Theory is the most complex and developed form scientific knowledge, giving a holistic display of the natural and significant connections of a certain area of reality.
Any theoretical system, as K. Popper showed, must satisfy two basic requirements:
1. Consistency (i.e. not violating the corresponding law of formal logic) and falsifiability - refutability.
2. Experienced experimental testability.
A theory, according to Popper, is an instrument, the test of which is carried out during its application and the suitability of which is judged by the results of such applications.
Any theory is holistic developing system true knowledge (including elements of error), which has a complex structure and performs a number of functions. In modern scientific methodology, the following main components and elements of theory are distinguished:
1. Initial foundations - fundamental concepts, principles, laws, equations, axioms, etc.
2. Idealized objects - abstract models of essential properties and connections of the objects being studied (for example, “absolute black body”, “ideal gas”, etc.).
3. The logic of the theory is a set of certain rules and methods of proof aimed at clarifying the structure and changing knowledge.
4. Philosophical attitudes and value factors.
5. A set of laws and statements derived as consequences from the principles of a given theory in accordance with specific principles.
A methodologically important role in the formation of theory is played by an abstract, idealized object (“ ideal type"), the construction of which is a necessary stage in the creation of any theory, carried out in forms specific to different areas of knowledge. This object acts not only as a mental model of a certain fragment of reality, but also contains a specific research program that is implemented in the construction of a theory.
If the empirical stage is dominated by the generalization of facts and the establishment of empirical laws, then theoretical laws are formulated not on the basis of the study of experimental data, but through certain mental actions with idealized objects.
The variety of forms of idealization and, accordingly, types of idealized objects corresponds to the variety of types (types) of theories that can be classified on different grounds (criteria). Depending on this, theories can be distinguished: descriptive, mathematical, deductive and inductive, fundamental and applied, formal and substantive, “open” and “closed”, explanatory and descriptive (phenomenological), physical, chemical, sociological, psychological, etc. d.
Thus, mathematical theories are characterized by a high degree of abstraction. Deduction is of decisive importance in all constructions of mathematics. The dominant role in the construction of mathematical theories is played by axiomatic and hypothetico-deductive methods, as well as formalization. Many mathematical theories arise through the combination, the synthesis, of several basic or generative abstract structures.
The theories of experimental (empirical) sciences - physics, chemistry, biology, sociology, history, etc. - according to the depth of penetration into the essence of the phenomena being studied, can be divided into two large classes: phenomenological and non-phenomenological.
Phenomenological (they are also called empirical) describe the experimentally observed properties and quantities of objects and processes, but do not delve deeply into their internal mechanisms (for example, geometric optics, thermodynamics, many pedagogical, psychological and sociological theories, etc.). Such theories do not analyze the nature of the phenomena under study and therefore do not use any complex abstract objects, although, of course, to a certain extent they schematize and construct some idealizations of the studied area of phenomena.
Phenomenological theories solve, first of all, the problem of ordering and primary generalization of the facts related to them. They are formulated in ordinary natural languages using special terminology of the relevant field of knowledge and are predominantly qualitative in nature. Researchers encounter phenomenological theories, as a rule, at the first stages of the development of any science, when the accumulation, systematization and generalization of factual empirical material occurs. Such theories are a completely natural phenomenon in the process scientific knowledge.
With the development of scientific knowledge, theories of the phenomenological type give way to non-phenomenological ones (they are also called explanatory). They not only reflect the essential connections between phenomena and their properties, but also reveal the deep internal mechanism of the phenomena and processes being studied, their necessary interrelations, essential relationships, i.e. their laws.
Among the main functions theory The following can be included:
1. Synthetic function - combining individual reliable knowledge into a single, holistic system.
2. Explanatory function - identifying causal and other dependencies, the variety of connections of a given phenomenon, its essential characteristics, the laws of its origin and development, etc.
3. Methodological function - on the basis of theory, various methods, methods and techniques are formulated research activities. 4. Predictive - the function of foresight. Based on theoretical ideas about the “present” state of known phenomena, conclusions are drawn about the existence of previously unknown facts, objects or their properties, connections between phenomena, etc.
5. Practical function. The ultimate purpose of any theory is to be translated into practice, to be a “guide to action” for changing reality.
According to K. Popper, an important role in choosing theories is played by the degree of their testability: the higher it is, the greater the chances of choosing a good and reliable theory. The so-called "relative acceptability criterion", according to Popper, gives preference to the theory which:
1. Provides the greatest amount of information, i.e. has deeper content; 2. Is logically more strict; 3. Has greater explanatory and predictive power; 4. Can be more accurately verified by comparing predicted facts with observations.
In other words, Popper summarizes, we choose the theory that the best way withstands competition with other theories and, in the course of natural selection, turns out to be the most suitable for survival.
19 . The main forms of scientific knowledge: problem, scientific fact, hypothesis, theory.
Problem
Problems are problems that are important in a practical or theoretical sense, the methods for solving which are unknown or not fully known.
A problem differs from everyday questions primarily in its subject matter - it is a question about complex properties, phenomena, the laws of reality, for the knowledge of which special scientific means of cognition are needed - a scientific system of concepts, methodology and research techniques, technical equipment.
The problem is posed or shaped by science.
The problem has a complex structure. It may represent a system of more specific problems that constitute it. So, for example, the problem of socialism includes problems of the development of productive forces, the nature of property, the principle of distribution, and the form of government.
In the structure of the problem, two main components can be distinguished: preliminary, partial knowledge about the subject and ignorance more or less determined by science. Thus, the problem is a contradictory unity of knowledge and ignorance or knowledge and knowledge of ignorance. The problem is not pure ignorance, it contains elements of positive knowledge about the subject and knowledge about ignorance, which also represents a kind of knowledge, a significant hint at a future solution to the problem.
1. constructive problems - they can be constructed before the appearance of a theory that resolves them;
2. reconstructive problems – they can be reconstructed, i.e. be formulated on the basis of a ready-made theory, from the standpoint of which it becomes clear what problems it actually solved.
