N. Vinogradova, O. Prokofiev
The culture of India is one of the oldest cultures of mankind, continuously developing over several millennia. During this time, numerous peoples inhabiting the territory of India created highly artistic works of literature and art. Many of these works belong to the ancient period of Indian history, spanning the period of time from the 3rd millennium BC. 5th century AD Geographically, India is divided into southern India - the Hindustan Peninsula - and northern India, which occupies the basin of the Indus and Ganges rivers and adjacent areas. In the northern part of India, in the fertile valleys of large rivers, culture mainly developed Ancient India.
The culture of Ancient India began to take shape already in the 3rd millennium BC, during the period of the decomposition of the primitive communal system and the formation of class society. As in other countries of the Ancient East, in India the process of formation of the slave system was slow. Remnants of primitive communal relations in India survived until the Middle Ages.
The art of Ancient India in its development was connected with other artistic cultures Ancient world: from Sumer to China. In the visual arts and architecture of India (especially in the first centuries AD), features of a connection with art appeared Ancient Greece, as well as with the art of Central Asia; the latter, in turn, adopted many of the achievements of Indian culture.
The first works of Indian art known to us date back to the Neolithic period. Archaeological finds made in the Indus Valley have revealed ancient cultures dating back to 2500 - 1500 BC. BC.; the most important of them was discovered in the settlements of Mohenjo-Daro (in Sindh) and Harappa (in Punjab) and dates back to the Bronze Age. Society of that time was at the level of early class relations. The discovered monuments indicate the development of handicraft production, the presence of writing, as well as trade relations with other countries.
Excavations begun in 1921 revealed cities with a strict street layout that ran parallel from east to west and from north to south. Cities were surrounded by walls, buildings were built 2-3 floors high, made of baked brick, plastered with clay and plaster. The ruins of palaces, public buildings and pools for religious ablutions have been preserved; the drainage system of these cities was the most advanced in the ancient world.
Bronze castings, jewelry and applied arts found in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are distinguished by great craftsmanship. Numerous seals from Mohenjo-Daro with skillful carvings indicate the similarity of the Indus Valley culture with the culture of Mesopotamia during the time of Sumer and Akkad, with which, apparently, Ancient India was connected by trade relations. The images carved on the seals are extremely reminiscent of the Sumerian mythological hero Gilgamesh fighting beasts. On the other hand, they already showed many iconographic features that were later developed in Indian art. Thus, one of the seals depicts a three-faced deity, whose head is crowned with steeply curved horns. Around him are depicted a deer, a rhinoceros, a buffalo, an elephant and other animals considered sacred. This many-faced deity is a prototype of the Brahmanical Shiva in one of his guises as the patron of animals. It is assumed that the female figures found in the excavations represented the goddess of fertility, whose image was subsequently associated with the Brahman “Yakshini” - the spirits of fertility.
The images of animals on the seals are made very subtly and with great observation: a mountain goat with long horns turning its head abruptly, a heavily walking elephant, a majestically standing sacred bull, etc. Unlike animals, the images of people on the seals are conventional.
Two figurines depicting: one, apparently, a priest (found in Mohenjo-Daro) and the other, a dancer (found in Harappa), are also characteristic of ancient artistic culture. The figurine of a priest, probably intended for cult purposes, is made of white soapstone and executed with a great degree of conventionality. The clothing covering the entire body is decorated with shamrocks, possibly representing magic signs. The face with very large lips, a conventionally depicted short beard, a receding forehead and oblong eyes lined with pieces of shells, is reminiscent of Sumerian sculptures dating back to the same period. The figure of a dancer from Harappa, made of gray slate, the male torso of red stone and individual sculpted heads found in Mohenjo-Daro are distinguished by their great plasticity and softness of modeling, conveying free and rhythmic movement. These features connect the art of this time with Indian sculpture of subsequent periods.
The ceramic products found in Mohenjo-Daro are very diverse. Shiny polished vessels were covered with ornaments that combined animal and plant motifs: conventionally executed images of birds, fish, snakes, goats and antelopes among plants. Usually the painting was done with black paint on a red background. Multi-colored ceramics were less common.
The culture of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa died in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. as a result of the invasion of the Indus Valley by the Aryan tribes, who were at a lower stage of development and mixed with the indigenous population of the country. The subsequent period is known to us mainly from the oldest literary monument of India - the Vedas, the creation of which dates back to the 2nd millennium BC. In hymns addressed to the gods, the Vedas convey religious and philosophical ideas, depict the life and way of life of the Aryans who inhabited the territory of Punjab and the tribes surrounding them. The gods described in the Vedas personified natural phenomena; descriptions of nature in Vedic hymns are filled with deep poetic feeling. People talk to the nature they animate, endowing it with divine qualities. “From the middle of the airy sea come the younger sisters of the ocean, pure, never resting; lightning-fast Indra-tur paved the way for them; May these divine waters have mercy on me,” says one of the hymns of the Rigveda, the oldest part of the Vedas. The Vedas contain some information about the architecture of that time. The villages of Indian tribes consisted of wooden buildings that were round in plan with a hemispherical roof and were planned like the cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa; their streets intersected at right angles and were oriented along the four cardinal points.
At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. the growth of productive forces in connection with the use of iron tools accelerated the development of slave relations in Ancient India. States arose in the form of slave-owning despotisms characteristic of the Ancient East, in which supreme power was concentrated in the hands of the ruler, and land was considered state property. The basis of agriculture was patriarchal small communities built on a combination of crafts and agriculture; in the 1st millennium BC slave labor was also used in these communities. However, in India, slavery did not reach the developed forms characteristic of ancient states, due to the stability of the primitive communal way of life. The latter undoubtedly contributed to the constancy and continuity of traditions both in religion and in art.
In northern India, the largest state was Magadha, which owned almost the entire Ganges valley. At this time, the ideology of Brahmanism, which differed from the Vedic one in a more clearly expressed class character, was established and became dominant. The Brahman religion, which arose at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, sanctified the division of society into varnas - groups that differed in their position in society, and asserted the privileges of priests and military nobility.
The Brahmins used and supplemented the main circle of deities that existed in ancient beliefs. These deities: Brahma - the creator, Vishnu - the protector and Shiva - the destroyer, the god Indra - the patron of royal power with a host of other gods, spirits and geniuses - became permanent images in the subsequent art of India.
Literary sources describe something dating back to the 1st millennium BC. construction of cities divided into four parts according to the division of the population into varnas. The buildings in the cities were mainly wooden; little stone was used. The development of architecture of this time can give an idea following description in the Mahabharata: “It [the stadium for games and competitions] was surrounded on all sides by country palaces, skillfully built, high, like the peak of Mount Kailash. The palaces were equipped with pearl nets [instead of windows] and decorated with floors of precious stones, which were connected to stairs that were easy to climb, and were furnished with seats and covered with carpets... They had hundreds of spacious doors. They shone with boxes and seats. Finished in many parts with metal, they resembled the peaks of the Himalayas.”
The most important monuments of Indian artistic culture of the 1st millennium BC. are the epic works “Mahabharata” and “Ramayana”, which most fully and vividly embodied ancient Indian mythology, which was the basis of Indian art for many centuries.
In the epics "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana" realistic descriptions of the nature and life of the ancient Indians are closely intertwined with incredible fantastic adventures and amazing exploits of countless mythological heroes. Gods, spirits, demons, endowed with extraordinary strength and power, inhabit the rich tropical nature, full of fabulous abundance, and personify its powers. In the mountains, forests and seas live poisonous Nagas - half-snakes - half-humans, giant elephants and turtles, tiny dwarfs with superhuman strength, fantastic monster deities like Garuda - a giant bird born of a woman. The extraordinary feats of Garuda are described in the Mahabharata as follows: “And he saw fire from everywhere. Shining brightly, it covered the sky on all sides with its rays. It was terrible and, driven by the wind, it seemed like it was going to burn the sun itself. Then the noble Garuda, having created ninety times ninety mouths, quickly drank many rivers with the help of those lips and returned there with terrible speed. And the punisher of the enemies, who had wings instead of a chariot, filled the rivers with blazing fire.”
The rich nature of India is described in myths and legends with vivid imagery. “The king of the mountains shuddered from the gusts of wind... and, covered with bent trees, it rained flowers. And the peaks of that mountain, sparkling with precious stones and gold and adorning the great mountain, scattered in all directions. Numerous trees, broken by that branch, shone with golden colors, like clouds pierced by lightning. And those trees, strewn with gold, uniting with the rocks as they fell, seemed there as if colored by the rays of the sun" (Mahabharata).
Both Garuda and Naga, and numerous heroes of the ancient Indian epic, such as, for example, the five Pandava brothers, born by the wives of King Pandu from the gods, with their hyperbolic strength and often fantastic appearance, found their diverse reflection in the art of India.
Works visual arts from the end of the 2nd to the middle of the 1st millennium BC. not preserved. But a fairly complete picture of the art of Ancient India is given by monuments starting from the period of the Maurya dynasty (322 - 185 BC). In India, repelling the Greco-Macedonian conquest, a powerful slave state was created, occupying most of the country (with the exception of the southernmost part of the Deccan), from Kabul and Nepal in the north to the Tamil states in the south. The unification of the country into one large centralized state was begun by Chandragupta (about 322 - 320 BC) and completed by Ashoka (272 - 232 BC).
This period is characterized by the construction of cities and roads. According to descriptions of literary sources, wooden buildings The rulers were distinguished by great pomp. The palace of King Ashoka, the most powerful of the rulers of the Maurya dynasty, was located in the capital of Magadha, Pataliputra, and was a wooden building of several floors, standing on a stone foundation and having 80 sandstone columns. The palace was richly decorated with sculpture and carvings. An idea of its façade can be obtained from a relief made around the 1st century. AD, kept in the Mathura Museum. On three floors, one above the other, there were huge halls, lavishly decorated with paintings, precious stones, gold and silver images of plants and animals, etc. A long row of keel-shaped arches stretched along the facade, alternating with balconies on pillars. Gardens with fountains and pools descended in terraces from the palace to the Ganges.
Pataliputra, according to the Greek historian (of Roman times) Arrian, who retold the unpreserved work of Megasthenes, was the largest and richest city in India at that time. Around the city there was a wide moat and a wooden wall with 570 towers and 64 gates more than 20 km long. The houses were mostly wooden, two- and three-story.
During the reign of Ashoka, the state achieved significant economic and cultural prosperity. Foreign and domestic trade developed greatly, and relations were established with the countries of southern India, Egypt and Syria. This time is characterized by a significant strengthening of slave relations. The number of slaves increased and the slave trade grew. Huge wealth was concentrated in the hands of the ruling elite.
The protest against the oppression of the despotic state was reflected in the emergence of various philosophical and religious teachings that opposed Brahmanism. One of these teachings was Buddhism, which, according to legend, arose in the 6th century. BC. and became widespread in the 3rd century. BC. According to legend, the founder of this teaching, Sidhartha Gautama, was the son of an influential prince who lived in northeastern India in the 6th century. BC. Seeing the suffering of people, at the age of 29 he left the palace, leaving his wife and son, and began to preach a new teaching calling for universal equality of people, submission to fate and promising salvation in the afterlife. Through long wanderings, suffering and reincarnation, Gautama achieved nirvana (that is, the cessation of reincarnation and liberation from suffering) and began to be called Buddha, that is, “enlightened.” Buddhism became widespread among the broad masses. At the same time, he also had support among the ruling classes. For the slave-owning military nobility, it became a weapon in the fight against the old Brahman priesthood, which claimed an exclusive position in the state, supported tribal fragmentation in the country and interfered with the development of socio-economic relations. Under King Ashoka, Buddhism was declared the state religion.
