System analysis sources. Statement of the problem is the starting point of research. In the study of a complex system, it is preceded by work on structuring the problem. The ultimate goal of system analysis is the development and implementation of the selected reference mode

SYSTEM ANALYSIS– a set of methods and tools used in the research and design of complex and highly complex objects, primarily methods for developing, making and justifying decisions in the design, creation and management of social, economic, human-machine and technical systems . In the literature, the concept of systems analysis is sometimes identified with the concept systematic approach , but such a generalized interpretation of system analysis is hardly justified. System analysis arose in the 1960s. as a result of the development of operations research and systems engineering. The theoretical and methodological basis of system analysis is the systems approach and general systems theory . System analysis is applied gl.o. to the study of artificial (arising with human participation) systems, and in such systems an important role belongs to human activity. The use of systems analysis methods to solve research and management problems is necessary primarily because in the decision-making process it is necessary to make choices under conditions of uncertainty, which is associated with the presence of factors that cannot be strictly quantified. System analysis procedures and methods are aimed at advancing alternative options solving the problem, identifying the extent of uncertainty for each of the options and comparing options according to certain performance criteria. According to the principles of systems analysis, this or that complex problem that arises before society (primarily the problem of management) should be considered as a whole, as a system in the interaction of all its components. To make a decision about managing this system, it is necessary to determine its goal, the goals of its individual subsystems and many alternatives for achieving these goals, which are compared according to certain efficiency criteria, and as a result, the most appropriate control method for a given situation is selected. The central procedure in system analysis is the construction of a generalized model (or models) that reflects all the factors and relationships of the real situation that may appear in the process of implementing a decision. The resulting model is examined to determine the proximity of the result of applying one or another of the alternative options of action to the desired one, the comparative costs of resources for each of the options, the degree of sensitivity of the model to various undesirable external influences. System analysis is based on a number of applied mathematical disciplines and methods widely used in modern activities management. The technical basis of system analysis is modern computers and Information Systems. In system analysis, methods of system dynamics, game theory, heuristic programming, simulation modeling, program-target control, etc. are widely used. Important feature system analysis is the unity of the formalized and informal means and research methods used in it.

Literature:

1. Gvishiani D.M. Organization and management. M., 1972;

2. Cleland D.,King W. System analysis and target management. M., 1974;

3. Nappelbaum E.L. System analysis as a program scientific research– structure and key concepts. – In the book: System Research. Methodological problems. Yearbook 1979. M., 1980;

4. Larichev O.I. Methodological problems practical application system analysis. - There; Blauberg I.V.,Mirsky E.M.,Sadovsky V.N.Systems approach and systems analysis. – In the book: System Research. Methodological problems. Yearbook 1982. M., 1982;

5. Blauberg I.V. The problem of integrity and a systematic approach. M., 1997;

6. Yudin E.G. Methodology of science. Systematicity. Activity. M., 1997.

7. See also lit. to Art. System , Systems approach.

V.N.Sadovsky

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Lecture 1: System analysis as a methodology for problem solving

It is necessary to be able to think abstractly in order to perceive the world around us in a new way.

R. Feynman

One of the directions of restructuring in higher education is to overcome the shortcomings of narrow specialization, strengthen interdisciplinary connections, develop a dialectical vision of the world, and systems thinking. IN syllabus Many universities have already introduced general and special courses that implement this trend: for engineering specialties - “design methods”, “systems engineering”; for military and economic specialties - “operations research”; in administrative and political management - “political science”, “futurology”; in applied scientific research - “simulation modeling”, “experimental methodology”, etc. Among these disciplines is a course in systems analysis - a typically inter- and supradisciplinary course that generalizes the methodology for studying complex technical, natural and social systems.

1.1 System analysis in the structure of modern systems research

Currently, there are 2 opposing trends in the development of sciences:

Differentiation, when, with an increase in knowledge and the emergence of new problems, special sciences are separated from more general sciences.
2. Integration, when more general sciences arise as a result of the generalization and development of certain sections of related sciences and their methods.

The processes of differentiation and integration are based on 2 fundamental principles of materialist dialectics:

principle of qualitative originality various forms movement of matter, def. the need to study certain aspects of the material world;
principle of material unity of the world, def. the need to obtain a holistic understanding of any objects of the material world.

As a result of the integrative trend, a new field has emerged scientific activity: systems research that aims to solve complex large-scale problems of great complexity.

Within the framework of systems research, such integration sciences are being developed as: cybernetics, operations research, systems engineering, systems analysis, artificial intelligence and others. Those. we are talking about creating a 5th generation computer (to remove all intermediaries between the computer and the machine. The user is unqualified), an intelligent interface is used.