Most often, problems are constructed and reconstructed after the emergence of a corresponding theory.
There are also problems:
undeveloped are tasks that are characterized by the following features: a) this is a non-standard task for which no algorithm is known, b) a task that arose as a natural result of cognition, c) a task whose solution is aimed at eliminating a contradiction that has arisen in cognition, and also to eliminate the discrepancy between the needs and the availability of funds to satisfy them, d) a task for which no solution is visible.
A task that is characterized by the first three of the above features, and also contains more or less specific instructions on the way to a solution is called a developed problem. Problems themselves are divided into types according to the degree of specificity in indicating the path to their solution. That. a developed problem is knowledge about some ignorance, supplemented by a specific indication of ways to eliminate this ignorance.
A scientific problem is always formulated on the basis of fairly thorough preliminary research.
During the development of society, pseudo-problems often arose associated with misconceptions, insufficient scientific training, the ambition of individual researchers. A huge number of problems are associated with religion and superstition.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative solution to a problem.
The need for a hypothesis arises when the connection between phenomena is unclear, when, based on some characteristics of the present, it is necessary to reconstruct the picture of the past and present, and draw a conclusion about the future development of the phenomenon.
Hypotheses are not only individual assumptions, but also entire theories and concepts that are more or less detailed.
The main property of a hypothesis is multiplicity: each problem of science gives rise to a number of hypotheses, from which the most probable ones are eliminated until the final choice of one of them or synthesis is made.
Hypothesis → Scientific theory
Proposing a hypothesis based on certain facts is only the first step. The hypothesis itself, due to its probabilistic nature, requires verification and proof. After such testing, the hypothesis either becomes a scientific theory, or is modified, or is discarded if the test gives a negative result.
Basic rules for putting forward and testing hypotheses:
1) the hypothesis must be in agreement or at least compatible with all the facts to which it concerns;
2) of the many opposing hypotheses put forward to explain a series of facts, the one that uniformly explains a larger number of them is preferable;
3) to explain a coherent series of facts, it is necessary to put forward as few different hypotheses as possible, and their connection should be closer;
4) when putting forward hypotheses, it is necessary to be aware of the probabilistic nature of its conclusions;
5) hypotheses that contradict each other cannot be true together, except when they explain different aspects and connections of the same object
Fact, scientific fact
A fact is a real event or phenomenon recorded by our consciousness. The real event itself serves as a fact, and its recording, making the event “a fact for us,” acts only as an objective recorder of events.
One of the means of recording facts is language. Language is a sign system of any physical nature that performs cognitive and communicative (communication) functions in the process human activity. Language can be natural or artificial. Natural language - language Everyday life, serving as a form of expression of thoughts and a means of communication between people. An artificial language is created by people for some narrow needs.
The most important property of facts is their coercive power: in the system of developing science and socio-historical practice, facts force one to draw certain theoretical conclusions, regardless of whether they correspond to accepted ideas, habits and established interests of individuals, groups, classes.
1. objective fact - some event, phenomenon, fragment of reality that constitutes the object of human reality or knowledge
2. scientific fact is a reflection of an objective fact in human consciousness, i.e. its description through some language.
Scientific facts serve as the basis for theoretical constructions. The totality of scientific facts is scientific description. A scientific fact is inseparable from the language in which it is expressed and from the terms in which concepts act.
Theory is reliable (in the dialectical sense) knowledge about a certain area of reality, which is a system of concepts and statements and allows one to explain and predict phenomena from this area.
Not all philosophers believe that reliability is a necessary feature of a theory. In this regard, there are two approaches. Representatives of the first approach, even if they classify concepts as theories that may not be reliable, still believe that the task of science is to create true theories. Representatives of another approach believe that theories do not reflect reality. They understand theory as a tool of knowledge. One theory is better than another if it is more convenient tool knowledge. Taking credibility for distinctive feature theory, we distinguish this type of knowledge from hypothesis.
Theory is the highest, most developed organization of scientific knowledge, which provides a holistic reflection of the laws of a certain sphere of reality and represents a symbolic model of this sphere. This model is constructed in such a way that some of its characteristics, which are of the most general nature, form its basis, while others are subordinate to the main ones or are derived from them according to logical rules. For example, the strict construction of Euclid's geometry led to a system of statements (theorems) that were consistently derived from a few definitions of basic concepts and truths accepted without proof (axioms). The peculiarity of the theory is that it has predictive power. In a theory, there are many initial statements from which other statements are derived by logical means, i.e. in theory, it is possible to obtain some knowledge from others without direct reference to reality. The theory not only describes a certain range of phenomena, but also gives them an explanation. Theory is a means of deductive and inductive systematization of empirical facts. Through theory, certain relationships can be established between statements about facts, laws, etc. in cases where such relationships are not observed outside the framework of theory.
B.1 Scientific theory as a form of organizing knowledge. The structure of scientific theory, its ideal objects, laws, core, periphery, empirical basis. Post-theoretical nature of scientific theory education.
In modern methodology, scientific knowledge is understood as hierarchically organized:
scientific picture of the world (philosophical premises) – top floor,
general theories (includes categories of the most abstract level),
private or special theories (formalized specific models of the subject area being studied),
empirical research (meeting the requirements of science, ensuring an increase in knowledge, the task is not only to collect and process facts, but also to ensure testing of the theory, its verification),
Applied research (studying and solving specific problems, using particular theories) – lower floor.
The identified levels and types of knowledge differ in the degree of generality (abstractness) of the concepts used at a given level and the degree of prevalence of knowledge at a given level. The most abstract and less widespread is NCM, the most concrete and widespread is applied.
Theory is the highest form of organization of scientific knowledge, giving a holistic idea of the patterns and essential connections in the object being studied; it is a system of knowledge that describes and explains a certain set of phenomena, provides a rationale for all put forward provisions and reduces the laws discovered in this area to a single basis. (For example, the theory of relativity, quantum theory, theory of state and law, etc.)
