King from 1576 to 1586 - He came from the Batory family of Shomlio, was the son of Stephen, a Transylvanian governor, and Catherine, born. Telegdi; genus. 27 Sep. 1533 Very early, in the sixteenth year of his life, he entered into military service to Ferdinand, King of Hungary and Czech, and at the same time went to Italy, where he attended the University of Padua. Then B. went into the service of John Sigismund Zapolsky, Prince of Transylvania, and then was captured by the Germans, who kept him locked up for three years. B. devoted this time to improving himself in the sciences. I read books, especially Roman historians. After the death of John in 1571, B. was elected prince of Transylvania and in 1574, after the flight of Henry Valois, he began to think about being elected to the Polish throne. For this purpose, he entered into relations with the famous and powerful family of magnates Zborovsky at that time and, with their help, put forward his candidacy. At the election Diet on January 12, 1575, a division of votes occurred: the Senate proclaimed Emperor Maximilian king, the nobility gave the throne to fifty-year-old Anna Jagiellonka, sister of Sigismund Augustus, and elected Stefan B. as the Polish king with the condition that he marry Anna. Despite Maximilan's protest, Stephen arrived in Krakow, where he was crowned in April 1575. Hard times for the Polish kings began after the election of Henry Valois, who had to swear allegiance to the so-called Henrician articles (see Henrician articles). The gentry wanted to have as many privileges as possible and tried to burden the king big amount duties, while limiting his rights. In this regard, the main danger was the powerful magnates, who especially strengthened during the time of both last Jagiellons: Sigismund the Old and Sigismund Augustus. In view of this state of affairs, B. decided to rely on the middle nobility, with the help of which he could fight the magnates. Despite the services of the Zborowskis in electing him to the throne, he immediately left them aside upon his arrival in Krakow, and among the nobles he distinguished the talented and educated Jan Zamoyski, made him sub-chancellor, and then, a few years later, convinced that the choice was good, gave him the office seal, the hetman's mace and the hand of his niece Griselda. Regarding magnates and generally rebellious people, B. boldly and energetically carried out his plan; First of all, in 1576 he took the rich and powerful city of Bansk, which favored Emperor Maximilian. He frightened the magnates by executing Samuil Zborovsky and accusing Christopher Zborovsky of treason, which the Sejm itself, that is, the magnates themselves, had to admit (see Zborovsky).
Of the internal reforms introduced by Batory in Poland, the organization of the Zaporozhye Cossacks, to whom he gave proper organization, allocated lands, allowed them to choose the hetman and all military authorities themselves, reserving to the king the right to endow the hetman with a banner, “mace” and seal and approve him after taking the oath of allegiance. Wanting to restore not only political, but also spiritual peace in Poland, B. tried to bring dissidents to an agreement with Catholicism, for which, however, he never resorted to violence, but tried to act humanely and peacefully. For this purpose, he resorted to the Jesuits, seeing in them people who could successfully act in in this case. Soon, however, B. could be convinced that he had made a mistake: the order began to interfere excessively in political issues. B.'s concerns regarding education were expressed, among other things, in the final organization of the Vilna Academy (1578). In governing the country, B. had to experience many difficulties arising from the selfishness of the gentry, who thought only of themselves, not completely understanding that they were preparing a sad future for their fatherland. B. is known for his fight against Tsar Ivan the Terrible, who occupied Livonia, or the so-called Inflants in Poland; in 1577, Batory moved troops to protect the borders of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and in the same year returned Dinaburg and Wenden. Then he entered the Russian borders, besieged and took Polotsk, Velikiye Luki and besieged Pskov. This city, bravely defended by the Russians, detained the Poles for a long time, and meanwhile the papal legate Possevin, with the assistance of the Jesuits, who harbored the hope that they would be able to convert Ivan Vasilyevich to Catholicism, began to urge Poland to make peace with Russia. Indeed, in 1582, the Zapolsky Peace took place, according to which “Inflants” and Polotsk remained with Poland; despite these profitable terms Poland lost a lot by agreeing to end the war. B. has now taken up the internal organization of the lands cleared of enemy troops. He divided Livonia into three presidencies corresponding to the Polish voivodeships, namely: Pernava, Wenden and Dorpat. In general, B.'s reign had a beneficial significance for Poland, and he himself was the kind of king that the Polish state, which had already begun to disintegrate, needed. It is possible that B. would have diverted Poland from the fate that befell her for a long time, if his reign had not been so short-lived; meanwhile, he fell ill already in 1586 and after a serious illness died in Grodno, at a moment when the country was preparing for a new big war, precisely with
Stefan Batory is famous for marrying the fifty-two-year-old daughter of the Polish king Sigismund I the Old, so to speak, “as a burden” to the throne of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, but upon careful study of the biography of this Transylvanian prince, even more amazing facts emerge!