Systems analysis develops a system methodology for solving complex applied problems, based on the principles of a systems approach and general theory systems, development and methodologically generalizing the conceptual (ideological) and mathematical apparatus of cybernetics, operations research and systems engineering.

System analysis is a new scientific direction of the integration type, which develops a systemic methodology for decision-making and occupies a certain place in the structure of modern systems research.

Fig.1.1 - System analysis

systems research
systems approach
specific system concepts
general systems theory (metatheory in relation to specific systems)
dialectical materialism (philosophical problems of systems research)
scientific system theories and models (the doctrine of the earth's biosphere; probability theory; cybernetics, etc.)
technical systems theories and developments—operations research; systems engineering, systems analysis, etc.
particular theories of the system.

1.2 Classification of problems according to the degree of their structuring

According to the classification proposed by Simon and Newell, the entire set of problems, depending on the depth of their knowledge, is divided into 3 classes:

well-structured or quantitatively expressed problems that can be mathematically formalized and solved using formal methods;
unstructured or qualitatively expressed problems that are described only at the content level and are solved using informal procedures;
weakly structured (mixed problems), which contain quantitative and qualitative problems, and the qualitative, little-known and uncertain aspects of the problems tend to be domainized.

These problems are solved through the integrated use of formal methods and informal procedures. The classification is based on the degree of structuring of problems, and the structure of the entire problem is determined by 5 logical elements:

a goal or series of goals;
alternatives for achieving goals;
resources spent on implementing alternatives;
model or series of models;
5.criterion for choosing the preferred alternative.

The degree of structuring of the problem is determined by how well the specified elements of the problem are identified and understood.

It is typical that the same problem can occupy different places in the classification table. In the process of ever deeper study, comprehension and analysis, the problem can turn from unstructured to weakly structured, and then from weakly structured to structured. In this case, the choice of method for solving a problem is determined by its place in the classification table.

Fig.1.2 - Classification table

identifying the problem;
formulation of the problem;
solution to the problem;
unstructured problem (can be solved using heuristic methods);
methods of expert assessments;
poorly structured problem;
systems analysis methods;
well structured problem;
operations research methods;
decision-making;
implementation of the solution;
evaluation of the solution.

1.3 Principles for solving well-structured problems

To solve problems of this class, mathematical methods of I.O. are widely used. In operational research, the main stages can be distinguished:

Identifying competing strategies to achieve a goal.
Construction of a mathematical model of the operation.
Evaluating the effectiveness of competing strategies.
Choosing the optimal strategy for achieving goals.

The mathematical model of the operation is a functional:

E = f(x∈x → , (α), (β)) ⇒ extz

E - criterion for the effectiveness of operations;
x is the strategy of the operating party;
α is the set of conditions for carrying out operations;
β - set of conditions external environment.

The model allows you to evaluate the effectiveness of competing strategies and select the optimal strategy from among them.

persistence of the problem
restrictions
operational efficiency criterion
mathematical model of the operation
model parameters, but some of the parameters are usually unknown, therefore (6)
forecasting information (i.e. you need to predict a number of parameters)
competing strategies
analysis and strategies
optimal strategy
approved strategy (simpler, but which also satisfies a number of criteria)
implementation of the solution
model adjustment

The criterion for the effectiveness of an operation must satisfy a number of requirements:

Representativeness, i.e. the criterion should reflect the main, and not the secondary, purpose of the operation.
Criticality - i.e. the criterion must change when the operation parameters change.
Uniqueness, since only in this case is it possible to find a rigorous mathematical solution to the optimization problem.
Taking into account stochasticity, which is usually associated with the random nature of some operation parameters.
Accounting for uncertainty, which is associated with the lack of any information about certain parameters of operations.
Taking into account the counteraction that is often caused by a conscious enemy who controls the full parameters of operations.
Simple, because a simple criterion allows you to simplify the mathematical calculations when searching for opt. solutions.

We present a diagram that illustrates the basic requirements for the effectiveness criterion of operations research.

Rice. 1.4 — Diagram that illustrates the requirements for an operations research performance criterion

statement of the problem (2 and 4 (limitations) follow);
efficiency criterion;
top level tasks
restrictions (we organize nesting of models);
communication with top-level models;
representativeness;
criticality;
uniqueness;
taking into account stochasticity;
accounting for uncertainty;
taking into account counteraction (game theory);
simplicity;
mandatory restrictions;
additional restrictions;
artificial restrictions;
selection of the main criterion;
translation of restrictions;
construction of a generalized criterion;
assessment of mathematical performance;
constructing confidence intervals:
analysis possible options(there is a system; we do not know exactly what the intensity of the input flow is; we can only assume one or another intensity with a certain probability; then we weigh the output options).

Uniqueness - so that the problem can be solved using strictly mathematical methods.