Theory reflects reality selectively and from a certain angle. It cuts off the unimportant and leaves the main thing: theory acts as a kind of intellectual filter. In the methodological literature, there are many definitions of scientific theory: as a set of logically interconnected abstract concepts that are subject to empirical testing; as a hierarchically organized system of proposals and hypotheses that are in a relationship of deducibility; as a set of statements about the real world that describe the relationship of variables; as knowledge of a special kind possessing the property of universality (universality) and necessity, etc.
Main features of scientific theory:
1. Scientific theory is knowledge about a certain subject or a strictly defined, organically related group of phenomena. The unification of knowledge into a theory is determined by its subject.
2. A theory, as its most important feature, is characterized by an explanation of a known set of facts, and not a simple description of them, or a revelation of the laws of their functioning and development.
3. The theory must have predictive power and predict the course of processes.
4. In a developed theory, all its main provisions must be united by a common principle, a foundation.
5. All provisions included in the content of the theory must be justified.
In classical science, theory is a system of laws and the main categorical apparatus of description. In most cases, it is a deductive system of organizing knowledge, including rules for the logical inference of more specific knowledge from the most general premises of a given theory. The theory is open both to coordination with other theories related to a given problem area, and to the study of facts (empirical research). Theories differ in the nature of the problems they solve, in the methods of their construction, and in the types of research procedures used. They are distinguished: 1-hypothetico-deductive (characterized by a hierarchical subordination of components that ensure the transition from statement to statement without involving additional information, aimed at explanation procedures); 2-phenomenological (describe facts-phenomena (phenomena) of the empirical world, aimed at building models and forecasts); 3-inductive-deductive (empirical research, generalizations, identification of patterns); 4-formalized theories of logic and mathematics. (there are other classifications)
The structure of the theory includes: 1-fundamental theoretical scheme - initial principles, universal (for a given theory) laws, basic system-forming categories and concepts (for example, Euclid’s axioms; principles of dialectics, etc.) 2-possible additional particular theoretical schemes, specifying the fundamental theoretical basis; 3- ideal models (schemes, objects, concepts) of the object under study with a description of the main connections, properties, characteristics of the object, onto which interpretations of all statements of the theory are projected; 4-logical diagram, including rules of inference, methods of proof; 5-formalized language - thesaurus; 6- diagram of the transition from the conceptual (fundamental) scheme to the level of facts, observation procedures and experiments; 7-a set of laws and statements logically derived from fundamental premises.
Abstract objects of the upper layer form relatively autonomous areas and may have redundant content, i.e. they are not projected entirely onto objective reality, although they explain it correctly, because - this is not only an ideal model of reality, but also an abbreviated system of practical actions that a scientist must carry out in order to obtain this concept. The theory performs 2 functions - representative, i.e. it serves as an abstract model of real objects, and a regulatory one, because is a system of theoretical operations through which the construction of an abstract theory is carried out. Since theoretical knowledge does not copy reality, but embodies a certain attitude of the subject to reality, 2 or more theories correspond to the same reality (for example: in quantum, the same real process is described by 2 idealized schemes - wave and corpuscular).
An ideal object in science is a concept that reflects the specifics of the construction and functioning of theoretical and empirical knowledge. This mental construction is created through idealization and is associated with the introduction into the content of the concept of features that do not actually exist in the object under consideration (for example, an absolutely black body, a matte point, etc.) Thought experiments on id.objects and their systems allow us to record patterns, inaccessible when studying real objects in the diversity of their properties. This is a conceptual or mathematical model that is built on the analogy of properties and relationships between the original and the model, having studied the relationships between the quantities describing the model, transferring them to the original and making plausible conclusions about the features of the latter.
Law is an essential, necessary, repeating, internally necessary connection between phenomena. Features of the law are necessity, universality, repeatability, invariance. In the macrocosm, there are 3 types of laws: 1-tendency, 2-law of unambiguous determination, which occurs primarily in technology, 3-statistical-law of large numbers. In the microworld, there are probabilistic laws determined by the wave-corpuscle dualism of micro-objects.
Thus, t. is a system of logically interconnected statements interpreted on ideal objects representing a fragment of the reality being studied. T.should explain known facts, predict the still unknown.
In relation to something, a number of procedures are carried out to justify it (testing for truth): verification, falsification, methodological reflection of its foundations, etc. The transition from theory to facts is carried out through hypotheses arising from theory, but substantiated by empirical data, since science is the unity of theory and empirics.
Theory is a system of knowledge, a form of science
Empirics - accumulation of knowledge, content of science, observation and/or experiment.
In accordance with this division of science, theoretical and empirical knowledge should be distinguished.
Theoretical knowledge - knowledge of the law (law of science, principle)
Empirical knowledge is knowledge of a phenomenon (fact).
Theoretical knowledge explains what is happening.
Empirical knowledge describes what happens.
Theory is an explanation, empirics is a description. In general, they aim a person to understand what is happening.
The interaction between theory and empirics is carried out through hypothesis and (positive connection) and criticism (negative connection). (see diagram) THEORY
THE CRITIC'S HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis makes a positive connection between theory and empirics (when theory and empirics presuppose each other).
Theoretical hypothesis - when the theory presupposes empirical evidence.
Empirical hypothesis - when empirics presupposes a theory.
Criticism makes a negative connection (when theory and empirics deny each other).
Theoretical criticism - when theory denies or corrects empirical evidence. (Example: D.I. Mendeleev, based on his periodic table chemical elements pointed out a number of inaccuracies in the empirical assessment of some elements).
Empirical criticism - when empirics denies or corrects a theory. Hypothesis and criticism are not mutually exclusive in an absolute sense. A hypothesis, as a rule, questions something, and criticism is based on a hypothesis.
Any t. must strive for maximum completeness, adequacy of description, integrity, deducibility of its provisions from each other, internal consistency.