For example, Stefan in personal correspondence not only condemns the Russian Tsar Ivan the Terrible for his authoritarian type of government, but even challenges the “double-headed eagle” to a duel. And although the challenge was not accepted, we must pay tribute to the Polish king of Romanian origin - he proved himself to be a brave man and a categorical politician. Only Stefan Batory, of all the Lyash sovereigns, managed to gain the upper hand in the war with Russia.
The son of the Transylvanian governor Istvan and Katerina Telegdi, whose father was a crown treasurer, was born on September 27, 1533 in the small town of Zhiladishomlio (now the territory of modern Romania). He received his education at the University of Padua, where at one time such people studied science famous people, like Nicolaus Copernicus and Francis Skaryna.
Being in early years At the court of Ferdinand I, Stefan Batory traveled with the retinue of the Holy Roman Emperor, and therefore he partly owed his studies in Italy, as well as his brilliant knowledge of Latin, to his patron. Latin in those days served for international communications of the nobility. At the age of 38, the future king of Poland received the title of Prince of Semigrad.
Polish king who does not understand the Poles
Before becoming king, Stefan fought with the Turks on the side of Ferdinand I, but after captivity, from which the emperor refused to ransom him, he went into the service of the Hungarian monarch Janos Zapolyan.
Contemporaries give a very flattering description of the Prince of Transylvania. In particular, the French writer and philosopher Michel de Montaigne in his famous “Essays” noted that in the harsh climate of Western Europe, Stefan Batory never wore gloves: against the backdrop of pampered aristocrats, such behavior looked very dignified and aroused genuine respect. And God, as they say, did not offend the future Polish sovereign with his external characteristics...
Stefan Batory was 36 years old when the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania entered into an alliance - the Union of Lublin, which marked the beginning of federal state- Rzeczpospolita. The collegial rule of the gentry sometimes led to protracted elections for a new king, especially if one of the conditions for accepting power was the demand of the Sejm to marry the daughter of Sigismund I the Old, Anna Jagiellonka, who had married before the age of fifty.
Despite the fact that the ten-year age difference was clearly not in the bride’s favor, Stefan decided to nominate his candidacy for king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Tatar threat played into the hands of the Semigrad prince: the small and middle gentry supported the Hungarian, appreciating his military merits and well-trained mercenary army. Vassal Ottoman Empire Stefan Batory also owned the voice of the Turkish Sultan Selim II Blondin.
On May 1, 1576, the Prince of Transylvania, together with Anna Jagiellonka, acquired the throne of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and all the regalia due to it, and the wedding took place the next day. The clergy, who lobbied for the interests of Maximilian II, had to come to terms and accept the choice of the secular party. Subsequently, once talking with the Catholic Archbishop of Lvov, Stefan Bathory sarcastically said about him, saying, how can one occupy such a high spiritual position and not speak Latin! To which the priest, not at all confused, replied: “The same as being a Polish king without understanding the Polish language!”
The black and white sides of popularity: the bloody countess and the Yam-Zapolsky peace treaty
The name of Stefan Batory is often mentioned in connection with his niece, Erzbeta Batory, known for her creepy cosmetic procedures: there were rumors that about six hundred and fifty virgins were killed on her orders; The Hungarian countess used the blood of the unfortunate people to take baths to prolong the youth of the skin. The exposure did not entail severe punishment for this “fiend of hell”: comfortable house arrest - this was exactly the price for the lives of the unfortunate victims of noble tyranny.
After Erjbeta's death, the maids had to pay for her sins; they were executed with extreme cruelty. However, this serious accusation also has opponents who express the opinion that the facts were manipulated by the persecutors of the Protestants. Although even the coat of arms of Stefan Batory, which depicts three fangs on a scarlet field, evokes associations with vampires and the legendary Transylvanian Dracula...
Success in military campaigns against Tatar raids almost constantly accompanied the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was able to reform and improve the Polish army, which no longer consisted of the gentry's militia: the practice of fighting with the help of mercenary soldiers, mainly Hungarians and Germans, confirmed the correctness of the new course chosen by Stefan Batory.
