have his own opinion, which he even has the right to put above the public one.
At the postconventional level, a person ceases to follow social norms if they run counter to his personal beliefs.
There is a formation of one's own criteria of morality, one's own judgment about good and bad, one's own morality. Some researchers believe that many people never reach the postconventional level of moral judgment.
First stage: A person understands that there are different opinions and views. They must be accepted and respected, but there is no obligation to follow them. Moral rules are conditional, flexible and can be changed if the situation requires it.
Second stage: Human behavior ceases to depend on personal gain, the opinion of the majority, the moral or legal laws of society. Action becomes an end in itself. A person does this because he himself believes it is right. Other factors do not play a role.
Develop not only and, but also morally. Wish you success!
Kohlberg was a student of Piaget. He explored moral development on Piaget's theory. Kohlberg believed that morality depends on intelligence. He created his own periodization of morality and morality, which is based on an orientation towards authorities, then towards customs and principles.
I. Pre-conventional stage- children obey external rules or pressure.
0 stage (0 - 2)- the basis of moral choice - what I do is good. I do what pleases me. There are no values at this stage.
1 stage (2-3)- the basis of moral choice - obey the rules in order to avoid punishment or receive a reward. The value of a human life is mixed with the value of the objects he owns.
Stage 2 (4-7) - naive instrumental relativism. The child is guided by selfish considerations of mutual benefit, "you to me - I to you." Value is the pleasure of the child to whom this person delivers.
II. Conventional stage Moral judgment is based on generally accepted principles. The child not only learns moral norms, but is also consciously guided by them.
3 stage (7-10)- interpersonal perspective. The child acts in such a way as to earn the approval of significant people for him, to be a good child, to avoid shame. Value is measured by how much this person sympathizes with the child.
Stage 4 (10-12)- public perspective. The child does so in order to avoid the disapproval of authority. Life is evaluated as sacred, inviolable in religious or legal categories.
III. Post-conventional stage- a person acts in one way or another out of feelings of responsibility or guilt. The child seeks the approval of the whole society.
5A (after 13)- social contract. There is an awareness of relativity or conventionality, their own principles and rules appear. There is respect for the rules of others.
5B (after 15)- a person understands that there is a certain higher law that corresponds to the interests of the majority. Orientation to one's own conscience.
Life is valued from t.z. its benefits for mankind and from the point of view. every person for life.
Stage 6 (after 18) is a universal ethical principle. Stable moral principles are formed that control conscience. Life is regarded as sacred, in a position of respect for the unique abilities of each person.
Cultural-historical theory
The book History of the Development of Higher Mental Functions (1931, published in 1960) provides a detailed presentation of the cultural-historical theory of the development of the psyche: according to Vygotsky, it is necessary to distinguish between lower and higher mental functions, and, accordingly, two plans of behavior - natural, natural (the result of biological evolution animal world) and cultural, socio-historical (the result of the historical development of society), merged in the development of the psyche.
The hypothesis put forward by Vygotsky offered a new solution to the problem of the relationship between lower (elementary) and higher mental functions. The main difference between them is the level of arbitrariness, that is, natural mental processes cannot be regulated by a person, and people can consciously control higher mental functions. Vygotsky came to the conclusion that conscious regulation is associated with the mediated nature of higher mental functions. Between the influencing stimulus and the reaction of a person (both behavioral and mental), an additional connection arises through a mediating link - a stimulus-means, or a sign.
The difference between signs guns, also mediating higher mental functions, cultural behavior, consists in the fact that the tools are directed "outside", to transform reality, and the signs "inside", first to transform other people, then to control one's own behavior. The word is a means of arbitrary direction of attention, abstraction of properties and their synthesis into meaning (formation of concepts), arbitrary control of one's own mental operations.
The most convincing model of mediated activity, which characterizes the manifestation and implementation of higher mental functions, is the "situation of Buridan's donkey." This classical situation of uncertainty, or a problematic situation (a choice between two equal possibilities), interests Vygotsky primarily from the point of view of the means that make it possible to transform (solve) the situation that has arisen. By casting lots, a person "artificially introduces into the situation, changing it, new auxiliary stimuli that are not connected with it in any way." Thus, the cast die becomes, according to Vygotsky, a means of transforming and resolving the situation.
21 Higher mental functions (HMF)- specifically human mental processes. They arise on the basis of natural mental functions, due to their mediation by psychological tools. The sign acts as a psychological tool. HMF include: perception, memory, thinking, speech. They are social in origin, mediated in structure and arbitrary in the nature of regulation. The concept of higher mental functions was introduced by L. S. Vygotsky and subsequently developed by A. R. Luria, A. N. Leontiev, A. V. Zaporozhets, D. B. Elkonin and P. Ya. Galperin. Four main features of the HMF were identified: sociality (internalization), mediocrity, arbitrariness in the way of self-regulation, and consistency.
Such a definition does not apply to idealistic or "positive" biological theories and allows us to better understand how memory, thinking, speech and perception are located in the human brain. It also made it possible to determine the location of local lesions of the nervous tissue with high accuracy and even to recreate them in some way. [ clarify ][ style! ]
As mentioned above, the formation of higher mental functions is a process fundamentally different from natural, organic development. The main difference is that the raising of the psyche to a higher level lies precisely in its functional development, (that is, the development of the technique itself), and not in organic development.
Development is influenced by 2 factors:
Biological. For the development of the human psyche, a human brain is needed, which has the greatest plasticity. Biological development is only a condition for cultural development, because the structure of this process is given from outside.
Social. The development of the human psyche is impossible without the presence of a cultural environment in which the child learns specific mental techniques.
Higher mental functions - a theoretical concept introduced by L.S. Vygotsky, denoting complex mental processes, social in their formation, which are mediated and, due to this, arbitrary. According to him, mental phenomena can be “natural”, determined mainly by a genetic factor, and “cultural”, built on top of the first, actually higher mental functions, which are completely formed under the influence of social influences. The main feature of higher mental functions is their mediation by certain “psychological tools”, signs that have arisen as a result of the long socio-historical development of mankind, which primarily include speech. Initially, the highest mental function is realized as a form of interaction between people, between an adult and a child, as an interpsychological process, and only then - as an internal, intrapsychological one. At the same time, external means mediating this interaction pass into internal ones, i.e. they are internalized. If at the first stages of the formation of a higher mental function it is an expanded form of objective activity, based on relatively simple sensory and motor processes, then in the future actions are curtailed, becoming automated mental actions. The psychophysiological correlate of the formation of higher mental functions are complex functional systems that have a vertical (cortical-subcortical) and horizontal (cortical-cortical) organization. But each higher mental function is not rigidly tied to any one brain center, but is the result of the systemic activity of the brain, in which various brain structures make a more or less specific contribution to the construction of this function.
23. Periodization according to Vygotsky. L.S. Vygotsky, as a criterion for age periodization, considered mental neoplasms characteristic of each stage of development. He singled out "stable" and "unstable" (critical) periods of development. He attached decisive importance to the period of crisis - the time when a qualitative restructuring of the functions and relations of the child takes place. During these periods, there are significant changes in the development of the personality of the child. According to L.S. Vygotsky, the transition from one age to another occurs in a revolutionary way.
Periodization of the mental (L.S. Vygotsky): 1) neonatal crisis; 2) infancy (2 months - 1 year); 3) crisis of one year; 4) early childhood (1 - 3 years); 5) crisis of three years; 6) preschool age (3 - 7 years); 7) crisis of seven years; 8) school age (8 - 12 years); 9) crisis of thirteen years; 10) pubertal age (14 - 17 years); 11) the crisis of seventeen years.