T. in its development is based on an empirical basis.
We can distinguish at least three main components of the foundations of scientific activity : ideals and norms of research, the scientific picture of the world and the philosophical foundations of science. (see attached)
In the post-non-classical period (20th century) of the development of science, the choice of so-called or its formation is no longer associated with the problems of its internal organization of knowledge, but with its inclusion in broader contexts: in n scientific To artins m ira (a way of seeing the world as a whole, including the person in it), within or under the influence of which specific things are formed, and also specific things contribute to a change in n.k.m.; strategies used by a certain scientific community to consolidate its dominant position in science; the incorporation of so into the type of culture of society (into the cognitive practices adopted in a given culture). Science is associated with everyday knowledge, ideals and norms of scientific knowledge.
T. during this period is not considered as a cumulative process. Ideas about the development of theory in the classical period were supplemented by ideas about scientific revolutions and paradigm shifts (T. Kuhn), about the reorientation of the “protective belt” of the invariant core of the research program (Lakatos), about methodological anarchism (P. Fayerabend), about the concept of episteme (M .Foucault), about theories of the middle level or theories of the middle range (R. Merton). This led to the fact that the universality of theory as the highest form of organization of knowledge was called into question, especially in socio-humanitarian knowledge. In softer versions of criticism, it was proposed to remove more stringent requirements for a theory of any kind, and the theory itself took on the form of a scientific concept that sets the vision, logic, and means (concepts) for describing the area under study, but does not seek to identify patterns. Knowledge turns into discursive knowledge, giving rise to other discourses and communications.
Also in Ancient Greece people tried to unravel the mysteries of the universe, and scientists, based on observations, put forward hypotheses and used scientific measurements to prove their guesses. Throughout the history of mankind, the development of science continues unceasingly until the present day. Modern sciences are built on theories, which, in turn, have their own structure. Let's study their structure and highlight the main functions.
Concept and structure of scientific theory
A scientific theory is a body of general knowledge about various phenomena or events that occur in the surrounding nature or society. This concept also has other meanings. Theory is a set of canons and principles developed on the basis of numerous observations and experiments that confirm the proposed idea and describe the nature of the phenomena and objects being studied. Moreover, scientific theory, through its methods of identifying patterns, helps to predict future events. Scientific theory is inextricably linked with philosophical views, because the worldview of a scientist or researcher largely determines the boundaries and paths of development of science as a whole.
The structure of a scientific theory includes problems that require solutions. For this reason, any theory presupposes the need for practice, thanks to which the set goals are achieved. It should be remembered that a scientific theory does not always describe only one sphere of nature; it often covers several spheres and contains a system of generalized knowledge. Take Einstein’s relativity, it is not limited to one natural phenomenon - light, on the contrary, this theory extends to absolutely all objects in our Universe. Below we will examine in more detail what elements the hypothetico-deductive structure of a scientific theory consists of.
What is science and how is it related to philosophy?
Our planet and everything on it moves according to certain laws that can be described using scientific methods. It is impossible to imagine the modern world without the development of science. All the knowledge that is available to humanity has accumulated over many centuries. Thanks only scientific discoveries our world is now the way we see it. The origin of science is associated with such a social phenomenon as philosophy (from the Greek “love of wisdom”). It was philosophers and thinkers who are considered the first to lay the foundation of modern sciences. In Ancient Greece, philosophers were divided into two groups. The first are the Gnostics, those who believed that the world knowable, that is, a person has unlimited possibilities for its complete study. The second, agnostics, were not so optimistic; they believed that the laws of the world order could never be known in their entirety.
Science is a relatively new word in the Russian language; it originally meant one specific subject. In the modern understanding, science represents the entire system of knowledge and experience accumulated by humanity. Science can also be considered an activity aimed at collecting information and analyzing the obtained facts. People who do science are part of the scientific community. One of the scientists who made a huge contribution to the development of science as philosophy is the Russian academician Vyacheslav Semenovich Stepin. In his work “The Concept of the Structure and Genesis of Scientific Theory,” Stepin took a completely new look at the problems of the philosophy of science. He created the concept of new methods of the theory of knowledge and identified new types of civilizational development.
Philosophy of scientific theories
A few centuries ago, any theory was based on the principles of ancient philosophy, which called for the purification of the soul through contemplation of the world and its knowledge. However, modern times have opened up completely different views on the study of the phenomena around us. New conceptual and ideological theories of scientific thinking were created, which in the last century were formed into the ideas of critical rationalism. Despite the new methods used in science, the basis remains the same: the mental and intuitive contemplation of space, stars and other celestial bodies is preserved. Scientific theory and its structure played a huge role in philosophy, because one could not exist without the other. All the thoughts of ancient philosophers came down to questions to which they found answers. The result of their searches was facts and scientific knowledge that needed to be structured and systematized. For these purposes, scientific theories were created, which were not only a tool for the development of science, but also an independent element that deserves close study.
The difference between theory and hypothesis
When studying the foundations and structure of a scientific theory, one should clearly distinguish between the concepts of hypothesis and theory. The following definitions are also very important for understanding our topic. So, as we know from the school curriculum, knowledge is that part of the intangible benefits that humanity accumulates and passes on from generation to generation. Since ancient times, people have preserved their knowledge in songs or parables, which were then sung by wise old men. With the advent of writing, people began to write down everything. Knowledge is closely related to the concept of experience. Experience can be called many things: impressions received in the process of observation or activity, as well as knowledge and skills that a person has mastered as a result of work. Scientific theory, its structure and functions make it possible to systematize accumulated knowledge and experience.
Let's return to our topic and figure out the difference between a hypothesis and a theory. So, a hypothesis is an idea that is expressed on the basis of what is seen or experienced. For example, you open water tap, the more you deflect it, the more the water flow increases. Therefore, you can put forward a hypothesis that the volume of flowing water is directly proportional to the deflection of the tap, that is, the hypothesis is in the nature of reasoning or conclusions based on the phenomenon seen. A hypothesis is an assumption. A theory is a system of knowledge that has not only been obtained through observation, but has also been proven through measurements and repeated experiments. Moreover, the structure of a scientific theory is made up of laws and formulas that characterize and describe a particular phenomenon. It turns out that any scientific theory is an experimentally proven hypothesis, supplemented by mathematical or physical laws.