The emergence of Buddhism led to the emergence of stone religious buildings that served to propagate its ideas. Under Ashoka, numerous temples and monasteries were built, Buddhist moral precepts and sermons were carved out. These religious buildings made extensive use of already established architectural traditions. The sculptures that decorated the temples reflected ancient legends, myths and religious ideas; Buddhism absorbed almost the entire pantheon of Brahman deities.
One of the main types of Buddhist religious monuments were stupas. The ancient stupas were hemispherical structures made of brick and stone, devoid of internal space, in appearance dating back to the most ancient burial hills. The stupa was erected on a round base, along the top of which a circular walk was made. At the top of the stupa a cubic “house of God” or a reliquary made of precious metal (gold, etc.) was placed. Above the reliquary rose a rod topped with descending umbrellas - symbols of the noble origin of the Buddha. The stupa symbolized nirvana. The purpose of the stupa was to store sacred relics. Stupas were built in places associated, according to legend, with the activities of Buddha and Buddhist saints. The earliest and most valuable monument is the stupa at Sanchi, built under Ashoka in the 3rd century. BC, but in the 1st century. BC. expanded and surrounded by a stone fence with 4 gates. The total height of the stupa in Sanchi is 16.5 m, and to the end of the rod 23.6 m, the diameter of the base is 32.3 m. Laconicism and monumentality of heavy and powerful forms are characteristic of both this monument and, in general, the religious architecture of the Maurya period. The stupa at Sanchi is built of brick and externally faced with stone, on which a layer of plaster was originally applied with engraved reliefs of Buddhist content. At night the stupa was illuminated with lamps.
Close in shape to the stupa in Sanchi Tuparama-Dagoba, built in the 3rd century. BC. in Anuradhapura on the island of Ceylon, where art close to it developed in parallel with India. The Ceylon stupas, called dagoba, had a slightly more elongated bell-shaped shape. Tuparama-Dagoba is a massive stone structure with a high, pointed upward stone spire.
The stone fence around the stupa in Sanchi was created like an ancient wooden one, and its gates were oriented along the four cardinal points. The stone gates in Sanchi are completely covered with sculpture; there is almost no place where the stone remains smooth. This sculpture resembles wood and ivory carving, and it is no coincidence that the same folk craftsmen worked as stone, wood and bone carvers in Ancient India. The gate consists of two massive pillars carrying three crossbars crossing them at the top, located one above the other. On the last upper crossbar there were figures of guardian geniuses and Buddhist symbols, for example a wheel - a symbol of Buddhist preaching. The figure of Buddha was not yet depicted during this period.
The scenes decorating the gate are dedicated to the Jatakas - legends from the life of Buddha, which reworked the myths of Ancient India. Each relief is a whole big story, in which all the characters are depicted with detail and care. The monument, like the sacred books, was supposed to illuminate as fully as possible the cult it served. Therefore, all the events related to the life of the Buddha are told in such detail. Living images made in sculpture are not only religious symbols, but embody the versatility and richness of Indian folk fantasy, examples of which have been preserved for us in literature by the Mahabharata. Individual reliefs on the gate are genre scenes telling about the life of the people. Along with Buddhist subjects, ancient deities of India are also depicted. On the northern gate in the upper stripe there is a scene of elephants worshiping a sacred tree. Heavy figures of elephants are slowly approaching the sacred tree from both sides. Their trunks seem to swing, twist and reach towards the tree, creating a smooth rhythmic movement. Integrity and mastery of compositional design, as well as a living sense of nature, are characteristic of this relief. Lush large flowers and creeping plants are carved on the pillars. Legendary monsters (Garuda, etc.) are placed next to images of real animals, mythological scenes and Buddhist symbols. The figures are presented either in flat relief, sometimes in high relief, sometimes barely visible, sometimes in volume, which creates a rich play of light and shadow. Massive figures of elephants, standing four on each side, like Atlanteans, carry the heavy mass of the gate.
The sculptural figures of girls swinging on branches - “Yakshini”, spirits of fertility - placed in the side parts of the gate are unusually poetic. Art during this period made great strides forward from primitive and conventional ancient forms. This is manifested primarily in incomparably greater realism, plasticity and harmony of forms. The whole appearance of the Yakshini, their rough and big hands and legs, decorated with numerous massive bracelets, strong, round, very high breasts, strongly developed hips emphasize the physical strength of these girls, as if drunk with the juices of nature, elastically swinging on the branches. The branches that the young goddesses grab with their hands bend under the weight of their bodies. The movements of the figures are beautiful and harmonious. These female images, endowed with vital, folk features, are constantly found in the myths of Ancient India and are compared with a flexible tree or a young, vigorous shoot, since they embody the powerful creative forces of deified nature. A sense of elemental power is inherent in all images of nature in Mauryan sculpture.
The second type of monumental religious buildings were stambhas - monolithic stone pillars, usually completed with a capital topped with a sculpture. Edicts and Buddhist religious and moral injunctions were carved on the pillar. The top of the pillar was decorated with a lotus-shaped capital bearing sculptures of symbolic sacred animals. Such pillars of earlier periods are known from ancient images on seals. The pillars erected under Ashoka are decorated with Buddhist symbols and, according to their purpose, should fulfill the task of glorifying the state and promoting the ideas of Buddhism. Thus, four lions, connected by their backs, support a Buddhist wheel on a Sarnath pillar. The Sar Nath capital is made of polished sandstone; all images made on it reproduce traditional Indian motifs. On the abacus there are relief figures of an elephant, horse, bull and lion, symbolizing the cardinal points. The animals on the relief are depicted vividly, their poses are dynamic and free. The figures of lions at the top of the capital are more conventional and decorative. Being the official symbol of power and royal grandeur, they differ significantly from the reliefs at Sanchi.
During the reign of Ashoka, the construction of Buddhist cave temples began. Buddhist temples and monasteries were carved directly into rock masses and sometimes represented large temple complexes. The austere, majestic premises of the temples, usually divided by two rows of columns into three naves, were decorated with round sculpture, stone carvings and paintings. Inside the temple there was a stupa located in the depths of the chaitya, opposite the entrance. Several small cave temples have survived from Ashoka's time. The architecture of these temples, as well as other stone structures of the Maurya period, was influenced by traditions wooden architecture(mainly in the processing of facades). This is the entrance to one of the most ancient cave temples of Lomas Rishi in Barabara, built around 257 BC. On the facade, the keel-shaped arch above the entrance, the projections of the beams and even the openwork lattice carving are reproduced in stone. At Lomas Rishi, above the entrance, in a narrow space of the belt, located in a semicircle, there is a relief image of elephants worshiping stupas. Their heavy figures with rhythmic and soft movements are reminiscent of the reliefs of the gates in Sanchi, created two centuries later.
Further development of the interior, still poorly developed in the Lomas Rishi temple, led to the creation of large cave temples - chaityas in the 2nd - 1st centuries. BC. The most significant are the chaityas in Bhaja, Kondana, Ajanta Nazik. In them the early type of cave temple crystallized, which found its best expression in the chaitya at Karli.
Chaitya originally borrowed individual elements wooden architecture, which was reflected not only in the repetition of architectural forms, but also in the inserted wooden parts. At the same time, the nature of the room carved into the rocks, the peculiar connection between sculpture and architecture gave rise to a completely new type of architecture, which existed in India for about a thousand years.
The most significant artistically is the chaitya in Karli of the 1st century. BC. . The majestic interior of the chaitya is decorated with two rows of columns. Octagonal monolithic columns with plump faceted capitals are completed with symbolic sculptural groups of kneeling elephants with male and female figures seated on them. The light entering through the keel-shaped window illuminates the chaitya. Previously, the light was scattered by rows of wooden ornamental gratings, which further enhanced the atmosphere of mystery. But even now, speaking in the twilight, the columns seem to be approaching the viewer. The current corridors are so narrow that there is almost no space left behind the columns. The walls of the vestibule in front of the entrance to the inner chamber of the chaitya are decorated with sculpture. At the foot of the walls there are massive figures of sacred elephants, executed in very high relief. Having passed through this part of the temple, which seemed to initiate the story of the life of Buddha and prepare a certain prayerful mood, pilgrims found themselves in the mysterious, dim space of the sanctuary with shiny walls and floors, polished like glass, in which reflections of light were reflected. The Chaitya at Karli is one of the finest architectural structures of India from this period. It clearly demonstrated the originality of ancient art and character traits iconic Indian architecture. The sculpture of cave temples usually serves as a harmonious complement to the architectural details of the facade, capitals, etc. A striking example of the decorative sculpture of cave temples is the aforementioned design of the chaitya capitals, which forms a kind of frieze over a number of columns of the hall.
The next period in the history of Indian art covers the 1st - 3rd centuries. AD and is associated with the rise of the Indo-Scythian state of Kushan, which occupied the northern part of central India, Central Asia and the territory of Chinese Turkestan. During this period, India conducted extensive trade and established close cultural relations with the Western world. Literary sources describe a large number of different goods and luxury items that these countries exchanged among themselves. The art of Gandhara (the present-day territory of Punjab and Afghanistan), which is most closely associated with the culture of the ancient world, has unique features.
The Buddhist subjects of Gandhara sculptures and sculptural reliefs that decorated the walls of monasteries and temples are very diverse and occupy a special place in Indian art. Iconographic features, compositional techniques and images developed in Gandhara, which later became widespread in the countries of the Far East and Central Asia.
The image of Buddha in the form of a man was new, which had not been seen before in Indian art. At the same time, in the image of Buddha and other Buddhist deities, the idea of an ideal personality was embodied, whose appearance harmoniously combines physical beauty and an exalted spiritual state of peace and clear contemplation. The sculpture of Gandhara organically merged some features of the art of Ancient Greece with the rich, full-blooded images and traditions of ancient India. An example is the relief of the Calcutta Museum depicting Indra's visit to the Buddha in the Bodhgaya cave. As in a similar scene on the Sanchi reliefs, Indra and his retinue approach the cave, folding their hands in prayer; the narrative genre scene around the figure of Buddha also has a character inherent in earlier sculptures in India. But, unlike the composition in Sanchi, the central place in the Calcutta relief is occupied by the calm and majestic figure of Buddha, sitting in a niche, with his head surrounded by a halo. The folds of his clothes do not hide his body and resemble the clothes of the Greek gods. Various animals are depicted around the niche, symbolizing the solitude of the hermitage. The significance of the image of the Buddha is emphasized by the immobility of the pose, the severity of the proportions, and the lack of connection between the figure and the surroundings.
In other images, Gandhara artists interpreted the image of a human deity even more freely and vitally. Such, for example, is the statue of Buddha from the Berlin Museum, made of bluish slate. The figure of the Buddha is wrapped in a robe reminiscent of a Greek himation and descending in wide folds to his feet. The Buddha's face with regular features, a thin mouth and a straight nose expresses calmness. There is nothing in his face or posture that would indicate the cultic nature of the statue.