During Livonian War against the Russian Tsar Ivan the Terrible, the Polish king showed himself to be a valiant and brave commander. Under massive pressure from the army of Stefan Batory, Russian troops were forced to give up the Livonian lands in favor of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, the heroic confrontation of the residents of besieged Pskov allowed the Russians to gain time and led to the further conclusion of the Yam-Zapolsky Peace in January 1582.
Marriage of convenience
Anna Jagiellonka, although she was the legal wife of Stefan Batory, was deprived of her marital bed. There was an agreement between the crowned couple that the queen herself could come to the royal bedchamber if necessary. As a result, during Anna’s first attempt at rapprochement, her husband ran away from fulfilling his obligations to permanent place residence in Grodno, where he took a young mistress and began reconstructing the Old Castle as his residence.
The death of Stephen Batory occurred in 1586 on December 12, when he turned 53 years old. According to doctors, the cause of sudden death was uremia (renal failure). Now the remains of the king are in Krakow, where they were subsequently transported from Grodno.
Origin of the future king
At the end of September 1533, a son was born into the family of the Transylvanian governor Stefan Batory, named after his father. By ethnic origin, he was Hungarian and belonged to the noble Batory family of Somlio.
During this era, Transylvania (now part of Romania) was a disputed territory claimed by both Romanians and Hungarians. In ancient times, it was inhabited by the Dacians, conquered by the Romans; after their departure, the Hungarians settled here, and during the time of Batory, Transylvania was under the protectorate of the Turkish Sultan.
Training and service
At the age of 15, Stefan entered the service of Ferdinand Habsburg, who at that time was the king of Hungary, Germany and the Czech Republic. While in his retinue, he came to Italy, where he entered the University of Padua. It is not known whether he graduated from it, however, of course, it was here that Batory perfectly mastered Latin, which at that time was not only the language of church services, but also of the ruling European elite. Latin came in handy when he began to rule the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth without knowledge of local languages.
Career turnaround
Stefan Batory, on his own initiative, left the imperial court to go into the service of the Transylvanian governor Janos Zapolyai. The latter led the part of Hungary that did not submit to Ferdinand Habsburg, being his personal enemy. Historians suggest that Batory was motivated by, as we would say today, patriotic feelings.
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This move made him an enemy of the Germans, since from that moment on Stefan found himself in a politically hostile camp. During the war, he was captured by the Germans, where he remained for 3 years. As in Italy, Batory did not waste time, which was completely unusual for a man of his position. He began to educate himself, studying ancient Roman jurists and historians.
After being released from captivity at the age of 38, Batory was elected Prince of Transylvania. He was the first to receive the princely title; all previous rulers, including his father, were called voivodes. However, a royal crown also awaited him. It was not without reason that the Polish Sejm offered it to Stefan Batory: he had a noble origin, military experience, which was very much valued in that era, excellent education and the necessary personal qualities.
Marriage for the crown
The gentry enjoyed enormous powers in Poland; they not only could veto any order of the king, but also had the right to elect him. After Henry Valois secretly fled to his homeland in 1574, preferring the French throne to the Polish one, Batory put forward his candidacy.
He was supported by representatives of the small and middle gentry. He attracted them with his military experience, the presence of a trained army consisting of Hungarians, and he himself was known as a recognized commander. But his election was promised only if one condition was met: Stefan Batory had to marry Anna, the sister of the last Jagiellon.
Familylife
At the time of his election as king, Batory was 43 years old, and his bride was 53. Of course, there could be no talk of any heir. However, their union was initially purely political. But although Stefan avoided fulfilling his marital duty, when the bishop asked him to think about divorce and a second marriage, he flatly refused.
Reforms carried out
During the coronation ceremony, which took place in May 1576 in Krakow, Batory took a solemn oath on the Bible. He promised:
- observe Henrik's articles;
- ransom or release by force all captured Lithuanians and Poles;
- return the lands of Lithuania conquered by the Muscovite kingdom;
- pacify the Crimean Tatars.
Stefan Batory throughout his 10-year reign supported the Jesuits, whose education system was the best in Europe at that time. He founded collegiums in Drept, Lvov, Riga, Lublin, and Polotsk. In 1582 he introduced Gregorian calendar throughout the entire territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
But his main activity was fighting wars. To this end, the army of the kingdom was reformed, and its backbone consisted of well-trained mercenaries (Hungarians and Germans). In Europe, Batory purchased new guns and hired servants for them. Now one could think about the promise to return the lands captured by Muscovy in the first stages of the Livonian War.