Classification of scientific theory
Science studies absolutely all aspects of our life and covers almost all phenomena and events occurring on our planet. It is very difficult to count the number of existing sciences, because some large areas of science branch off into smaller ones. For example, the science of mathematics may include arithmetic, number theory, probability theory, geometry, etc.
Scientific theory is an integral part of any science, so it is worth paying attention to studying its fundamentals. So, the classification and structure of scientific theories is very similar to the division of the subject sciences themselves (natural, philological, technical, social). According to scientific scientists, they can be divided into three types:
- Mathematical theories. They are based on general provisions mathematicians, and as models they use the concepts of “ideal” objects. For example, an ideal ball rolls on a perfectly flat surface (in in this case, the surface has no resistance, although in reality such surfaces do not exist).
- Descriptive scientific theories. They are often created on the basis of numerous experiments and observations, which as a result provide empirical data about objects. The most famous descriptive theories include the following: Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, Pavlov's theory of physiology, linguistic theories, as well as all classical theories of psychology.
- Deductive scientific theories represent the foundation, the basis of science. For example, the very first deductive theory accomplished the task of founding mathematics. This is Euclid's work "Elements", which was built on axiomatic systems. In those days, socially established norms served as an axiom, with which it was impossible to disagree. And from these axiom-statements the postulates of the theory followed. This type is called deductive because the main method for developing a theory is the use of logical deductions from basic axioms.
A scientific theory and its logical structure may look different. Scientific theories are often classified according to the subject being studied, that is, according to the object of research (natural ones study nature and the world; social and humanitarian theories are related to man and society). In other words, the type of theory is laid down on the basis of the sphere of our nature that science studies.
- Theories that reflect the objective physical, biological or social properties of the objects being studied. These may include various theories related to anthropology, history and sociology.
- The second type of scientific theories is focused on displaying the subjective characteristics of objects (ideas, thoughts, consciousness, feelings and emotions). This type includes theories of such sciences as psychology and pedagogy.
However, psychologically oriented theories do not always belong to the second type. So, for example, sociocultural anthropology, depending on the methods prevailing in it, can relate to both types of scientific theories. For this reason, a scientific theory and its logical structure should be built on the basis of the methods it uses and the goals to which it is oriented.
Functions and significance of scientific theories
Any science, regardless of its subjects studied, faces many problems that need to be solved. The great theoretical scientist Albert Einstein studied the purposes of scientific theories from which their functions derive. It is important to understand that any theory must fulfill all the tasks described below. So, here are the main functions of scientific theories identified by scientists:
- Cognitive - consists in the fact that any theory should strive to discover new laws in the area under study. After all, it is the reflection of reality in formulations and laws that will provide a complete and clear picture of ongoing phenomena. What does it mean to know and understand the objects that interest us? Cognitive or, as it is also called, scientific theory is precisely the main method for studying all the external and internal properties of these objects. The structure of scientific theory assumes that the cognitive function studies not only the qualities of objects, but also the connections (relationships) between them and various natural phenomena or social processes.
- The systematizing function is that scientific theory analyzes and classifies all accumulated knowledge and facts, and then, on their basis, structures one whole meaningful system. This function is considered continuous because new observations lead to new facts that force scientists to improve scientific theories. If we talk in simple words, then the systematizing (synthetic) function unites disparate scientific knowledge and builds a logical relationship between them.
- The explanatory function allows you not only to formulate and describe facts, but also to analyze, understand and rethink them. Agree, it is impossible to call a person a scientist just because he has learned the accumulated scientific facts. Comprehension and full understanding of the essence of phenomena is what is more important. And it is the explanatory function that helps us interpret natural phenomena and complex processes.
- In scientific theory (its structure and functions) there is another significant role - prognostic. Thanks to effective methods, which are more based on natural patterns (for example, spring follows winter, the growth of plants and animals, that is, all repeating forms or combinations that are formed in nature), the predictive function allows you to predict a number of events or processes. One of the most ancient scientific theories in which this function is predominant is meteorology. Modern science has such improved methods that it has become possible to predict the weather several months in advance.
- The practical function is designed to facilitate the theory to such an extent that it can be applied in reality. It is difficult to imagine what the structure of a scientific theory could be if there were no practical benefits from its development.
Requirements for scientific theories (according to K.R. Popper)
One of the most famous and influential philosophers of the 20th century, who took a completely new look at the philosophy of science. He criticized the classical concepts of methods of cognition, and instead proposed introducing a new structure of scientific theories, in which the main principles are the principles of critical rationalism. Karl Raymond Popper is considered the founder of the epistemological theory of critical empiricism. The main idea of the theory is the following postulates:
- scientific knowledge must be objective, that is, not depend on the opinion or judgment of one person or society as a whole;
- absolute knowledge (dogma) does not exist;
- any science must be criticized or refuted until empirical evidence proves otherwise.
K. Popper's theory became one of the most discussed, his works were translated into many languages of the world. This philosopher created a new concept according to which a theory that meets several criteria is more preferable. Firstly, it explores the object very deeply, so it provides the maximum amount of information. Secondly, the theory must have logical, explanatory and enormous predictive power. Finally, it must be tested by time, that is, what the theory predicts should be compared with facts and observations.
What is a scientific theory?
If we talk briefly about the structure of a scientific theory, we should highlight three main components: the idea as the basis; methods and tools for studying the object; formulations and laws characterizing the properties of the object being studied.
Let's take a closer look at each element to fully understand what a scientific theory is. Main criterion Any theory is its depth, that is, the depth of the phenomena being studied. If a theory belongs to a certain science, then it must reveal precisely those objects that are related to this science. For example, the theory of relativity is one of the most important branches of modern physics, therefore the subject of study of this theory is an element or a whole system of processes related to the science of “physics”.
The structure of a scientific theory also includes a set of techniques and methods by which it solves many problems posed to science. The third component of any theory is strictly formulated laws to which the objects of study are subject. For example, in the “mechanics” section of the science of physics there are not only descriptive characteristics of phenomena and objects, but also formulas and laws with which you can calculate unknown values physical quantities.