Even less connected with the religious traditional form is the knocking statue from Gadda (Afghanistan), depicting a genius with flowers. The genius with a thin hand holds the hem of a garment filled with delicate flower petals. Soft folds of fabric envelop his body, leaving his chest, adorned with a necklace, bare. Heavy, large curls of hair frame a rounded face with thin eyebrows and an expressive, deep and spiritual look. The whole figure of the genius is full of harmony, imbued with light and free movement.
Among the monuments of the Kushan period, a special place belongs to portrait statues, in particular sculptures of rulers. Statues of rulers were often placed outside architectural structures, as free-standing monuments. These statues recreate the characteristic features of their appearance and accurately reproduce all the details of their clothing. Among such portrait statues is the figure of Kanishka (who ruled the Kushan kingdom in 78 - 123 AD), found in the Mathura district. The king is depicted in a tunic reaching to the knees and belted with a belt; Longer clothing is worn on top of the tunic. On the feet are soft boots with ties. Sometimes individual cult images were given portrait features, as can be seen in the statue of Avalokiteshvara.
The heroes of the ancient Indian epic, just as before, continue to occupy a significant place in the art of this period. But, as a rule, they are endowed with other features. Their images are more sublime; their figures are distinguished by harmony and clarity of proportions.
The broad connection of Indian culture with the cultures of other countries is manifested not only in the art of Gandhara. The same features characterize the monuments of the Mathura school, which coexisted with Gandhara art. As an example of such monuments, one can cite a sculpture from the 2nd century. AD, depicting the snake king Naga. His naked body is unusually plastic, his strong chest is straightened, his entire torso is in strong but smooth movement. The soft bandage around the hips, falling in a wide loop, forms a series of deep folds, as if flying apart from strong movement. The powerful figure of the snake king combines the harmony of Greek sculpture with the traditionally Indian emphasis on richness, plasticity of forms and the transmission of a smooth rhythm of movement that is continuous in nature.
In the architecture of India, dating back to the 1st - 3rd centuries. AD, changes occur towards more decorative forms. Brick becomes the building material. The stupa takes on a more elongated shape, losing its former monumentality. It is usually built on a high cylindrical platform with stairs and decorated with sculptures of Buddha. The platform and stupa, as well as the surrounding fence, are covered with decorative carvings and numerous bas-relief images on themes taken mainly from the Jatakas - legends of the Buddha. One of the outstanding examples of architecture of this period was the famous stupa in Amaravati (2nd century). The stupa has not survived, but it can be judged by a number of reliefs of the fence depicting the stupa. Reliefs on Buddhist subjects are distinguished by the bold dynamics of compositional techniques and the realism of individual figures. A striking example is the surviving fragments of relief on the fence of the stupa.
The last major unification of India during the slave period occurred in the 4th century. AD in connection with the emergence of a powerful state of the Gupta dynasty (320 - mid-5th century AD). With the unification of the country, a new rise in culture began in India. During the Gupta period, feudal relations began to emerge; There was a transition from varnas to a more rigid caste system, which received final development in the era of feudalism. Significant changes have also occurred in the religious ideology of India. Buddhism adopted the Brahmanical doctrine of the innate belonging of people to various varnas and castes. The importance of Brahmanism increased again, justifying the division of society into castes and gradually absorbing Buddhism. The new religion served as a powerful means of strengthening the emerging feudal system and contributed to the enslavement and enslavement of the people. During the period of its power, the Gupta state occupied a vast territory: its possessions included Malwa, Gujarat, Punjab, Nepal, etc. Neighboring countries were also directly dependent. Large funds flowing from taxes and trade relations with other countries were spent on the construction of palaces and temples, on the promotion of science, which reached great prosperity during the Gupta period; this was the last stage in the development of literature and art of the slave society, which at the same time reflected the formation new aesthetic views.
The Gupta period saw the emergence of significant works of literature closely associated with the excellence of the old art of India. The greatest Indian poet of this time, Kalidasa, created the wonderful poem “Meghaduta”, full of deep humanity, the drama “Sakuntala” and other works where the joyful beating of life and a living sense of nature are felt. The creation of one of the most outstanding monuments of the artistic culture of Ancient India - the paintings of the Ajanta temples - also dates back to this time.
During the Gupta period, work on the architectural treatise “Manasara” was completed, which collected and recorded the traditional rules of past centuries. The layout of cities reflected the caste division: the lower caste settled far beyond the city fence.
In religious architecture, stupas and cave temples are still created, but other above-ground structures are also becoming widespread. Similar stone buildings dating back to the 4th - 5th centuries are small and slender in proportion. The best example is temple No. 17 in Sanchi, distinguished by its special grace and harmony. Another type of temple is characterized by a keeled or flat stepped roof. The smooth walls are decorated with pilasters and stone carvings. This is the temple in Aihole, built around 450.
A special type of brick tower-shaped temple also appears in northern India. An example of this kind of building is the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya or the Temple of the “Great Enlightenment” (built around the 5th century and later heavily rebuilt), dedicated to Buddha and representing a kind of reworking of the stupa form. Before the reconstruction, the temple looked like a high truncated pyramid, divided from the outside into nine decorative tiers. At the top there was a “khti” reliquary, topped with a spire with symbolic umbrellas descending upward. The base of the tower was a high platform with a ladder. The tiers of the temple were decorated with niches, pilasters and sculptures depicting Buddhist symbols. Inner space The temple is almost undeveloped. But on the outside, each tier is divided into a number of decorative niches; information has also been preserved about the bright coloring of individual parts. In general, in the architecture of the late 5th - 6th centuries. There is an increase in decorativeness, and there is a certain overload of external walls with sculptural decor and small carvings. However, at the same time, the clarity of architectonics is still preserved, which was mostly lost in the architecture of feudal India.
The desire for exuberant luxury and refinement, anticipating the future feudal art of India, also appears in the visual arts. Official religious requirements and strict canons have already left the mark of abstract idealization and convention on it, especially in the sculptural images of Buddha. Such, for example, is a statue from the museum in Sarnath (5th century AD), distinguished by virtuosity in stone processing and frozen ideal beauty. The Buddha is depicted sitting with his hand raised upward in a ritual gesture of instruction - “mudra”. On his face with heavy eyelids lowered down is a thin, impassive smile. A large openwork halo, supported on both sides by perfume, frames his head. The pedestal depicts Buddha's followers flanking the symbolic wheel of the law. The image of Buddha is subtle and cold, it does not have that living warmth that is generally characteristic of the art of Ancient India. The Sarnath Buddha is very different from the Gandharan images in that it is more abstract and dispassionate.
The huge copper statue of Buddha from Sultangaj, dating back to the 5th century, is interpreted in the same spirit. A standing figure with regular but dry facial features seems motionless and frozen. This figure, executed in a generalized and schematic manner, lacks the vital expressiveness and dynamism of early Indian sculptures. The large figure of a seated Buddha in Anuradhapura (Ceylon) of the 4th - 5th centuries is distinguished by greater simplicity and humanity. The two-meter statue is installed directly in the open air. The monumentality and simplicity of the overall plastic solution are in remarkable harmony with the subtle psychological interpretation of the image, expressing deep peace of mind and wisdom.
One of the best artistic ensembles that were created in the period from the 3rd century. BC. and until the 7th century. AD There were Buddhist Ajanta temples located in central India (present-day Bombay province). The most prominent of them were created during the Gupta period. Ajanta was a kind of monastery-university where monks lived and studied, and served as a place of pilgrimage not only for Indians, but also for Buddhists from many countries, including the Chinese. The Ajanta temples (29 caves in total) are carved into the almost vertical cliffs of a picturesque valley above the Waghora River bending below.
The facades of the cave temples, dating back to the Gupta period, are lavishly decorated with sculpture. Countless Buddha statues, executed in high relief, fill the niches of the walls. The space between the large sculptures is covered with carvings and images of the Buddha's disciples and companions. In addition to Buddhist subjects, in Ajanta temples there are sculptures on traditional subjects. These include the image of the snake king Nagaraj, placed in a niche in one of the interior rooms of temple No. 19 (6th century). The king is represented sitting next to his wife. His heavy and massive figure occupies a central place in the composition. The head, wearing a jeweled crown, is surrounded by a traditional halo consisting of seven cobras. The body is covered with jewelry. He sits in a lively, free pose, looking thoughtfully into space. Nearby is the figure of the queen, depicted as small and less majestic in comparison; this sculpture, like other monumental monuments of Ajanta, is made with great plastic skill. Placed in niches or simply near the walls, large figures of deities and spirits, goddesses with steeply curved hips and huge breasts, protruding from the darkness of the temple, were perceived by the viewer as formidable and powerful forces of a mysterious and fabulous nature. In the sculptural monuments of Ajanta, one can see the development of past traditions both in the content and in the interpretation of images, but here these images appear much more mature in skill, freer and more perfect in form.
The interiors of the Ajanta temples are covered almost entirely with monumental paintings. In these paintings, the masters who worked on them expressed with great force the richness, fabulousness and poetic beauty of their artistic fantasy, which managed to embody living human feelings and various phenomena of real life in India. The paintings cover the entire ceiling and walls. Their subjects are legends from the life of Buddha, intertwined with ancient Indian mythological scenes. Images of people, flowers and birds, animals and plants are painted with great skill. From the rough and powerful images of the Ashoka period, art evolved to spirituality, softness and emotionality. The image of Buddha, given many times in his reincarnations, is surrounded by many genre scenes that are essentially secular in nature. The paintings are full of the most vivid and direct observations and provide rich material for studying the life of Ancient India.
Cave Temple No. 17 depicts Buddha meeting his wife and son. His white-robed figure stands in a sacred white lotus flower. The Buddha's face is calm and thoughtful, in his hands is a beggar's cup. Above him is a genius holding an umbrella - a symbol of royal origin, from which openwork light white flowers hang over the figure of Buddha.
The convention of the image is manifested in the fact that the figure of Buddha - the “Great Teacher” - is shown to be huge in comparison with the figures of his wife and son, who are depicted small in front of him, ordinary people looking up at him. This painting is characterized by simplicity, harmony and calm clarity. The figures of the wife and son are filled with direct human experience and spiritual warmth. There are other genre images in this temple. This is a series of everyday and mythological scenes. Eight paintings located near the central door show people in their home life. One of these paintings depicts a young boy and girl sitting on the floor. A young man brings a flower to a girl. The naked bodies of both are unusually plastic and voluminous. The artist convincingly showed the physical beauty of the elastic, full of strength and soft harmony of the human body and the gentle and lively expressions of faces.
An excellent example of the skill of the Ajanta painters is the famous figure of the bowed girl from Temple No. 2, full of grace, elegance and tender femininity. The face of the Bodisattva (the future Buddha who came to earth to save people) in the painting of grotto No. 1 is marked with spirituality. The Bodisattva in a high headdress occupies the main place in the composition. His face, with soft light shadows emphasizing the volume of his forms, is inclined towards his left shoulder. The oblong eyes are downcast, the eyebrows are raised high. In his hands he holds a sacred lotus flower. Both the face and posture express deep thoughtfulness. The Bodisattva, like most of the deities of Ajanta paintings, is strewn with flowers and strewn with jewelry. His image is unusually poetic and refined.