Stefan Batory changes the course of events
The beginning of a protracted conflict over the Baltic coast turned out favorably for the Muscovite kingdom: Polotsk was conquered and access to the sea was gained. But with the accession of Stefan Batory to the Polish throne, the Livonian War was actually lost by Ivan the Terrible.
The army of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, whose elite part was made up of Germans and Hungarians, was better armed and better trained. During its offensive, almost all the previous conquests of the Muscovite kingdom were lost: Polotsk, Livonia and Courland again went to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
The only major defeat of the Polish army was the unsuccessful campaign of Stefan Batory to Pskov. You can learn about this event from quite a few sources, both Russian and Polish. The diaries of participants in that military campaign have been preserved, for example, the castellan Jan Sborovsky, who commanded the selected part of Batory’s army, and Luka Dzilynsky, the commander of the vanguard detachment.
Siege of Pskov by Stefan Batory
The army of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth approached the walls of the city in August 1581. Batory had no doubt about victory, because he had an army of thousands at his disposal. To intimidate the enemy, he organized a military review under the city walls. He had to make a strong impression on the few (compared to the besiegers) defenders.
The defense of Pskov from Stefan Batory was led by princes Shuisky and Skopin-Shuisky. On their orders, the townspeople burned and devastated the surrounding area in order to deprive the enemy of food and fodder.
Stefan Batory is known for having entered into a marriage of advantage, taking as his wife the daughter of the Polish king Sigismund I the Old, who was fifty years old. Together with his wife, he received the throne of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
A lot is known about this man interesting facts. For example, in Stefan’s personal correspondence there were unflattering comments about the authoritarian type of rule of the Russian Tsar Ivan the Terrible. Moreover, he even challenged the “double-headed eagle” to fight. But the opponent rejected the challenge. And Stefan Batory proved himself to be a brave man and a categorical politician. He is the only one who managed to win the fight against Russia.
Stefan's father was the Transylvanian voivode Istvan, and his mother was Katerina Telegdi. The future ruler of Poland was born in 1533 on September 27 in the small town of Zhiladishomlio, now this territory is modern Romania. Higher education he received at the University of Padua, where such famous personalities as Nicolaus Copernicus and Francis Skaryna studied.
As a youth, Stephen was at the court of Ferdinand I, while he traveled with the retinue of the Holy Roman Emperor because he studied in Italy and knew Latin perfectly, all thanks to his patron. For international communications, the nobility then needed Latin. When Stefan was 38 years old, he received the title of Prince of Semigrad.
Even before becoming king, he fought with the Turks supporting Ferdinand I, but after he was captured and the emperor refused to ransom him, Stefan went over to the side of the Hungarian monarch Janos Zapolyan.
Modern historians have given a very flattering description of the Prince of Transylvania. And the philosopher and French writer Michel de Montaigne noted in his writings that despite the harsh cold of Western Europe, Stephen never put on gloves, at a time when all the pampered aristocrats could not do without them. Such a gesture from Stefan looked dignified and commanded respect. And Stefan was very handsome in appearance.
When the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania concluded the Union of Lublin, which marked the beginning of the emergence of a federal state, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Stefan was 36 years old. The rule of the gentry led to protracted elections for a new king, especially when the condition became to marry the fifty-year-old daughter of Sigismund I the Old, Anna Jagiellonka.
Despite the fact that Stefan's future wife was ten years older than him, he still agrees to nominate himself for king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Tatar threat played into Stephen's hands. The small and middle gentry supported the Hungarians. Sultan Selim II Blondin also voted for Stefan.
In 1576, on May 1, the Transylvanian prince, together with his new wife, acquired the throne of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The clergy, who were on the side of Maximilian II, had no choice but to reconcile and accept the choice of the secular party.
Subsequently, the following situation occurred: once while communicating with the Catholic Archbishop of Lvov, Stefan decided to prick him about how it was possible to occupy such a high spiritual position and not know Latin. To this the priest found something to answer, reminding Stephen that he was a Polish king without speaking the Polish language.
It is known that Stefan had a niece, Erdzhbeta Bathory, a very strange girl. She was known for her gruesome beauty treatments and there were rumors that she ordered the killing of virgins and then bathed in their blood to prolong her youth. When this terrible lady was exposed, she was only put under house arrest, and that was for a moment, for the brutal murder of six hundred women.
And after Erjbeta died, her maids had to pay for her crimes. They were executed with particular cruelty. But some were still sure that these brutal murders were only at the level of rumors. But even on the coat of arms of Erdzhbete Batory, three fangs were depicted on a scarlet field, which caused unpleasant associations with Dracula.