Types of scientific theories
Scientific theory as the highest form of systematized knowledge has several directions. The theory is divided into types according to the principle of the science it studies. The structure of the scientific theory does not change, retaining all the important key elements. There are a huge number of theories that can be divided into the following types:
- biological - considered one of the most ancient, since they arose in prehistoric times, they were certainly accompanied by medical facts about the human body;
- chemical theories - the first mention of alchemists dates back to the 4th century BC (representatives are scientists of Ancient Greece);
- sociological theories - combine not only social order, but also political aspects states;
- physical - these theories laid the foundation for the development of modern technical sciences;
- psychological theories allow us to take a fresh look at human consciousness, at his soul.
This list can be continued for a long time, because not all theories are considered complete, some of them require further study.
Methods and methods of scientific theories
To solve any problem, a set of specific actions or methods is required. In scientific theories, there are several types of techniques with the help of which the logical-deductive elements of theories are built. The elements of the structure of a scientific theory are general logical and highly specialized methods.
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The most famous scientific theories that changed the world
With the development of natural sciences, it has become possible to create many tools that greatly simplify life. to modern man. However, a couple of centuries ago people used candles due to the lack of electricity. Let's find out thanks to what scientific discoveries our world has been transformed and looks the way we see it now.
In first place, perhaps, proudly stands treatise Charles Darwin" Natural selection". Published in 1859, it became the subject of the most heated debate between scientists and religious people. The essence and structure of Darwin's scientific theory is that nature, the environment around us, acts as a breeder, selecting the most “strong, fittest” species of living beings .
The theory of relativity, which was created in 1905 by the great scientist Albert Einstein, has had a huge impact on modern physics. Its meaning boils down to the fact that the methods of classical mechanics are not applicable to cosmic bodies.
One of the theories is the scientific theory of academician Pavlov “Conditioned reflexes”. It says that every person and animal has innate instincts, thanks to which we survive.
There are a huge number of scientific theories, and each of them is considered an invaluable fragment in common system natural and technical sciences.
SCIENTIFIC THEORY is an integral system of knowledge, a set of fundamental provisions that provide a description, explanation and prediction of any phenomena or aspects of reality. In a more general case, any theory is some explanation of any phenomena and processes. A scientific theory can be in the case when scientific tools, basic scientific methods and principles are used for this explanation, and the object of research is a really existing phenomenon.
The theory is in a certain respect similar to the simulated reality, is its simplification and serves the purpose of understanding this reality. It acts as a form of synthetic knowledge, within the boundaries of which individual concepts, hypotheses and laws lose their former autonomy and become elements of an integral system.
At the theoretical level, researchers receive answers to questions about what the content of the research object is and why it is structured and functions in this particular way.
Theory building methods:
axiological,
hypothetico-deductive,
method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, etc.
The main components of the theory include: basic concepts, principles, laws, idealized objects.
Among the methods of constructing a theory, a special role is played by endowing the main provisions with logical connections, minimizing initial assumptions, constructing it in the form of an axiomatic system, and its formalization.
A theory is a deductive system of statements. Deductive organization can begin with many independent propositions and end with the axiomatic construction of a theory, which is the highest level of deductive organization.
Theories are divided into descriptive, mathematized, deductive and inductive, fundamental and applied, “open” and “closed”, explanatory and descriptive (phenomenological), physical, sociological, etc.
Regardless of its type, a scientific theory is a totality, an integral organic developing system. For a theory, the obligatory requirement is to substantiate the main provisions, explain a wide range of phenomena, and reveal the causes and patterns of the phenomena being studied. And “the most essential requirement for any scientific theory always remains unchanged - the theory must correspond to the facts... Ultimately, only experience will make a decisive verdict” (Einstein A. Physics and Reality. - M., 1987. - P. 260.). Those. A theory must be understood as an empirically based system of hypotheses that exists until subsequent refutation by practice.
A scientific theory must be consistent, have simplicity, integrity, completeness, completeness. “The decision about the correctness of a theory thus turns out to be a long historical process, behind which lies not the proof of a chain of mathematical conclusions, but the persuasiveness historical fact. A complete theory, one way or another, is never an accurate reflection of nature in the corresponding area; it is a kind of idealization of experience, carried out with the help of the conceptual foundations of the theory and ensuring certain success" (Heisenberg V. Steps beyond the horizon. - M., 1992. - P. 185 –186.)
“The theory pursues two goals: 1. To cover, as far as possible, all phenomena in their interrelation (completeness). 2. Achieves this by taking as a basis as few logically mutually related logical concepts and arbitrarily established relationships between them (basic laws and axioms). I will call this goal “logical uniqueness” (Einstein A. Physics and Reality. - M., 1987. - P. 264.).
“If we combine the facts of some specific area in a more or less exhaustive manner, we will quickly see that these facts can be arranged in in a certain order. This order is invariably established with the help of some conceptual structure in which there is a connection between the individual objects of a given field of knowledge and the concepts of the structure and between the same facts in a given field of knowledge and logical relations among concepts. A conceptual structure is nothing more than a theory of a given field of knowledge... If we look at the existing theories more carefully, then in all cases we will see that the basis of their conceptual structure lies precisely those few assumptions about a given field of knowledge that are sufficient to build from them a complete structure of knowledge in this field in accordance with logical principles... as any science further develops, it becomes increasingly necessary to purposefully highlight its fundamental assumptions in pure form, recognizing them as axioms and “placing” them in the “foundation” of a given field of knowledge... If the theoretical basis of a particular science is the conceptual structure representing it, then in order to organize and develop the original field of knowledge it must meet two basic requirements: it must, in -firstly, to offer a general view of the dependence or independence of the statements of the theory and, secondly, to guarantee the consistency of all statements of the theory. These points are mandatory for the axioms of every theory" (Hilbert D. Selected works. T. II. Analysis. Physics. Problems. Personalia. – M.: Factorial Publishing House, 1998. – P. 81.).