The painting in temple No. 17 depicts Indra flying, accompanied by musicians and celestial apsara maidens. The feeling of flight is conveyed by blue, white and pinkish clouds swirling against a dark background, among which Indra and his companions soar. The feet, hands and hair of Indra and the beautiful celestial maidens are decorated with jewels. The artist, striving to convey the spirituality and exquisite grace of the images of deities, depicted them with elongated half-closed eyes, outlined by thin lines of eyebrows, with a tiny mouth and a soft, rounded and smooth oval face. Indra and the heavenly maidens hold flowers in their thin curved fingers. Compared to the somewhat conventional and idealized figures of the gods, the servants and musicians in this composition are depicted in a more realistic manner, with lively, rough and expressive faces. The bodies of the people are painted in warm brown paint, only Indra is depicted as white-skinned. Dense and juicy dark green foliage of plants and bright spots of flowers give a major sonority to the color. A significant decorative role in Ajanta painting is played by the line, which sometimes runs clearly and clearly, sometimes softly, but invariably gives volume to the bodies. The beautiful sensual and tender female images of Ajanta find an analogy in the dramas of the brilliant poet and playwright of the Gupta period - Kalidasa.
Mythological, vivid and imaginative perception of nature, combined with storytelling in genre scenes (albeit on religious subjects) are characteristic of these paintings. Genre-based interpretation of religious subjects indicates a desire to connect ancient mythology with reality.
The paintings of the Sigiriya temples in Ceylon are closest in nature to the paintings of Ajanta. These paintings were created in rock caves at the end of the 5th century. They differ from the Ajanta paintings in being slightly more refined and sophisticated. The paintings depict celestial apsara maidens with their maidservants. Their half-naked bodies are decorated with necklaces and jewelry, and fancy headdresses are on their heads. Soft shadows convey the volumes of fragile, mobile female figures, although shown among the clouds, but completely earthly in their entire appearance.
The first large rock sculptures (in Udayagiri, 5th century, and other places) depicting Shiva and other deities of the Brahman religion date back to the time of the Gupta. These sculptures showed the pomp, clutter and heaviness already inherent in the art monuments of the time of feudalism in the 6th - 7th centuries. which finally replaced slave-owning relations in India.
The characteristic features of the entire ancient period of Indian art are strength and stability. folk traditions, always breaking through numerous religious layers both in the choice of subjects and in the content of many artistic images. In architecture for a long time The basic elements of wooden folk architecture dating back to ancient times are firmly preserved. In sculpture and painting, based on folk fantasy, humanized images of gods and heroes are created, full of charm, harmony and beauty, which have become traditional.
In the ancient art of India it is already possible to trace the division of art into a more official direction, subject to canonical rules, acquiring over time features of dryness and rigidity, and a realistic direction, genre-based in its aspirations, distinguished by humanity and vitality. This second direction received its most vivid expression in the Ajanta paintings.
The history of sculpture and painting in India is, in a sense, the history of great religious systems: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism. Since ancient times, the ultimate goal of the artist and sculptor has been to reveal to believers the truths of their religion. In this didactic function of Indian art one can see a close parallel to traditional art medieval Europe. In India there has never been anything analogous to the modern judgment of a work of art based on its aesthetic appeal. An Indian work of art was judged to be good only to the extent that it adequately fulfilled the function of a material symbol of the deity, and only if its execution was in accordance with the traditions of craftsmanship and canonical prescriptions.
Indus Valley Civilization(33002000 BC). This period, also called the Indo-Sumerian, is associated with the first great civilization that flourished in India in 3 thousand BC. Its main centers are Mohenjo-Daro in the lower reaches of the Indus and Harappa in Punjab (now both sites are located in Pakistan). Among the works of sculpture found during the excavations of these centers, one can distinguish those that show a close resemblance to the art of Mesopotamia, and those that are completely Indian in design. For example, on faience seals, found in huge quantities, many elements of Mesopotamian iconography are noticeable, while on carved amulets, figurines of animals, such as zebu or elephant, are completely Indian in the way they convey the most important features of the appearance of these animals - generalized images of this biological species.
Mauryan period(320185 BC).From the Indus Valley Civilization in 2000 BC. and until the founding of the Mauryan dynasty in 320 BC. no works of sculpture or painting have survived, with the exception of a few small objects made of terracotta and metal. Most of the monuments of the Mauryan period relate to Buddhist art; Under King Ashoka, Buddhism first received real political recognition. as in the period of the Indus Valley Civilization, the sculpture of this time can be divided into works dependent on foreign models and original Indian ones. Among the first are sandstone pillars or columns (many over 15 m high) that Ashoka installed at various places associated with the earthly life of the Buddha. Of these memorial pillars, one fragment is best preserved - the capital of a column that formerly stood in Sarnath, near Varanasi, the so-called. Lion capital (c. 243 BC). Its form and the clear heraldic nature of the carving have little in common with Indian art and are perceived as a direct continuation of the style of sculpture of the Iranian Achaemenid Empire.
Completely different from official art are examples of monumental sculpture of a purely Indian style, for example, the colossal statue of a yakshini (spirit of nature) from Parham. Such features as the colossal scale of the figure and the transmission of the bodily principle through the elastic, as if pneumatic tension of the surface, are exclusively Indian.
The period of the Sangas ("literary societies") and the early period of the Andhra state(c. 18525 BC). The main monuments of early Buddhist sculpture include the decorative frame of the gates and fences of Buddhist reliquaries - stupas in Bharhut and Sanchi. In Bharhut (2nd century BC), this frame includes images of nature spirits, who entered the ancient Indian pantheon in much the same way as pagan deities were assimilated into Christian art. The carved medallions on the crossbars and pillars of the stone fence are dominated by legends about previous incarnations of the Buddha. Both the very design of this sacred enclosure and the carving technique of the reliefs decorating it clearly indicate a repetition in stone of earlier prototypes in wood or ivory. The monumental enclosure of the stupa in Sanchi (1st century BC) is completely smooth, but the surface of the pillars and crossbars of the toran (gate) is completely covered with reliefs depicting scenes from the life of the Buddha and his previous incarnations. In the figures of yakshins, tree goddesses, decorating the finials of the gates, the sculptor expressed the energy of sensuality in the language of almost abstract stone carvings, conveying the rounded shapes of the body.
In earlier Buddhist art, the presence of the Buddha was indicated only by symbols, since it was believed that he, having crossed the brink of material existence and achieved nirvana, could not be represented in human form. The narrative compositions in Sanchi are made with in-depth carvings, creating an amazing pattern of combinations of light and shadow; these compositions form long rows, representing a rather archaic method of continuous storytelling.
Kushan period: Gandhara and Mathura(50450).The name of the period Kushan comes from the name of the people of Scythian origin who overthrew the last of the successors of Alexander the Great in Afghanistan and the Parthian satraps who ruled in northwestern India and the Punjab. In the northern province of the Kushan kingdom, Gandhara, which was previously part of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250-140 BC), in the first centuries AD. The so-called Greco-Buddhist art developed, which was a combination of Hellenistic forms, types and techniques borrowed from the eastern part of the Roman Empire, and Indian Buddhist iconography. The appearance in Gandhara of gray slate statues, which for the first time depicted Buddha in human form, should probably be explained by the influence of the anthropomorphic tradition of the Greco-Roman world. The way of depicting individual episodes from the life of the hero, combined into cycles of narrative compositions, the technique of deep relief and the abundance of decorative details indicate the closeness of Gandhara sculpture to the provincial schools of art of the Roman Empire. The special significance of Gandhara art lies in the “invention” of the image of Buddha and the creation of a stable iconography of scenes from his life.
In the southern capital of the Kushan kingdom, Mathura, due to its proximity to the ancient primordial centers of art, authentic Indian features predominated in the style of sculpture. The first actual Indian Buddha statues appeared in the 2nd century. AD; they were carved from the red sandstone characteristic of this region. The colossal scale of the statues, the rounded and energetic forms, the powerful sense of texture of the human body and sculptural mass all these features reaffirm stylistic and iconographic traditions dating back to the Mauryan period. The primordial Indian tradition also includes the provocatively sensual figures of the Yakshins that adorned the fence of the stupa in Mathura.
Late Andhra State Period(approx. 150300). In southern India, in the last centuries of the existence of the Andhra state, the flourishing of Buddhist culture was observed in the area of the Kistna River. The poorly preserved limestone reliefs that once adorned the stupa at Amaravati represent a style that, in its abundance of detail and vivid narrative treatment of the images, is only a more refined development of the technique of carved reliefs from Sanchi of the early Andhra period. The figures are full of refined elegance and languor, endowed with sensual charm, expressing the almost complete Indian ideal of beauty of the human body.
Gupta State Period(320600). It was the Gupta period, the time of the final political unification India was also a time of unification of style and iconography in art. The former Kushan capital at Mathura remained a center of Buddhist sculpture. In images of the 4th-5th centuries. the massive proportions and physicality of the early Kushan statues are combined with the Hellenistic draperies of the Gandhara school, which have become traditional, now likened to a pattern of loops, as if stuck to the body. The greatest masterpieces of this period are the Buddha statues carved at Sarnath (5th century). In them, draperies become a light, tight-fitting cover that fully reveals the outlines of the body. The high degree of precision of the carving and the almost abstract interpretation of the cylindrical shape of the torso and limbs emphasize the plasticity of the form. In this complete perfection of the religious image there is nothing from the reproduction of the human body from life; the sculptor drew inspiration from the very precise systems of proportions prescribed for the creation of sacred images. In the same way, the individual features of the statue are not an imitation of the corresponding parts of the human body, but are, as it were, transferred to the statue from the most perfect and complete forms of the animal or plant world, which were considered more adequate for depicting a supernatural being. According to this system, the eyes are given the shape of a lotus petal, the head takes on the perfect oval shape of an egg, the limbs are tapered like the trunk of an elephant, etc. The reliefs of the Gupta period in Mathura and Sarnath generally follow the iconography established in Greco-Buddhist art, but among them there are also purely Indian images.
Middle Ages(6001200). Buddhist sculpture 7th-11th centuries. known primarily from the cult images of the later esoteric sects that flourished in the Bengal Valley. The statues, carved from blue-black sandstone, are stereotypical and mannered renditions of the Gupta era ideal and are characterized by an abundance of carefully crafted detail; however, these works are completely devoid of the spirituality that transforms the masterpieces of Gupta sculpture.
The largest centers of Hindu art in the Middle Ages were in central and southern India. During the Pallava dynasty, which came to power in the 6th century, a gigantic relief was made Descent of the Ganges River to Earth in Mahabalipuram (7th century), with many life-size figures, completely covering a huge boulder on the seashore. This composition, not limited by any frame, evokes associations with Baroque sculpture; it seems that all forms arise from the rocky mass, just as all sentient beings, according to the Indians, appear from the universal substance of the Maya. The sophistication and languid grace of the figures are a direct continuation of the canons of the late Andhra period school. This style of dynamic baroque sculpture spread throughout India and reappeared in the reliefs of the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora (mid-8th century) and in one of the last masterpieces of Hindu rock sculpture, the high relief depiction of the great Trimurti in the cave temple on Elephanta Island near Bombay. The most significant achievement of Hindu sculpture on last stage Its development, in the 13th-17th centuries, should be considered copper figurines from southern India. The best of them are the Nataraja figurines, i.e. Shiva “God of Dance”, in which the endless destruction and re-creation of the world is embodied in plastic form. This abstract representation of the divine form reminds us that for the Indian the image of the deity was only a diagram or symbol that helped the believer to achieve inner union with the supernatural prototype.