In almost all military campaigns against the Tatars, Stefan was lucky. He managed to strengthen and improve the Polish army, which no longer had a noble militia, since practice had shown that hired soldiers, mainly Germans and Hungarians, gave good results.
When the Livonian War took place against Tsar Ivan the Terrible, the Polish king established himself as a valiant and brave commander. Under pressure from the strong Polish army, Russian troops had to give up the Livonian lands in favor of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. But the strong opposition of the residents of besieged Pskov allowed the Russians to gain time, and in January 1582 the Peace of Yam-Zapolsky was concluded.
Stefan was only officially married to Anna Jagiellonka. Since after Stefan had to fulfill his marital duty, he fled his obligations for permanent residence in Grodno, and there he took a mistress and was fully engaged in the reconstruction of the Old Castle for his residence.
In 1586, on December 12, Stefan Batory died. At that time he was 53 years old. According to the medical report, he died due to renal failure. From Gniezno the remains of the king were transported to the city of Krakow.
From Cleopatra to Karl Marx [The most exciting stories of defeats and victories of great people] Natalia Ivanovna Basovskaya
Stefan Batory. Formidable opponent of Ivan the Terrible
Stefan Batory is the only Polish ruler who managed to win the war with Russia. He also marked the beginning of the border confrontation between these two countries.
The 16th century was the time of the formation of national identity, statehood and the noticeable strengthening of Muscovy, as it was called in Central and Western Europe. This is also the period of the formation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - the 1569 union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. Formally, Stefan Batory is the Prince of Transylvania, the King of Poland and Grand Duke Lithuanian. A talented commander, a strong leader of a strong army, although the least of it consisted of Poles. And he himself is not Pole.
We learn about the life of Stefan Batory from a huge number of sources. The participants in his second campaign against Russia in 1580, Jan Zborovsky, a castellan, and Luka Dzyalynsky, the head of the vanguard army, kept diaries. There is also “The Tale of the Coming of Stefan Batory to the City of Pskov,” created in Rus'. A touching work written by an eyewitness. Finally, there is the “Diary of the Siege of Pskov by Stefan Batory,” which was apparently written by the secretary of the royal chancellery, Stanislav Piotrovsky.
Stefan Batory was born on September 27, 1533 in a small town in modern Romania. His parents are Stefan Batory, governor of Transylvania, and Catherine Telegdi. Both of them are ethnic Hungarians. The boy's name should have sounded like this - Istvan Bathory, and we know him in Polish transcription. The famous powerful army of Stefan Batory will consist mainly of Hungarians and Germans.
Transylvania is a disputed territory located in modern-day Romania. The ancient Dacians once lived here. Their not fully formed state was conquered by the Romans under Emperor Trojan. In the 11th–12th centuries, after the departure of the Romans, the territory was subject to the kings of Hungary. In the 16th century, during the movement of the Turks into Europe, it came under the control of the Turkish Sultan. In the 17th century, Transylvania was taken over by the Habsburgs, an Austrian-German dynasty. And only at the beginning of the 20th century it was assigned to Romania. But the vicissitudes did not end there either. In 1940, Transylvania became part of Hungary; in 1947, following the Second World War, the 1938 border between Hungary and Romania was restored.
It is believed that the famous Vlad III Dracula, ruler of Wallachia, with whom many dark legends are associated, was born in Transylvania. Horrible Stories They also talked about King Stephen’s relative Elizabeth (Erj-beta) Bathory: she allegedly bathed in the blood of murdered girls - she had such a cosmetic procedure.
Even the number of girls has been calculated - 80. This is what A. Cordescu’s novel “The Bloody Countess” is about.
Stephen spent his youth at the court of the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I. He is a Central European figure who does not strictly belong to any national history. Ferdinand I of the Habsburg dynasty was born and raised in Spain, at the court of King Charles I, who later became Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. When Ferdinand was elected king of the Czech Republic and Hungary, he fought a lot with the Turks and the not yet completely conquered Hungarians, and participated in the intra-German struggle of Protestant principalities against Catholic ones. The fact is that in the 16th century the borders in Central Europe were not yet clear. In 1555, after the abdication of Charles V, Ferdinand became Holy Roman Emperor.
Together with him, Stefan Batory ended up in Italy, where he entered the University of Padua. Not the most typical behavior for a prince's son in the 16th century. It is clear that he had a strong desire for education. While studying at the university, Stefan brilliantly mastered Latin. Later, as the ruler of various regions, he communicated with the local elite in Latin. It was the international language of that era, absolutely incomprehensible to the people, but accessible to educated people.