Points 16, 17 and 18 are methods that allow you to get rid of multi-criteria.

Accounting for stochasticity - most of the parameters have a stochastic value. In some cases stoch. we set it in the form distribution functions, therefore, the criterion itself must be averaged, i.e. apply mathematical expectations, therefore, paragraphs 19, 20, 21.

1.4 Principles for solving unstructured problems

To solve problems of this class, it is advisable to use expert assessment methods.

Expert assessment methods are used in cases where the mathematical formalization of problems is either impossible due to their novelty and complexity, or requires a lot of time and money. Common to all methods of expert assessments is the appeal to the experience, guidance and intuition of specialists performing the functions of experts. Giving answers to the question posed, experts are, as it were, sensors of information that is analyzed and summarized. It can be argued, therefore: if there is a true answer in the range of answers, then a set of disparate opinions can be effectively synthesized into some generalized opinion close to reality. Any method of expert assessments is a set of procedures aimed at obtaining information of heuristic origin and processing this information using mathematical and statistical methods.

The process of preparing and conducting the examination includes the following stages:

definition of chains of examination;
formation of a group of specialist analysts;
formation of a group of experts;
development of examination scenario and procedures;
collection and analysis of expert information;
processing of expert information;
analysis of examination results and decision-making.

When forming a group of experts, it is necessary to take into account their individual characteristics, which affect the results of the examination:

competence (level of professional training)
creativity (human creative abilities)
constructive thinking (don’t “fly” in the clouds)
conformism (susceptibility to the influence of authority)
attitude towards examination
collectivism and self-criticism

Expert assessment methods are used quite successfully in the following situations:

selection of goals and topics of scientific research
selection of options for complex technical and socio-economic projects and programs
construction and analysis of models of complex objects
construction of criteria in vector optimization problems
classification of homogeneous objects according to the degree of expression of any property
assessment of product quality and new technology
decision making in production management problems
long-term and current production planning, research and development work
scientific, technical and economic forecasting, etc. and so on.

1.5 Principles for solving semi-structured problems

To solve problems of this class, it is advisable to use systems analysis methods. Problems solved using system analysis have a number of characteristic features:

the decision being made relates to the future (a plant that does not exist yet)
there is a wide range of alternatives
solutions depend on current incomplete technological advances
decisions made require large investments of resources and contain elements of risk
Requirements related to cost and time to resolve the problem are not fully defined
the internal problem is complex due to the fact that its solution requires a combination of various resources.

The basic concepts of systems analysis are as follows:

the process of solving a problem should begin with identifying and justifying the final goal that they want to achieve in a particular area, and on this basis intermediate goals and objectives are determined
any problem must be approached as a complex system, identifying all possible sub-problems and relationships, as well as the consequences of certain decisions
in the process of solving a problem, many alternatives to achieve the goal are formed; evaluating these alternatives using appropriate criteria and selecting the preferred alternative
The organizational structure of a problem-solving mechanism must be subordinated to a goal or set of goals, and not vice versa.

System analysis is a multi-step iterative process, and the starting point of this process is the formulation of the problem in some initial form. When formulating a problem, it is necessary to take into account 2 conflicting requirements:

the problem should be formulated broadly enough so that nothing essential is missed;
the problem must be formed in such a way that it is visible and can be structured. In the course of system analysis, the degree of structuring of the problem increases, i.e. the problem is formulated more and more clearly and comprehensively.

Rice. 1.5 - One step of system analysis

formulation of the problem
rationale for the purpose
formation of alternatives
resource research
building a model
evaluation of alternatives
decision making (choosing one solution)
sensitivity analysis
verification of source data
clarification of the final goal
search for new alternatives
analysis of resources and criteria

1.6 Main stages and methods of SA

SA provides for: development of a systematic method for solving the problem, i.e. a logically and procedurally organized sequence of operations aimed at selecting a preferred solution alternative. SA is implemented practically in several stages, but there is still no unity regarding their number and content, because There is a wide variety of applied problems.

Let us present a table that illustrates the main patterns of SA from three different scientific schools.

Main stages of system analysis
According to F. Hansman Germany, 1978	According to D. Jeffers USA, 1981	According to V.V. Druzhinin USSR, 1988
General orientation to the problem (outline statement of the problem) Selecting Appropriate Criteria Formation alternative solutions Identification of significant environmental factors Model building and testing Estimation and forecast of model parameters Getting information from the model Preparing to choose a solution Implementation and control	Selecting a Problem Statement of the problem and limiting the degree of its complexity Establishing hierarchy, goals and objectives Choosing ways to solve a problem Modeling Assessing possible strategies Implementation of results	Isolating the problem Description Setting criteria Idealization (extreme simplification, attempt to build a model) Decomposition (breaking down into parts, finding solutions in parts) Composition (“gluing” parts together) Making the best decision

The scientific tools of SA include the following methods:

scripting method (trying to describe the system)
goal tree method (there is an ultimate goal, it is divided into subgoals, subgoals into problems, etc., i.e. decomposition into problems that we can solve)
method morphological analysis(for inventions)
expert assessment methods
probabilistic statistical methods(theory of MO, games, etc.)
cybernetic methods (object in the form of a black box)
IR methods (scalar opt)
vector optimization methods
simulation methods (for example, GPSS)
network methods
matrix methods
methods of economic analysis, etc.