INDIAN PAINTING The history of painting in India, as far as one can judge from references to it in written sources, dates back at least to the Mauryan period. During the Gupta period, painting was practiced by princes and nobility, as well as guilds of artists who worked to satisfy the needs of the cults of Buddhism and Hinduism. Indian painting was subject to the same set of regulations as sculpture.
The earliest surviving works of Indian painting, dating back to the 1st or 2nd centuries. BC, murals of the famous Buddhist temples of Ajanta in Hyderabad. Individual compositions form long friezes; like the Sanchi reliefs, the method of continuous storytelling is used here. Like other forms of Indian art and dance, painting depicts action through gesture rather than facial expressions. The Ajanta caves also contain paintings from the Gupta period, but the most famous are those from the 7th century. in Cave 1. As in early medieval sculpture, the composition of these paintings is not limited by any frames; they completely cover the entire wall. In individual images, the same combination of the sensual and abstract is manifested as in the masterpieces of sculpture of the early Gupta period and the Middle Ages. Late medieval painting can be judged mainly from illustrations of Jain manuscripts and the rather mannered works of the Gujarat miniature school of the 15th century. the last flowering of Indian painting - miniatures of the Rajput school of the 16th - early 19th centuries, among which illustrations for works of Hindu literature occupied an important place. These compositions evoke the splendor of ancient wall paintings; the true poetry of the narrative and drawing is echoed in the enamel purity of the colors.
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Painting
From literary sources we know that the palaces and houses of rich people were decorated with painting. Fine art was practiced by both upper-class men and women, as well as professional artists. Temples and other religious buildings were decorated with wall and easel paintings. The sculptures were covered with paint and gold. The surviving works of early Indian fine art date back to the 1st century. BC e. They can be found in one of the Ajanta cave temples.
Antelope image. Mamallapuram
The walls of this temple are painted with frescoes of Jataka subjects. As in Sanchi, they present a continuous narrative, individual episodes are not separated from each other by lines or frames. Elephants are drawn very realistically ( we're talking about about the incarnation of Buddha into an elephant, when he sacrificed his tusks), and foliage patterns and flowers are laid between the figures of elephants. Painting technique was quite highly developed. There was no method of perspective. In order to show distance and depth, objects and figures in the background were positioned higher than in the foreground. Artists widely used conventional images. Rocks, for example, were depicted as cubes, and mountains as cubes piled on top of each other.
The Ajanta frescoes depict the daily life of that time. Kings and princes, courtiers, and women from the harem pass before us. We see crowds of peasants, vagabonds, pilgrims and ascetics, various animals, birds and many flowers and other plants, garden and wild. Frescoes in the Ajanta style are also found on the walls of the cave temple at Bagh, 160 km north of Ajanta, as well as in other cave temples.
They made them as follows. The wall was covered with a layer of clay or cow dung mixed with chopped straw or animal hair, and then a layer of white clay or plaster was applied. After this, the artist painted the image with bright colors. At the end of the work, the surface was sanded to give it brightness and strength. In order to see better in the darkness of the cave, the artist used metal mirrors that reflected daylight. Painting at Ajanta continued until the 7th century.
Although manuals for artists appeared as early as the 1st century, the ideas that played a decisive role in the development of Indian painting were finally formulated only during the reign of the Guptas. The main work in which they were expounded is the Vishnudharmottaram. It details which images are suitable for palaces, temples and private homes. It emphasizes how important it is to express emotions through movement. Another work is a commentary on the Kama Sutra written by Yashodhara. It not only describes how to correctly express moods and feelings, maintain proportions and positions, but also gives recommendations on the preparation and selection of paints and how to use a brush. Of course, the artists who painted later frescoes used these tips. The mood is truly expressed through gestures or posture, and the figurines scattered on the walls create a deep sense of movement. These works depict life in the Gupta era accurately and authentically, and are therefore important sources for understanding the society of that time. However, of course, in addition to this, they reflect that view of national art and national genius, which was so clearly reflected in the masterpieces created during the reign of the Guptas.
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Each era is unique with its own special culture. Likewise, the art of India has been constantly changing over the centuries. Painting, architecture and sculpture developed in this country.
The development of art in the country of India
The art of India originates from prehistoric rock paintings. Overall, the elements are a pure reflection of the mentality of that country, making them more introspective. One of them is the idea of yoga about the importance of detachment from all distracting external influences and fleeting emotions. Therefore, the surrounding reality plays a secondary role in the country of India. The art of India is distinctive in that the emphasis in iconography is on the religious and metaphysical, even when ornaments, costumes, etc., borrow elements of modern life.
Features of the image of the surrounding world
Question about environment should be considered in the context of the country's aesthetics, which do not accept superficial naturalism, realism or illusion. What really matters is the “creation of truth,” which presupposes India to be very simple, because nature itself is created complex and intelligent, and only through signs and symbols has it become possible to express it. That's why the symbols play here decisive role. Simplicity from this point of view does not carry any derogatory meaning, which could be observed in decadent art. It comes down to the development of a number of techniques to express the true meaning of objects or objects that the artist and sculptor captured.
Methods of depicting the surrounding reality in art always, to a greater or lesser extent, reflect the modern views of a particular era. We are not talking about perspective here, but the techniques and means used to convey ideas to the audience, which were different in different periods of time, from an aesthetic point of view did not have any advantages over others in the country of India. Indian art is often very symbolic, especially in terms of conveying the nature of things.
Art of the 2nd century BC. - III century AD
In ancient art, during the 2nd century. BC. - III century AD, one can find a certain emphasis on Artists such as Amaravati, for example, tried to object to the surrounding reality. In their search through symbols, they sought to represent not only episodes from the life of the Buddha, but also, for example, the worship of Yakshas and trees, which was very common among the people of that period. But not all art was devoted to aspects of everyday life. Artists always strive to emphasize the fact that external natural phenomena can evoke only limited feelings. Nature, in their opinion, is rich in deep symbolic meanings. The art of ancient India is rich in traces of cosmology, which cannot be understood without reference to ancient Indian literature. Such features can be found up to the 6th century in the paintings of Ajanta and Bagh.
Indian culture VI - X centuries.
With the onset of the Gupta era, new elements began to appear. Artists lost interest in man, but began to show it in the gods and their habitat. And even with this shift in emphasis, they still paid attention to the everyday, although to a lesser extent. The depiction of nature has become more stereotypical. In the Vishnu Dharmottara Purana, written during this period, one can find a special section devoted to painting, which talks about how conventions should be observed. In the following centuries in art we can observe mainly only themes dedicated to the gods, and very little of the life current at that time.
Art of the X - XIV centuries.
After the 10th century, very few elements of nature and modern life can be found in Indian painting, as well as in Buddhist manuscripts. Ignoring their surroundings, the artists concentrated exclusively on Buddhist gods, goddesses and Mandalas. Since they had at their disposal limited space, then the painters were content with depicting gods and goddesses. It fills the manuscripts they illustrated magical power, makes them an object of admiration for admirers in the country of India. Indian art is very original. The only external influences that the artists considered were the beliefs of Tantric Buddhism. They were not worried about either nature or the social conditions of that period.
Art of India XIV - XVI centuries.
By the end of the 14th century, artists became a little more interested in the themes of surrounding social life. In their works one can notice the manifestation of Muslim stereotypes in the depiction of all the foreigners who appeared in them. This suggests that they had certain opinions about the Turks who ruled the northern and western parts of India during that period. In their works, landscapes were depicted as a separate part of the composition, and not just as a backdrop to specific scenes.
The visual arts of India provide a much clearer picture of people's lives than any other literary source of the time. In the 16th century this interest still existed. Here, for example, images of specific rural residents, farmers and shepherds, as well as women involved in daily household life appear for the first time. Nature also became much more widely represented, with full-scale illustrations of forests and wild animals appearing. Indian art began to be filled with new meanings.
ART OF INDIA
HARAPPAN AND MOHENJO-DARO
MAURYA EMPIRE
KUSHAN EMPIRE
GUPTA EMPIRE
INDIAVI- X CENTURIES
EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD
THE GREAT MUGHAL EMPIRE
ART OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN
BURMA
THAILAND
KAMPUCCHEA
INDONESIA
ART OF INDIA
From antiquity until the 19th century, India did not have a common name. Foreign tribes, such as the Persians and Chinese, called the country Sindhu, as well as the Indus River (in the pronunciation of the Greeks - Indos and Indicos). The Muslims who conquered India in the 12th-13th centuries gave it the name Hindustan (Country of the Hindus), which in Europe sounded like Hindustan. The word "India" in its modern meaning appeared only in the 19th century.
In the east, India is washed by the waters of the Bay of Bengal, in the west - by the Arabian Sea. In the north-west of India there is the Hindu Kush mountain system, in the north the border of India is the world's largest mountain system, the Himalayas. According to the ideas of the ancient Indians, deities lived on the snowy peaks of the Himalayas. For example, the Indians associated Mount Chomolungma (Everest) with the legendary Mount Meru, on which the sky rests. On it are the cities of the gods and the dwellings of the heavenly spirits. Mount Kailasa was considered the abode of the god Shiva. Therefore, the Himalayas became one of the favorite themes in the monumental art of Ancient and Medieval India.
Many myths are associated with the deep rivers of India - the Ganga and the Indus. According to one of them, the sacred Ganga descended to earth from heaven to give water to all living things. The Indus and its tributaries are glorified in the most ancient sacred texts - the Vedas.
India is inhabited by numerous multilingual tribes and peoples who have different origins and cultures. Various religions coexist surprisingly peacefully here: Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam. However, most of the population professes Hinduism. It includes not only belief in the gods revered in this religion, but also the main religious rituals performed in their honor. Hinduism is an ancient tradition of spiritual and material culture, it is the traditional Indian idea of God, the world, and themselves. In other words, Hinduism is a way of life of the people of India.
The religious views of Indians on the world are clearly and succinctly expressed in their original fine art. The most ancient ideas about the origin and structure of the Universe, about the gods who created it, about the connections and structures that exist in it, literally permeate Indian art throughout its centuries-old history.
The inexhaustible source from which Indian artists, sculptors and architects drew models for artistic forms was nature. Masters likened elements of architecture or sculpture to the forms of plants and animals. The works of art created by their hands did not simply fit into the natural landscape, but merged with it into a single harmonious ensemble. These features of Indian art appeared already at the earliest stages of its development.
HARAPPAN AND MOHENJO-DARO
India was inhabited in ancient times - in the 7th millennium BC. e. Ancient Indians cultivated cereals and domesticated cattle.
The oldest Indian civilization arose in the Indus basin in the 3rd millennium BC. e. The most significant finds related to this culture were made in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, ancient cities located in what is now Pakistan. In the 50s . XIX century English general A. Cunningham, examining ruins near the village of Harappa, discovered a seal with unknown writing. Systematic excavations here began only in the 20s. XX century. The culture of the newly discovered civilization was called the Harappan or Mohenjo-Daro culture.
Harappan settlements were located over a vast territory: in the east it extended to Delhi, and in the south to the shores of the Arabian Sea. It is believed that the Harappan civilization existed from the middle of the 3rd to the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. e.
The high level of development of the Harappan civilization is evidenced by the strict planning of cities, the presence of writing and works of art. The language and writing of Harappa have not yet been deciphered, although many seals with inscriptions have been found to date.