We do not know for sure whether Stefan Batory graduated from the university. But it is known for sure that he transferred from the German emperor to the service of the governor of Transylvania, John Sigismund Zapolsky, or Janos Zapolyan, as he was called in his homeland. He was an opponent of Ferdinand I and led the part of Hungary that did not submit to the empire.
One can only guess what made Stefan Batory change his position so decisively. Probably a gravitation towards the native lands of Transylvania.
On new service he gained military experience, became an enemy of the Germans, and even spent three years in German captivity. He also used this time in a way that was unconventional for a medieval aristocrat - he persistently pursued self-education. I read Roman historians.
In the 16th century, the European elite largely lived according to the laws of knightly times. Stefan Batory stood out for his excellent origin, court and military experience, and brilliant education. The Polish historian of the 17th century I. Pastorius wrote about him: “Batory was more than a priest in the church, more than a senator in the republic, more than a lawyer in court, more than a hetman in the army, more than a soldier in battle, and in enduring troubles, in patience, kindness and forgiveness of personal insults – more than human.” This enthusiastic review smacks of courtly flattery, but, as a rule, such characteristics still have some real basis.
The fact that Stefan Batory commanded respect was also briefly noted by Montaigne in his “Experiences.” According to him, Stefan Batory is a ruler who never wears gloves, although he lives in a country with a very harsh climate. Western Europeans considered Poland to be such. Stefan Batory was remembered by his contemporaries in a small cap with a feather - this is both a Hungarian tradition and partly a Polish one. By the way, many considered his facial features very beautiful. In other words, he was a prominent man from all points of view.
In 1572, when King Sigismund II Augustus of Poland died, Stefan Batory was Prince of Transylvania. Moreover, he became the first prince in this territory: before there were governors. Now the status of the ruler has increased.
For two years there was no king in Poland. In 1574, the French prince Henry of Valois was elected to the throne. Why was he elected? TO XVI century Poland differed significantly in its structure from other Central European and especially Western European countries. When Poland entered into a union with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed, which was a literal translation into Polish language Latin word for republic. It was, as modern historians say, a gentry republic. In it, the feudal elite, the gentry, occupied a special position: they could participate in the election of the king, and also had great powers in the Sejm. The gentry had the right of veto. “Veto” in Latin means “I forbid.” Even one dissenting deputy could veto any order, even a royal one. Feudal freemen. Collegial board, not iron hand one man. This means the self-awareness of the elite as very significant. Polish aristocrats had a very strong sense of self-respect.
Of course, this government structure There are also noticeable disadvantages. While the decision is being made for a long and difficult time about who to elect as king, the country is in an intertemporal period, with a cruel feud between clans.
Henry Valois, the son of Catherine de Medici, the future Henry III of France, who eventually became the Polish king, stayed on the Polish throne for about six months. Having received news of the death of his brother, Charles IX, he secretly left Krakow, leaving Poland to the mercy of fate. It was necessary to hurry so that the French throne would not be occupied by rivals, among whom was another Henry - Bourbon, the future Henry IV of Navarre. The gentry chased the king to return him to the throne. But he managed to cross the border.
It could not be expected that the election of a new king would be easy. Part of the Lithuanian nobility was determined to separate from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Many did not want a Pole to be on the throne. Among the contenders, the name of Moscow Tsar Ivan IV was even mentioned.
Difficult political situation pushed Stefan Batory to put forward his candidacy. He was supported by the middle and small Polish gentry. What attracted her to him? The fact that he is a recognized commander who became famous by successfully repelling the raids of the Tatars. He has an excellent mercenary army of Hungarians. The highest nobility was against it, the Diet spoke in favor of the German Emperor Maximilian. And yet Stefan Batory was elected, but with an important condition. He was to marry Anna Jagiellon, sister of the last Jagiellon, Sigismund II Augustus. The bride was 10 years older than the groom. The condition was categorical, and Stefan agreed.
When Stephen was crowned in Krakow, he was 43 years old. A few days later his wedding took place. This marriage meant that, in a sense, the Polish-Lithuanian national Jagiellon dynasty continued. For the 16th century, a time of strengthening the national self-awareness of many peoples, this is extremely important.