“A person... never loses sight of the fact that a theory is based on an assumption, a hypothesis, and never forgets the existence of that unfillable abyss that separates the hypothesis - no matter how probable it may seem - from the fact” (Butlerov A.M. Op. T.3. – M., 1958. – P. 54).
Lit.: (1) Methodological analysis of the foundations of mathematics / Rep. ed. M.I. Panov; Per. from English A.G. Barabasheva. – M., 1988; (2) Ruzavin G.I. Scientific theory: Logical and methodological analysis. – M., 1978; (3) Ruzavin G.I. Methodology of scientific knowledge. – M., 1999.
SCIENTIFIC THEORY is the most developed form of organization of scientific knowledge, giving a holistic idea of the patterns and essential connections of the area of reality being studied. Examples of T.n. are the classical mechanics of I. Newton, the corpuscular and wave theories of light, the theory of biological evolution of Charles Darwin, the electromagnetic theory of J.K. Maxwell, special theory relativity, chromosome theory of heredity, etc.
Science includes descriptions of facts and experimental data, hypotheses and laws, classification schemes, etc., but only T.N. combines all the material of science into a holistic and observable knowledge about the world. It is clear that for the construction of T.n. Certain material about the objects and phenomena under study must first be accumulated, so theories appear at a fairly mature stage of development of a scientific discipline. For thousands of years, humanity has been familiar with electrical phenomena, but the first T.N. electricity appeared only in mid. 18th century At first, as a rule, descriptive theories are created that provide only a systematic description and classification of the objects under study. For a long time, theories of biology, including Jean Baptiste Lamarck's and Darwin's theories of evolution, were descriptive: they described and classified plant and animal species and their origins; table chemical elements D. Mendeleev was a systematic description and classification of elements. And this is quite natural. When starting to study a certain area of phenomena, scientists must first describe these phenomena, highlight their characteristics, and classify them into groups. Only after this does deeper research become possible to identify causal relationships and discover laws.
The highest form of development of science is considered to be an explanatory theory, which provides not only a description, but also an explanation of the phenomena being studied. Every scientific discipline strives to build precisely such theories. Sometimes the presence of such theories is seen as an essential sign of the maturity of science: a discipline can be considered truly scientific only when explanatory theories appear in it.
An explanatory theory has a hypothetico-deductive structure. The basis of the T.n. serves as a set of initial concepts (quantities) and fundamental principles (postulates, laws), including only initial concepts. It is this basis that fixes the angle from which reality is viewed and sets the area that the theory covers. The initial concepts and principles express the main, most fundamental connections and relationships of the area being studied, which determine all its other phenomena. Thus, the basis of classical mechanics are the concepts of a material point, force, velocity and the three laws of dynamics; Maxwell's electrodynamics is based on his equations, which connect the basic quantities of this theory with certain relationships; the special theory of relativity is based on the equations of A. Einstein, etc.
Since the time of Euclid, the deductive-axiomatic construction of knowledge has been considered exemplary. Explanatory theories follow this pattern. However, if Euclid and many scientists after him believed that the starting points of a theoretical system were self-evident truths, then modern scientists understand that such truths are not easy to find, and the postulates of their theories serve as nothing more than assumptions about the underlying causes of phenomena. The history of science has provided quite a lot of evidence of our misconceptions, therefore the fundamental principles of the explanatory theory are considered as hypotheses, the truth of which still needs to be proven. Less fundamental laws of the field under study are deductively derived from the principles of the theory. That is why the explanatory theory is called “hypothetico-deductive”.
Initial concepts and principles of the so-called. relate directly not to real things and events, but to some abstract objects, which together form an idealized object of the theory. In classical mechanics it is a system of material points; in molecular kinetic theory - a set of chaotically colliding molecules closed in a certain volume, represented in the form of absolutely elastic balls, etc. These objects do not exist by themselves in reality, they are mental, imaginary objects. However, the idealized object of the theory has a certain relationship to real things and phenomena: it reflects some abstracted or idealized properties of real things. These are an absolutely solid or absolutely black body; perfect mirror; ideal gas, etc. By replacing real things with idealized objects, scientists are distracted from secondary, insignificant properties and connections of the real world and highlight in their pure form what seems to them the most important. The idealized object of the theory is much simpler than real objects, but this is precisely what allows it to be given an accurate mathematical description. When an astronomer studies the movement of planets around the Sun, he is distracted from the fact that the planets are entire worlds with a rich chemical composition, atmosphere, core, etc., and considers them as simply material points, characterized only by mass, distance from the Sun and momentum, but it is precisely thanks to this simplification that he is able to describe their movement in strict mathematical equations.
Idealized object So-called. serves for the theoretical interpretation of its original concepts and principles. Concepts and statements T.N. have only the meaning that the idealized object gives them. This explains why they cannot be directly correlated with real things and processes.
To the original basis T.n. also include a certain logic - a set of inference rules and mathematical apparatus. Of course, in most cases, as logic T.N. The usual classical two-valued logic is used, however, in some theories, e.g. V quantum mechanics, sometimes they turn to three-valued or probabilistic logic. T.N. They also differ in the mathematical means used in them. Thus, the basis of a hypothetico-deductive theory includes a set of initial concepts and principles, an idealized object that serves for their theoretical interpretation, and a logical-mathematical apparatus. From this basis, all other statements of the T. are obtained deductively. - laws of a lesser degree of generality. It is clear that these statements also speak of an idealized object.
The question of whether the T.N. includes empirical data, results of observations and experiments, facts, still remain open. According to some researchers, facts discovered thanks to a theory and explained by it should be included in the theory. According to others, the facts and experimental data lie outside the T.N. and the connection between theory and facts is effected by special rules of empirical interpretation. With the help of such rules, the statements of the theory are translated into empirical language, which allows them to be verified using empirical research methods.