Cities were built according to a clear plan: streets intersected at right angles. Almost all large cities consisted of two parts: the “lower” and “upper” cities. The "Upper City" was a fortress on a hill; representatives of the city authorities and priests probably lived in it. There were various public buildings here. Such are, for example, the large granaries in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. The famous baths of Mohenjo-Daro are one of the mysteries of ancient Indian civilization. Whether they provided everyday comfort for the population or served as pools for ritual ablutions has not yet been determined. In the “upper city,” however, no palaces or temples were found. This feature significantly distinguishes the Harappan culture from civilizations Ancient Egypt and Western Asia.
The main part of the population lived in the “lower city”. The houses were built from baked bricks and consisted of several rooms. Wealthy townspeople lived in two- and three-story houses. The sewers that existed on every street constituted one of the oldest urban sewer systems in the world.
Fine art is known from the finds of archaeologists - seals-amulets, figurines made of copper, stone and baked clay.
A bronze figurine of a naked girl dancer was discovered in Moheidjo Daro. With her right hand akimbo, she seems to be waiting for the moment to start dancing. She holds a lamp with her left hand in bracelets, which may indicate that she is performing a ritual dance. Apparently, it was in Harappan art that the dance motif, so popular in Indian sculpture, first appeared.
Mohenjo-Daro.
Excavations.
III - II millennium
BC e.
India.
Dancer figurine
from Mohenjo-Daro.
III - II millennium
BC e.
National Museum, Delhi.
India.
Male bust
from Mohenjo-Daro.
III - II millennium
BC e.
National Museum, Delhi.
India.
One of the largest sculptures found in Mohenjo-Daro is a chest-to-chest image of a bearded man with large facial features depicted schematically. Only long, half-closed eyes stand out, the pupils of which are brought to the bridge of the nose, which probably means introspection. He is dressed in an ornamented robe slung over his left shoulder, and his head is decorated with a ribbon with a buckle on his forehead. Researchers believe that the bust depicts a priest or an ancient deity.
A special group of finds consists of seals. They have been found in almost all the major cities of the Indus Valley, now there are more than two thousand of them. They are round, square or cylindrical plates made of copper, ivory, clay with an in-depth image; Such seals give relief impressions. On the back of each of them there is a small protrusion with a hole for a lace. Usually the seals were carved with images of a deity or sacred animal and an inscription. Animals - bull, unicorn, mountain goat, elephant, tiger, cobra, fish, crocodile - could symbolize one or another deity, denote a natural element or the seasons of the year.
Very little is known about the religion of the ancient Harappans. There is no exact data about the reasons for the decline of the Harappan civilization.
In the 2nd millennium BC. e. Indo-European tribes of the Aryans began to settle in the valleys of the Indus and Ganges, who invaded India from the northwest - through passes in the mountain ranges of the Hindu Kush and Suleiman Mountains.
Information about the culture of the Aryans has reached us thanks to the Vedas - sacred texts compiled in the ancient Indian language - Sanskrit. The main text, the Rig Veda (XI-X centuries BC), is a collection of hymns to the Aryan gods. The Rig Veda has become an invaluable source of information about the religion and mythology of the Aryan tribes. Their main deities were Surya - the sun god, Indra - the lord of thunder and thunder, Agni - the god of fire, Soma - the god of the intoxicating divine drink.
Seals from Mohenjo-Daro. III - II millennium
BC e.
National Museum, Delhi.
India.
The Aryans lived mostly in villages; houses were built from brick, clay, bamboo, reeds, and wood. At the site of Aryan settlements, cult utensils that were used in Vedic rites are often discovered: spoons, pots, ladles for oil. Rites were probably performed in the open air, and sacrifices were performed on temporary altars, either stone or wooden.
The period from the first Vedas to the dynasty of the Mauryan rulers of India (X-IV centuries BC) did not leave any monuments of material culture. The epics of Ancient India - "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana" - tell about this time, which mentions many ancient dynasties and names of states. For centuries, the fine arts of India have drawn themes and images from the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, which are depicted in architectural and sculptural ensembles, wall paintings and miniature.
MAURYA EMPIRE
In 321 BC. e. The first united state arose in India - the Mauryan Empire. Their capital - Pataliputra (in the Ganges Valley) - was described by ancient Greek authors. The city was surrounded by a powerful wall with watchtowers and a moat. Most architectural structures were made of wood.
Stone began to be widely used in construction and sculpture during the reign of King Ashoka (268-232 BC), which is primarily associated with the establishment of Buddhism as the state religion. The authorities sought to perpetuate the foundations of Buddhism in monumental art, which is commonly called “the art of Ashoka.” These are, first of all, memorial columns on which the ruler’s decrees are carved. Such a column cannot be called an architectural structure in the full sense of the word: it combines elements of architecture and sculpture.
The pillar, or stambha, is a well-polished stone pillar. Stambhas are more than ten meters high and end with a capital with sculptural images of animals. The most famous of them is the Lion Capital from Sarnath (mid-3rd century BC). The pillar that carried this capital, according to legend, was placed on the spot where Buddha delivered his first sermon.
Since the time of King Ashoka, Buddhist memorial and funerary monuments have become widespread in architecture - stupas. Early stupas in Buddhism served to store relics of the Buddha himself. There is a legend that Buddha was once asked what his burial structure should be like. The teacher laid his cloak on the ground and turned a round begging bowl onto it. So stupa
Stambha of Ashoka. Middle III V. BC e.
India.
Stambha of Ashoka.
Fragment.
Middle III V. BC e.
India.
*Nirvana is a psychological state of completeness of inner being, absence of desires, complete satisfaction, absolute detachment from the outside world, liberation from the shackles of matter, the endless chain of births and deaths (samsara).
**Buddhism is a world religion along with Christianity and Islam. One of the main ideas of Buddhism is the vision of life as suffering. You can overcome it and know the truth by following the path of salvation. The highest goal in Buddhism is nirvana - enlightenment, liberation of a person from the captivity of earthly rebirths and, finally, union with the cosmic order - the Absolute.
from the very beginning acquired a hemispherical shape.
The hemisphere, a symbol of Heaven and infinity, in Buddhism means the nirvana of Buddha and Buddha himself. The central pole of the stupa is the axis of the Universe, connecting Heaven and Earth, a symbol of the World Tree of Life. The “umbrellas” at the end of the pole, the steps of the ascent to nirvana, are also considered a symbol of power.
One of the oldest surviving stupas built under the Mauryas is the stupa at Sanchi (circa 250 BC). Later it was rebuilt and slightly increased in size. The hemispherical dome of the stupa rests on a round base with a terrace that served for ritual circumambulation. Stairs lead to the terrace on the south side. The dome of the stupa is built on top of a stone cube with a square fence, the shape of which follows the outlines of the altars of the Vedic era and can be considered a symbol of the Earth or Mount Meru. The stupa is surrounded by a massive fence. There are gates in it on the four sides of the world - torans, decorated with relief.
An early stupa was also erected at Bharhut. A fence with a gate has survived to this day. The building itself from the time of King Ashoka has not survived. On the reliefs of the fence posts, the most ancient deities appear in human form: yakshas and yakshinis - spirits of the underground depths and forces of nature, closely associated with the cult of fertility. Since the Yakshinis were descended from the goddesses of the plant kingdom, they were sometimes depicted as tree spirits. In Buddhism, yakshas and yakshinis were considered lower deities, but their role was significant, since in a broad sense they were guardians of the teaching, and in a narrower sense, of the holy place, Buddhist building from evil spirits, therefore they were often depicted in pairs on the fences and gates of the stupa, and as well as other religious buildings.
Another type of Buddhist architecture is cave temples. The Lomas Rishi Cave at Bodh Gaya - an oval sanctuary and rectangular hall - was carved under Ashoka
(around 250 BC). The walls of the temple are carefully polished. Its facade and plan served as models for later religious buildings of the 1st century. n. e.
Monumental stone sculpture is an art form that became widespread under the Mauryas. In the sculpture of early Buddhism, images of Buddha in human form were not found.
Relief of a stupa column in Bharhut. III V. BC e.
India.
Lion capital of the stambha at Sarnath. Middle III V. BC e.
Archaeological Museum, Sarnath. India.
Mortar. Ill -- I centuries BC e.
India.
Buddha and his teachings were represented in the images of the sacred Bo tree (under which the Teacher achieved enlightenment), the throne of Buddha and the Wheel of the Law, an image of a stupa or the footprint of a great preacher. These images symbolized various stages of the Teacher’s life path: birth, dissemination of the teachings, achievement of nirvana. The style of these images is generally decorative and extremely reminiscent of wood or ivory carvings.
Under the Mauryas, statues were created that are still striking today with their monumental image, completeness and perfection of form. This is the sculpture of a Yakshini from Didarganj (circa 3rd century BC). The goddess in the form of a young woman stands holding a fan in her hands. She has curvaceous, heavy shapes (wide hips, slightly protruding belly, large breasts). Excellent polishing gives the status of completeness, and the large forms of the yakshini are surprisingly combined with the smallest details of her clothes and jewelry.
KUSHAN EMPIRE
The flourishing of Indian art, the emergence of new religious images (primarily the image of Buddha), the development of the main trends in architecture and sculpture established under the Mauryas, date back to the era of the Kushan dynasty (1st century BC - 3rd century AD) . The Kushan rulers created a huge power that included Northern India, the areas of modern Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central Asia.
In the 1st century BC e. Cave temples - chaityas - appeared in the religious architecture of India. An example is the Chaitya located in Karli. In front of the cave stood two columns, crowned with capitals similar to those of the Mauryans. The most important detail The facade of the cave is a huge horseshoe-shaped window, which serves as the main window in the temple. There are three entrances to the cave, giving rise to corridors symbolizing the path of Buddha. The central corridor is separated from the side corridors by rows of columns with sculptural capitals. In this architectural space, lively
Chaitya in Karli. Interior. I V. BC e. India.
Donors. Relief of a chaitya in Karli. I V. BC e. India.
*Chaitya Buddhist religious building, temple-prayer, carved into the rock; sometimes a separate building.
This sculpture creates an unusual effect of the play of light and shadow, transforming the interior, the symbolism of which is the stupa placed in the temple.
Sculptural reliefs of male and female figures arranged in pairs adorn the outer façade of the chaitya at Karli. Perhaps the donors with whose funds the temple was built are depicted here. The interpretation of male figures combines masculinity and softness. They have powerful shoulders and a thin waist, but their body proportions, softness and smoothness of shape are close to those of women. The sculptures of women are likened to the traditional Indian image of the goddess of fertility. It is possible that such a tradition influenced the formation of the ideal of not only female but also male beauty, which became the embodiment of a person’s internal energy and vitality. The couples depicted on the facade of the chaitya personify both the two ideals of beauty and the two principles in nature - male and female. Their union gives birth to all life on earth.
In Buddhist architecture, the construction of fences around temples and stupas has become a tradition. Fences and gates were still richly decorated with sculpture and relief compositions. The torans of the stupa in Sanchi (1st century BC) are widely known for their reliefs, which here form a single whole with the architecture.
The reliefs depict people and animals, architectural motifs, household objects, and plant ornaments. The image of a Yakshini from the eastern Torana is especially expressive. The naked figure of the tree goddess gracefully bends, her hands reach out to the trunk of the mango tree and its lush crown. Her movements are light and graceful, her pose is free and natural. The standard of beauty for a woman and the goddess of fertility continues to be emphatically rounded hips and bust.
In the religions of Buddhism and Hinduism, great importance is attached to the king-
Stupa in Sanchi. Carved stone gate. I V. BC e.