Even before Stephen's accession to the throne, in 1558, the Livonian War began. In school textbooks it is traditionally interpreted as the struggle of Rus' for access to Baltic Sea. But this was far from the only reason for the conflict. Livonia is part of the territory of modern Lithuania and Estonia, subject to the Livonian Spiritual Order of Knighthood. This order was once a branch of the famous Teutonic Order, weakened by the war against Lithuanian, Polish and Russian forces at the beginning of the 15th century.
The Livonian knights, who owned lands bordering the Russians, resolutely prevented contacts between Muscovite Rus' and Germany. And Ivan the Terrible was fully aware of the importance of these relationships. In 1547, he sent a recruiter to the German lands to gather craftsmen: builders, artisans to work on the orders of the Russian Tsar. 123 people were hired.
The Holy Roman Emperor gave permission for them to travel to Muscovy through the territory of the Livonian Order. However, the Livonian knights stopped the delegation of artisans, did not let them pass further, and threw the recruiter himself into prison. In the end, the masters simply left. There was one - a certain Hans, who insisted that he be allowed into Muscovy. He was also sent to prison. He managed to escape and decided to get to Moscow on his own. Two miles from the border, Livonian knights captured him and this time executed him. This is a vivid illustration of how the order prevented the inclusion of Muscovy in European life.
In addition, the territory of Lithuania, which was part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, at that time was a place of emigration, flight from Muscovy of people disliked by the authorities, those who feared for their lives. It was there that the famous Prince Andrei Mikhailovich Kurbsky found refuge. He first participated in the Livonian War on the side of the Russians, and in 1564, having learned that the tsar was planning to deal with him, he fled to Lithuania and received lands there.
As a result of the Livonian War, Rus'’s access to the Baltic Sea did not take place. But this was hardly the only or even the main goal of Ivan the Terrible. At the first stage of the war, he managed to achieve the secularization of the Livonian Order, the cessation of its existence as a military organization. The lands of the order came under Polish rule. Russian state committed an act that was objectively very useful for European history.
But if the first stage of the war was successful for the Russians, then after the accession of Stefan Batory the balance of forces changed. At first the battles went on with varying degrees of success. But on last stage war - in 1579–1583, when the experienced commander Stefan Batory led the united army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, it, in alliance with Sweden, began to win.
In 1579, Stefan Batory made a campaign against Russian lands and captured Polotsk and Velikiye Luki. The price turned out to be very high. On the way to Polotsk there was a small fortress called Sokol. The defenders burned it and died in the fire along with their families so as not to fall into the hands of the enemy - the resistance was so powerful.
The war was exceptionally cruel. It was a feudal feud, a struggle for spoils. Grozny needed funds. His successful Kazan and Astrakhan campaigns initially yielded huge booty, but the funds were wasted, and the army needed to be occupied. The same is true on the part of Stefan Batory.
Some historians believe that the Livonian War had a religious basis and represented a clash between Catholics and Orthodox Christians. Most likely, it was still a shell for solving political problems. In the Middle Ages, discussion about confession was one of the most important forms of political play. It is known that Ivan the Terrible “considered” for some time whether to accept the Catholic faith. How can one not remember the 13th century, when the Mongol ruler of China, Kublai Kublai, played in a similar way with the King of France, Louis IX the Saint, informing him that he was thinking of converting to Christianity!
On August 24, 1581, at an unkind hour for him, which he himself had not yet guessed, Stefan Batory personally arrived at the walls of besieged Pskov.
Pskov of the 16th century is a large, well-fortified, rich city. This is what Father Piotrovsky wrote in his diary: “We admire Pskov. God! Which Big city, definitely Paris! Help us, God, to cope with it!” “To cope” meant “to plunder.”
Residents of Pskov desperately resisted the Polish siege. “There must be a large supply of cores and gunpowder there,” Piotrovsky reasoned. “We need to earnestly pray to God to help us, because without his mercy and help we will not get good prey here.”
To intimidate the defenders of the city, Stefan Batory organized a military review under its walls. His army was colossal - about 100 thousand people. The Pskovites have supposedly 7 thousand archers and cavalry and 10 thousand armed townspeople. Therefore, at first Stefan Batory had absolutely no doubt about success. He could not even imagine that he would linger for six months under the walls of Pskov, relatively recently, 70 years earlier, conquered by Muscovy and, perhaps, harboring a grudge against Tsar Ivan IV.
When Batory realized that he could not take the city quickly, he began to bombard it with letters attached to arrows. They contained a proposal to the Pskov boyars to go into the service of the Polish king. Like, bring me the keys to the city - and I will pay you well!
Nothing came of it. The people of Pskov experienced both a huge patriotic surge and the greatest fear of plunder and destruction. But it was definitely a special, passionate state. And thanks to him, it turned out to be impossible to take Pskov.