To the main functions of the T.N. include description, explanation and prediction. T.N. gives a description of a certain area of phenomena, certain objects, s.-l. aspects of reality. Due to this, T.n. may turn out to be true or false, i.e. describe reality adequately or distortedly. T.N. must explain known facts, pointing out the essential connections that underlie them. Finally, T.n. predicts new, not yet known facts: phenomena, effects, properties of objects, etc. Detection of predicted T.N. facts serve as confirmation of its fruitfulness and truth. The discrepancy between theory and facts or the discovery of internal contradictions in a theory gives an impetus to change it - to clarify its idealized object, to revise, clarify, change its individual provisions, auxiliary hypotheses, etc. In some cases, these discrepancies lead scientists to abandon the theory and replace it with a new theory.
Classification of scientific theories
Scientific theories are very diverse both in the subject of research and in the depth of revealing the essence of the processes being studied and the functions they perform in cognition. All this makes the problem of establishing their common structural elements extremely difficult and makes it utopian to try to find some single model or scheme with the help of which all theories could be explained. Supporters of positivism, who considered the theories of mathematical natural science and, above all, theoretical physics, persistently tried to find such a model. The failure of such attempts, eventually recognized by the leaders of neopositivism, led to a skeptical attitude towards the very problem of analyzing the structure of theories, resulting in a tendency towards simple description theories of various contents, which has always been supported by many historians.
In our opinion, a more promising approach to classifying theories is one that takes into account certain general features depending on the level of abstraction, depth of penetration into the essence of phenomena, accuracy of predictions, structure and functions in cognition.
All scientific theories, like sciences in general, can be classified primarily according to the subject of research, i.e. the area of the real world that they study. On this basis, we distinguish, on the one hand, theories that reflect the objective properties and patterns of the real world, such as physical, biological, social, etc. theories. In our philosophical literature, such a classification is interpreted as the study of various forms of motion of matter. On the other hand, there are many theories and sciences that aim to study subjective reality, i.e. the world of our consciousness, emotions, thoughts, ideas. These include psychology, logic, rhetoric, pedagogy, ethics, etc. In addition to the above classification, we will consider others based on other divisions.
1. Phenomenological and non-phenomenological theories. This classification of theories is based on the depth of their disclosure of the specific features and patterns of the processes being studied. It thus corresponds to the development of the process of scientific knowledge, which usually begins with the study in phenomenological theories of the observed properties and relationships of phenomena. The depth of knowledge in them does not go beyond the sphere of phenomena, hence their very name (the ancient Greek phainomenon means “appearance”). But science cannot stop there and therefore moves from studying phenomena to revealing their essence, internal mechanism, governing phenomena, and thereby to a more complete and profound explanation of them. For these purposes, scientists put forward hypotheses about unobservable objects, such as molecules, atoms, elementary particles and quarks in physics, genes in biology, etc., with the help of which the properties of observed objects are explained. Phenomenological theories are often identified with empirical and descriptive ones, and there are certain reasons for this, firstly, because they also rely on experience and observations, and secondly, they do not introduce unobservable objects and do not resort to abstractions and idealizations based on them theoretical concepts.
In contrast, non-phenomenological theories seek to explain observed phenomena and are therefore also called explanatory theories. On early stage development of any science, it is dominated by theories that describe and systematize accumulated empirical material, and also establish logical connections between its individual elements. The transition from phenomenological theories to explanatory ones characterizes the level of development of science, its theoretical maturity. In some sciences this transition has occurred a long time ago, in others it is just happening, in others it is just beginning.
In recent decades, interest in phenomenological theories has increased due to the widespread use in cybernetics, and then in other sciences, of the so-called black box model. The internal structure of such a “box” is unknown to the researcher; he can only manipulate the signals arriving at the “input” and observe the signals at the “output”. Using them, he must establish by what laws the transformation of information occurs in the box and, thanks to this, “turn” the “black box” into a “white” one. The value of this approach is that any theory that describes the interaction of a system with environment, can be likened to a “black box” in which incoming signals characterize the influence from the outside external environment, and the output ones are the system’s reaction to these influences.
2. The division of theories into deterministic and stochastic is based on the accuracy of predictions. In Western methodology, such theories are usually called deterministic and indeterministic, but this name is not entirely correct. According to the established tradition, theories that allow reliable predictions, such as the theories of classical mechanics and gravity, the theory of electromagnetism by D.K., are usually called deterministic. Maxwell and others, which in our literature were previously called dynamic for some unknown reason, but more recently strictly deterministic. Although this name cannot be considered completely successful, it at least indicates the existence of theories of an opposite nature, i.e. not strictly deterministic, but stochastic, or random, type. Often stochastic theories are also called probabilistic-statistical, since they are based on statistical information, and their predictions are probabilistic. From a logical point of view, the main difference between deterministic and stochastic theories is explained by the difference in their initial premises. If in theories of the first type, certain universal statements (axioms, postulates, laws, principles) serve as premises, then in theories of the second type, statistical information is used for this in the form of statistical laws, generalizations or hypotheses.
3. Dynamic and static theories, as their name shows, differ in such a basis of division as equilibrium and movement of natural or social systems. Since everything in the world is in constant motion and development, dynamic theories prevail in science. They analyze transitions from one system state to another or from one system to another. Static theories describe the relationships between elements of systems that are in equilibrium. They represent, as it were, a “snapshot” of a system that is at relative rest. Usually such theories are studied together with dynamic theories, forming necessary element a single scientific discipline.
4. Formal and substantive theories differ from each other in that the former explore the general structure, or form of phenomena, objects and processes, the latter - their specific properties and relationships. The most typical formal theories are those of mathematics and logic, which is why the latter is often called formal logic.
Feature formal theories is that in their research they abstract, abstract from the specific content of the objects and processes being studied and highlight their form, or structure, in its pure form. So, in mathematics we use the same numbers to count celestial bodies, living beings, people, etc. objects. The same mathematical equations describe the movement of terrestrial and celestial bodies, biological and social processes. In formal logic, they are not interested in the specific content of concepts, judgments and conclusions, but highlight their general form, or structure, due to which its methods can be applied in any reasoning process, both in science and in everyday life. Concerning meaningful theories, then they can be very diverse both in the subject of research and in the methods and depth of revealing the essence of the phenomena being studied, as discussed above.