India.
I V. BC e.
India.
animals. In the Indian mind, people, animals, plants and even the highest deities are always connected with each other by inextricable bonds. In the multi-figure scenes, one is struck by the feeling of all-pervading life, the energy animating all forms. Love for nature, admiration for its power and abundance, life triumphant in all its manifestations - this is the main theme of Indian art, and in particular the architectural and plastic ensemble in Sanchi.
In the I-IV centuries. n. e. Significant changes have occurred in the artistic culture of India. In the visual arts, Buddha began to be represented in the form of a person, and not in the form of symbols - the sacred Bo tree, the Wheel of the Law, etc. During this period, three main schools of Buddhist sculpture stood out among others: Gandhara (northwest), Mathura (north) and Amaravati (south).
Gandhara (now in Pakistan) is an ancient historical region in Northwestern India. Gandhara art reached its peak at the turn of the 1st-2nd centuries. Under the influence of the culture of countries located west of India, in Gandhara the image of Buddha acquired Hellenistic features. An early type of Gandhara Buddha can be considered his image from Hoti-Mardan (2nd century). This standing Teacher statue is beautifully crafted. Numerous folds of clothing envelop the entire figure of the Buddha. The correct proportions of the flexible, slender body betray the Greek tradition in sculpture. However, Indian features can also be traced in the image. First of all, the statue emphasizes inner concentration rather than physical beauty.
On the border between Indian and Hellenistic traditions, a statue of a seated Buddha was created from Takht-i-Bakhi (circa 300). The appearance of the Teacher is clear, full of peace and concentration, extremely calm. The Buddha's pose with crossed and tucked legs, with the soles turned up - the "lotus" pose - has since become canonical for all schools of Buddhist sculpture. The fingers of the Teacher's hands touch in the position
Buddha statue from Hoti Mardan. II V. India.
Reliefs of the stupa gate at Sanchi. Fragments. I V. BC e.
India.
Buddha statue at Takht-i-Bahi. Around 300. State Museums, Berlin-Dahlem.
*Hellenistic art (last quarter of the 4th-1st centuries BC . ) was common in the territories conquered by Alexander the Great. The art combined the traditions of Greek and local cultures.
"teachings". A system began to take shape in Indian plastic arts wise, when certain stages of the Buddha's sacred path were expressed through specific positions of the hands, palms and fingers. The robe, gathered in folds, thrown over the Buddha's shoulders, completely covers the Buddha's body, without, however, hiding his large forms.
Another center for the development of sculpture was Ma'thura. Here the image of Buddha was created, which received a purely Indian interpretation, as well as images of other Buddhist characters. Buddha in Mathura sculpture is often accompanied by bodhisattvas (Teacher's assistants) or yakshas. The rounded faces of the images are illuminated with a slight smile, and the poses very dynamic.
On a stela from Katra (early 2nd century) Buddha appears sitting on a throne supported by three lions. His pose is energetic, his body has smooth, feminine contours. Buddha gesture - elbow bent and raised right hand- means approval. The cloak thrown over the left shoulder does not hide the half-naked body and serves rather as decoration. The Buddha's face, round, with plump lips folded into a light, patronizing smile, is calm and impassive. He looks straight ahead, as intended by his gesture of approval. There is a halo behind the deity’s head, and behind his back there are two male figures with fans. Perhaps these are bodhisattvas or yakshas.
In Amaravati, the image of Buddha first appeared in sculptural relief on the well-preserved facing slabs of a stupa (2nd century). The Buddha of Amaravati appears seated in the lotus position on a throne; a halo, like an umbrella, covers his head. The images of Buddha on these reliefs are quite conventional; they do not have as many details as in sculpture belonging to other schools.
The original art of various regions of Ancient India, developing, laid the foundation for the artistic traditions of the next period - the art of the Gupta Empire (IV-VI centuries).
GUPTA EMPIRE
For a long time, India did not suffer from foreign invasions. During the reign of the Guptas (320 - 6th century), science, philosophy, and literature flourished. Ancient oral treatises on various fields of knowledge were recorded. India was famous for its Buddhist universities in Taxila, Nalanda, and Ajanta. The rulers of the Gupta dynasty patronized Buddhism, but were themselves adherents of Hinduism: they worshiped Krishna, the warrior Durga (the wife of Shiva), the Great Shiva himself, and Surya, the sun deity.
Literary sources indicate a wide scale of construction during that period: numerous Buddhist and Hindu temples and palaces were erected. For example, Durga temple in Aihole
Buddha Stele from Katra. Start II V.
Archaeological Museum, Muttra. India.
*Mudras are the expression of symbols, concepts, as well as stages of spiritual perfection through the position and gestures of fingers and hands.
**Urna" (the point between the eyebrows) of the Buddha is a sign of perfection and chosenness; ushni"sha (a semicircular protrusion on the head) is a symbol of the highest measure of knowledge and wisdom.
***Stela - a vertically standing stone slab with an inscription or relief.
****Guptas are a dynasty of rulers of the ancient Indian state of Magadan in northern India. By the end of IV, they united most of Northern India under their rule.
Hinduism is the main religion of India, widespread in other Asian countries. One of its provisions is the doctrine of the reincarnation of souls, conditioned by previous actions, virtuous or bad. The supreme deities of Hinduism are Krahma (Creator of the world), Vishnu (Preserver God) and Shiva (Destroyer God).
Cave temples at Ajanta. IV - VII centuries
(VI century) and the Vishnu temple (V-VI centuries) in Deogah.
Cave architecture developed during the Gupta era. An example of magnificent unity of architecture,
sculpture and painting is the cave complex in Ajanta (IV-VII centuries). Among the buildings, the most notable are the chaityas and viha"ry - hostels for Buddhist monks.
The rock ensembles of Ajanta are famous primarily for their painting. This type of fine art has been known in India since the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. However, since the picturesque layer is quickly destroyed under the influence of a humid climate, the Ajanta cave temples are perhaps the only surviving monument by which one can judge the paintings of the Gupta era. The Ajanta murals date back to the 4th-7th centuries, therefore the paintings made in the Gupta era are included in it only as an integral part. Paintings have been preserved only in sixteen caves. Ceilings, walls and even columns were painted here.
The paintings of the caves are complex in content; there are many characters in the compositions, but there is no hint of conveyance
Paintings of temples in Ajanta. IV - VII centuries
India.
The perspectives and volumes of the figures are slightly outlined. Line, color and rhythm form the basis of the entire pictorial ensemble. The variety of colors is small, but their rich combinations and contrasts evoke an unusual emotional feeling. The colors on the murals seem to glow in the dark. There is a feeling that the earthly and heavenly are harmoniously united in this temple.
The influence of the Ajanta complex on Indian art is enormous. The main stylistic and ideological features of this monument are reflected in the sculpture of the Gupta era. The Gupta Buddha is an ideal image, embodying the idea of achieving nirvana. This is exactly how he appears in the famous statue from Sarnath (5th century). The Divine Buddha sits on a throne, richly decorated with sculptures and ornaments. His figure is devoid of all the features of living human flesh. The Buddha sits in the lotus position, his hands folded in a teaching gesture.
In the Gupta artistic culture, Buddhist art experienced its last heyday, giving way for a long time to the depiction of the gods of Hinduism.
INDIAVI- X CENTURIES
In the 6th century, after the decline of the Gupta dynasty, the country again disintegrated into small states, whose political rulers relied not only on military force, but also on the Hindu religion. The pantheon of this religion is extremely extensive. In the Middle Ages, temples were erected to the main Hindu gods - Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, components of the Trimurti.
In the 7th century, in the south of India, a huge temple ensemble was erected in the port city of Mahabalipuram. This sacred complex was erected on a natural site located between the mountains and the ocean. Thus, the complex seemed to connect two natural elements:
water and land. The ensemble included Hindu cave temples, eight small sanctuaries carved out of solid rock, the famous Coastal Shiva Temple, as well as the well-known rock relief “The Descent of Haiti to Earth.”
The architecture of the complex features monolithic ratha temples dedicated to the epic heroes of the Mahabharata. These are Arjuna's ratha, Bhima's ratha, etc. These small temples of Mahabalipuram alternate with large figures of sacred animals carved out of rocks - elephants, lions and bulls. Animals “walking” and “resting” among the rathas seem to connect the architectural forms with the coastal landscape.
In the temple complex of Mahabalipuram, sculpture not only decorates the architecture, but also serves as the center of the entire composition. Such a huge (about thirty meters in length) na-
rock relief “The Descent of the Ganges River to Earth.” The main theme of the relief is the legend of how the sacred Ganga, which previously flowed in the skies, was cast down to earth by the gods in response to prayers, as well as the exploits of people.
In front of the rocky relief there is a platform where religious rituals were played in ancient times.
Coastal Shiva temple in Mahabalipuram. Around 700
*Trimurti (triple image) is the trinity of the main gods of Hinduism: Brahma, Vishnu and Thorns. Brahma is the Creator of the world, Vishnu is the Guardian God, Shiva is the Destroyer God.
**Ratha is a cart still used in South India during temple festivals. An image of a deity is transported on it. A small monolithic (carved out of rock) temple also began to be called Ratha. intended for storing and worshiping a statue of a deity. The small ratha temple symbolized the chariot of the god.
***Ganga is a sacred celestial river in the mythology of Ancient India, the image of which is associated with the feminine principle.
theatrical performances. In such cases, the relief served as a kind of background and replaced theatrical scenery. Thus, the theme of the triumph of all living things, fed by a single source - the sacred Ganga, became the main theme temple complex in Mahabalipuram.
The largest temple centers of the early and mature Middle Ages, located in Central and South-East India, are Bhubaneswar and Khajuraho.
A typical example of temple architecture of this period is the Kandarya Mahadeva complex in Khajuraho (X-XI centuries). The individual parts of the building - the sanctuary, the hall for worship, the vestibule, the entrance - are on the same axis and tightly adjacent to each other. Each of these parts is completed with a separate tower superstructure. The sanctuary tower is the highest, the remaining towers descend in steps towards the entrance. The temples of Khajuraho are decorated with reliefs that are magnificent examples of temple sculpture. The depictions of figures of men and women are some of the best in medieval art. Light tilts and expressive plasticity of the figures create a whimsical complex rhythm of the entire sculptural design of this structure. The ensemble at Khajuraho is another magnificent example of artistic culture, which embodies the principle of unity. This feature of Indian art was described in this way by the famous philosopher of the 19th century. Rabindranath Tagore: “India has always had one unchanging ideal - merging with the Universe.”
Thus, the works of medieval sculpture embodied the same ideas about the unity of the Universe as in the monumental art of India.
Relief of the temple in Mahabalipuram. Fragment. VII V. India.
Kandarya Mahadeva Temple in Khajuraho. X-XI V.
India.
Shiva Nataraja from South India. XI V. City Museum, Madras. India.
Shiva Nataraja - Lord of Dance. Sometimes Shiva is called the Cosmic Dancer, since his destructive energy is realized at the moment of dance: by performing it, God destroys everything old in the Universe and at the same time opens a new cycle of life. Shiva Nataraja was depicted standing on one, slightly bent at the knee right leg. His left leg is gracefully extended forward in a dance step. Shiva has four hands, the gesture of each of them has a certain meaning. God can also hold a sacred object in his hand: for example, a drum - a symbol of cosmic rhythm. Shiva's head is decorated with a crown with a skull - a sign of victory over death. The figure of God is usually enclosed in a bronze halo with tongues of flame, personifying the Universe in which the Great God, the destroyer and the creator, dances.