The besieging army managed to make breaks in the fortress wall, and two towers had already been captured. It seemed like this was the end. But the Pskovites fired a huge cannon at one of these towers, and it fell directly on Batory’s warriors, who burst into it. All its defenders also died.
Then the attackers made nine secret tunnels under the walls of the city. But the Pskovites found everything and filled them up. Secretary Batory noted: “The Russians are again putting up log houses and tours in the gaps we made. And they correct them so well that they will be even stronger than they were before.” That's how they knew how to work!
And then frost came to the aid of the defenders of Pskov. That famous Russian “General Moroz”, who more than once appeared in moments of terrible danger. On October 28, 1581, Piotrovsky wrote: “Oh God! It's terrible cold! Some kind of severe frost with wind. I have never experienced anything like this in Poland.”
The foragers began to freeze when they went to collect supplies for the army. There was not enough money to pay the soldiers. Fermentation began in the army. The Pskovites repelled 31 attacks. Made 46 sorties. The commander Stefan Batory stumbled over this city.
Two great artists created paintings related to the defense of Pskov. The first is the Polish battle painter Jan Matejko. In his painting, Stefan Batory is handsome, majestic, with a weapon in his hands, and the Russians are slightly humiliated and offer something like bread and salt to the conqueror. They ask for peace.
Yes, there were proposals for peace. But it is clear that asking for peace with bread and salt was not in the Russian tradition. But no one said “welcome” to the Poles near Pskov.
The second artist who depicted the siege of Pskov is the Russian master Karl Bryullov. The canvas “The Siege of Pskov by the Polish King Stefan Batory in 1581,” commissioned from him by the Academy of Arts, is still exhibited at the Tretyakov Gallery today. Bryullov had to paint this picture in order to become a full member of the academy. He, the author Last day Pompeii,” took this demand with offense. Was there any need to confirm his skill? But the conservative academy insisted on creating a picture on a given topic. Bryullov got to work. It lasted from 1839 to 1843 and remained unfinished.
And although the canvas was painted under duress, it, like other works of Bryullov, is perfect. In the center of the composition - procession, which, according to legend, stopped the faltering defenders of Pskov. Since the painting is unfinished, the middle of it looks almost impressionistic. The feeling of the divine, unearthly, which is carried by the church ministers who came out to support the townspeople, intensifies.
In the picture there is also Ivan Petrovich Shuisky, who led the defense of Pskov, and the local governor Andrei Ivanovich Khvorostinin, and the governor Khrushchev. These were worthy people, very brave, who showed amazing personal qualities. They were not broken even by the understanding that Stefan Batory himself was standing with an army under the walls of the city.
It’s also amazing how much supplies there were in Pskov. The fact is that Ivan the Terrible did not send anyone or anything to help the city. In this case, this is not a reproach. He probably could not do this: the Livonian War depleted the forces of the Moscow state, and many troops were engaged in other theaters of military operations. But the sources note that in Pskov there was a huge supply of nuclei, moreover, they were cast; there was a lot of gunpowder, the artillery was amazing.
During the siege of the city, the besiegers suffered almost as much as the besieged, especially considering the Russian frost.
In addition, the army of Stefan Batory gradually despaired and became demoralized. And the commander-in-chief himself began to understand that here he did not have to expect great glory. And he left from near Pskov, left on his own, leaving the army and agreeing to peace negotiations.
Peace was concluded in Yam Zapolsky on January 15, 1582. Stefan Batory was not a complete winner in this war, although in Poland he was considered a triumphant king. Indeed, as a result of the war, Livonia went to him. But we must not forget that the city of Pskov was also the winner.
IN last years During his life, Stefan Batory carried out noticeable changes within his state. Thus, he improved the judicial system, meeting the aspirations of the Polish gentry. He founded an academy in Vilnius - the future university. And today a memorial plaque at Vilnius University reminds of this. He encouraged development school education. In this regard, he supported the Jesuits, in whom, however, he was later disappointed.
Batory was a significant ruler. He made many plans. He was preparing to fight against the Turks and, apparently, intended to make a new campaign in Muscovy.
His endeavors were interrupted by his sudden death. In 1586, a year after the death of Ivan the Terrible, Stefan Batory suddenly fell ill and soon died. There were rumors about poisoning, but they were not confirmed. But, one way or another, with the death of Stefan Batory, one of the pages was turned in the difficult relations between the countries of Central Europe and Rus'.
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