Sculptures of temples in Khajuraho. X - XI centuries India.
EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD
Muslim conquerors first invaded Indian territory back in the 8th century. n. e. Five centuries later, Muslim rulers managed to conquer almost the entire country. The art of India of the Islamic era can be divided into the early Islamic period (XI - first half of the 16th century) and the period of the Mughal dynasty (second half of the 16th - 18th centuries).
The period of early Islamic rule in India began with the Muslim invasion at the beginning of the 11th century. The conquerors mercilessly destroyed the shrines of the “infidels” - Hindu and Buddhist temples - and entire cities, slaughtered the population, and took master craftsmen into slavery. History of India XIII-XIV centuries. marked by a constant change of Muslim dynasties. The struggle for power greatly weakened the unity of Muslim rulers, and in the 15th - early 16th centuries. In India, several independent Islamic states were formed that were at war with each other, such as Kashmir, Delhi, Bengal, Malwa, and Gujarat.
The conquerors tried to adapt the remains of destroyed architecture for their own art and construction. Thus, entire fragments of buildings, primarily columns, pillars, sculptural decorations, details decorative finishing, were transferred to newly built Muslim buildings.
In the XII-XIII centuries. The main types of Muslim religious buildings appeared in India - primarily mosques, minarets, madrassas, and mausoleums. The largest Muslim complex has been preserved in Delhi; it dates back to the beginning of the 13th century. The complex included a large mosque, a tomb, a madrasah, and a mausoleum. However, the biggest attraction of the ensemble was the gigantic Qutub Minar (1231), whose height exceeds seventy meters.
Islamic traditions can be traced in the main types of architectural structures of the early Islamic period, but in the details of cult
The influence of Indian architecture is clearly visible in the buildings. The entrance gates to Islamic structures resemble the entrances to rock-cut temples in India. Both the columns and the details of architectural decorations with an abundance of plant and floral patterns are borrowed from Buddhist and Hindu buildings. Minarets, so familiar in the religious architecture of Arab countries, are often found in mosques in India.
Minaret Qutub Minar. 1231
Delhi. India.
Jami Masjid Mosque,
First third XV V.
Delhi. India.
then absent. Another one important feature architecture of the Islamic period - its organic fit into the surrounding nature. This quality has been inherent in Indian architectural and sculptural ensembles since ancient times.
Among the cities in which examples of early Islamic architecture have been preserved, Ahmedabad stands out. Many beautiful mosques and madrassas were built here: for example, the Jami Masjid mosque (the first third of the 15th century), the Rani Separi mosque (the beginning of the 16th century) - the pearl of early Islamic architecture, the Ahmad Shah mosque (the beginning of the 15th century). These buildings harmoniously combined the artistic traditions of two different cultures - Muslim and Indian.
THE GREAT MUGHAL EMPIRE
The Mughal dynasty traces its origins to Timur of Samarkand. Ruler Akbar (1556-1605) strengthened the power of this family in India and created a centralized state throughout its entire territory. He went down in history not only as a talented organizer and visionary politician, but also as a subtle connoisseur and patron of art. Many Indian architects and artists found work at the ruler's court. Akbar sought to unite India, and this increased the influence of Indian art on Muslim art. Gradually, the restraint and simplicity of the forms of buildings disappeared, the architecture and its decoration became more complex.
An example of this style is Akbar’s mausoleum in Sikandra (early 17th century), located near Agra, the capital of the Mughals. The ensemble is located in a garden surrounded by a fence with a large gate. The main building has three floors with pointed arches. The third floor is an open
Fathpur Sikri. XVII V. India.
The terrace is without covering, but in its corners there are four small domes, each of which is supported by four slender columns. In the courtyard, paved with marble mosaics, there is another small terrace - on it stands Akbar's sarcophagus, made of white marble.
Not far from Sikandra, on the orders of Akbar, the city of Fathpur Sikri was built, which served as the ruler’s residence. It contained buildings for various purposes: a palace, an audience hall, a throne room, pavilions and, finally, a cathedral mosque with three domes, in the huge courtyard of which there were two mausoleums. White and colored marble, as in Akbar's tomb, was used to decorate this unique residences.
Under Shah Jahan (1627-1658), one of Akbar's successors, architects again turned to the forms of Islamic architecture, which led to the emergence of a distinctive Mughal state style, a typical example of which is the Jami Mazda Mosque in Delhi.
An outstanding architectural monument of India is the Taj Mahal mausoleum in Agra (mid-17th century). It was built by Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. The Taj Mahal is located in a large park, with roads and a canal leading to the mausoleum.
*Babur Zahireddin Muhammad - founder of the Mughal state, descendant of Timur. In 1526-1527 conquered most of northern India.
Taj Mahal. Middle XVII V. Agra. India.
The structure is elevated on a platform separating it from the ground. The building, polygonal in plan, is cut through with deep niches and topped with a huge spherical dome.
At the corners of the platform there are four tall slender towers, reminiscent of minarets. The fantastic architectural image of the Taj Mahal puts it on par
Feeding an elephant. Book miniature. Mughal school. Around 1620 India.
Miniature. Pahari School. End XVIII V.
National Museum, Delhi. India.
with the best monuments of medieval India.
During the Mughal era, Indian miniature painting reached its peak. It is represented by three main art schools: the Mughal court, Rajasthan and Pahari. The style of miniatures of the Mughal school was largely determined by the peculiarities of life at Akbar's court. Artists from different cities and countries, including European ones, gathered here. Illustrations were created for the Indian epics “Mahabharata” and “Ramayana”, and the ancient Indian collection of fairy tales “Panchatantra”. Portraits of historical figures occupied an important place in court painting. A separate group consisted of illustrations for biographical and historical chronicles of that time: “Babur-name”, “Akbar-name”, “Shah-Jahan-name”. The style of most court miniatures resembled Persian examples. The artist applied the drawing easily, clearly, trying not to miss a single, even the smallest, but “precious” detail. Moreover, each element of the picture, surrounded by a thin, clear outline, had its own color scheme. This gave the miniature a special sophistication.
In two other schools of Indian painting, in Rajasthan and Pahari, which arose somewhat later, the main role was played by subjects from the legends of Krishna. Artists of traditional Indian schools of painting illustrated the poems “Gitagovinda” and “Bhagavatpurapa” - classic texts of the cult of Krishna. A whole series of paintings presented illustrations for the months of the year, associated with a certain mood of a person, this or that music. Such miniatures again spoke of the indissoluble connection of all living things, of the unity of nature and man - the main thing that Indian art has always affirmed.
The period of Islamic art in India, with its unique examples of artistic creativity, which combined two traditions - Muslim and Indian, shows how two can coexist on the same territory, within one work of art. different cultures. This era culminated the progressive development of Indian culture: in the 18th century. it was interrupted by the invasion of Western European civilization.
Emperor Akbar watches the capture of a wild elephant. Miniature from the book “Akbar-name”. Mughal school. 1564 Victoria and Albert Museum, London. England.
*Krishna is one of the incarnations of the god Vishnu. He is often represented as a young shepherd playing the flute.
ART OF SRI LANKA
India has had a huge influence on the development of its island neighbor - Sri Lanka (Ceylon). In the V-II centuries. BC e. immigrants from India - the Sinhalese and Tamil tribes - created the first states on the island. Since the embassy sent to the island by the Indian king Ashoka (III century BC), Buddhism began to spread here, which to this day remains the main religion of Sri Lanka. Traditionally, the art of Sri Lanka is divided into several periods in accordance with the names of the capitals of the island: 1) the period of Anuradhapura (III century BC - 10th century AD); 2) the period of Polonnaruwa (XI-XIV centuries); 3) Kandy period (XIV-XIX centuries).
The oldest monuments of art on the island are huge Buddhist stupas - yes"gobs. Unlike the Indian stupa, the dagoba does not have a fence with a gate; vakhalkadas - small cubic-shaped structures - are attached to it on four sides. They contain a kind of “false doors” - passages symbolizing the gates to the Universe. Each vakhalkada is decorated with a stele with reliefs. The location of the vakhalkadas is also connected with the life of Buddha: the eastern one symbolizes his birth, the southern one - enlightenment, the western one - the spread of Buddhism, the northern one - nirvana. As in India, floral ornaments and images of sacred animals were an indispensable sculptural addition to the stupa-dagoba. In the 3rd century. BC e. giant spherical or bell-shaped dagobas made of brick were erected, such as Thuparama, Mahathupa, Abhayagiri.
In addition to dagobas, another type of stupa arose on the island - a relatively small one, installed on a platform, to which from four
There are stairs on both sides. A characteristic design detail of such stupas is the so-called Moon Stone, located in front of the stairs. The Moonstone is a semicircle, decorated with stripes of reliefs that are located around the lotus leaf. Such a stupa, called chetiya-ghara, was an object of worship as a reminder of the Buddha's nirvana. Pilgrims and monks also found protection from bad weather in it. An example of such a building is the chetiya ghara in Medirigiri near Polonnaruwa (7th century).
Bodhi ghara and asana ghara are two other types of Buddhist architecture in Sri Lanka. Bodhi Ghara is a structure built around the Bo tree, a symbol of the Teacher’s enlightenment. An empty throne was revered in the asana-ghara - a symbol of the Buddha's first sermon. These Buddhist symbols played a very important role in the art of India, but only in Sri Lanka were they embodied in architecture.
At the end of the Anuradhapura period arose new type structures - the so-called Statue House, which was intended for sculptural images of Buddha. The houses of the Statue cannot be considered temples; rather, they are places where believers did not pray, but reflected on Buddhist teachings.
In Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, the remains of secular buildings have been preserved - mainly the palaces of the rulers of the island.
Sri Lankan sculpture, like architecture, developed under the influence of Buddhism. Seated, standing and reclining Buddha are the main motifs of Sri Lankan sculpture. Among such images is a statue of a reclining Buddha from Polonnaruwa (12th century), located in front of the entrance to the vihara (dormitory of Buddhist monks). This is a huge statue (more than fifteen meters in length), next to which there is a statue of the standing disciple of Buddha - Ananda.
The influence of Indian art can be seen in the most grandiose ensemble of the island. This is the royal residence of Sigiriya (or Sihagiri, meaning Lion Rock). One of the kings of Sri Lanka turned the rock into a majestic structure - a huge sitting lion rested its powerful front paws on the plain. It was not by chance that the image of a lion was used in the complex. The lion in the art of India and Southeast Asia symbolized royal power, and in Buddhism - the Buddha himself. In Sigiriya, a ceremonial entrance has been preserved, leading to the rock terraces of the palace, on which small gardens were once laid out. Now there are the remains of the royal palace.
Sigiriya is widely known for its painting. The surface of the rock is decorated with magnificent paintings - figures of heavenly dancers. The dancers' poses are light and free, the movements of the arms, the tilts of the body and head are graceful and natural. The bright floral ornament gives the images even more airiness and elegance. The Sigiriya complex, like many examples of Sri Lankan architecture and sculpture, is a unique, original and distinctive ensemble that has influenced the art of Southeast Asia.
Statues of Buddha and Ananda. XII V. Polonnaruwa. Sri Lanka.
Paintings of Sigiriya. VI V. Sri Lanka.