In the process of SA at its different levels, various methods, in which heuristics are combined with formalism. SA plays the role of a methodological framework that unites all necessary methods, research techniques, activities, and problem-solving resources.

1.7 System of preferences of decision-makers and a systematic approach to the decision-making process.

The decision-making process consists of choosing a rational solution from a certain set of alternative solutions, taking into account the decision-maker’s system of preferences. Like any process in which a person participates, it has 2 sides: objective and subjective.

The objective side is what is really outside the human consciousness, and the subjective side is what is reflected in the human consciousness, i.e. objective in the human mind. The objective is not always reflected adequately in a person’s consciousness, but it does not follow from this that there cannot be correct decisions. A practically correct decision is one that in its main features correctly reflects the situation and corresponds to the task at hand.

The decision maker’s preference system is determined by many factors:

understanding the problem and development prospects;
current information about the state of some operation and the external conditions of its occurrence;
directives from higher authorities and various kinds of restrictions;
legal, economic, social, psychological factors, traditions, etc.

Rice. 1.6 — System of preferences for decision makers

directives from higher authorities on the goals and objectives of operations (technical processes, forecasting)
restrictions on resources, degree of independence, etc.
information processing
operation
external conditions (external environment), a) determination; b) stochastic (the computer fails after a random interval t); c) organized opposition
information about external conditions
rational decision
control synthesis (system dependent)

Being in this grip, the decision maker must normalize the many potentially possible solutions from them. Of these, select 4-5 best and from them - 1 solution.

A systematic approach to the decision-making process consists of implementing 3 interrelated procedures:

Many potential solutions are highlighted.
From among them, many competing solutions are selected.
A rational solution is selected taking into account the decision maker’s system of preferences.

Rice. 1.7 — Systematic approach to the decision-making process

possible solutions
competing solutions
rational decision
purpose and objectives of the operation
operation status information
information about external conditions
1. stochastic
2. organized opposition
resource limitation
limitation on the degree of independence
additional restrictions and conditions
1. legal factors
2. economic forces
3. sociological factors
4. psychological factors
5. traditions and more
performance criterion

Modern systems analysis is an applied science aimed at identifying the causes of real difficulties that arose before the “problem owner” and developing options for eliminating them. In its most developed form, system analysis also includes direct, practical improving intervention in a problem situation.

Systematicity should not seem like some kind of innovation, the latest achievement of science. Consistency is a universal property of matter, the form of its existence, and therefore an integral property of human practice, including thinking. Any activity can be less or more systematic. The appearance of a problem is a sign of insufficient systematicity; the solution to the problem is the result of increased systematicity. Theoretical thought on different levels abstractions reflected the systematic nature of the world in general and the systematic nature of human cognition and practice. At the philosophical level it is dialectical materialism, at the general scientific level it is systemology and general theory of systems, theory of organization; in natural sciences - cybernetics. With the development of computer technology, computer science and artificial intelligence emerged.

In the early 80s, it became obvious that all these theoretical and applied disciplines form a kind of single stream, a “systemic movement.” Systematicity becomes not only a theoretical category, but also a conscious aspect practical activities. Since large and complex systems have necessarily become the subject of study, management and design, a generalization of methods for studying systems and methods of influencing them was required. A certain applied science had to emerge, which would be a “bridge” between abstract theories of systematicity and living systemic practice. It arose - first, as we noted, in various fields and under different names, and in recent years it has formed into a science that is called “system analysis.”

The features of modern systems analysis arise from the very nature of complex systems. Having as a goal the elimination of a problem or, at a minimum, the clarification of its causes, system analysis involves a wide range of means for this purpose, using the capabilities of various sciences and practical fields of activity. Being essentially an applied dialectic, systems analysis attaches great importance to the methodological aspects of any systems research. On the other hand, the applied orientation of system analysis leads to the use of all modern means scientific research - mathematics, computer technology, modeling, field observations and experiments.

During the study real system usually you have to deal with a wide variety of problems; It is impossible for one person to be a professional in each of them. The solution seems to be that whoever undertakes to carry out system analysis has the education and experience necessary to identify and classify specific problems, to determine which specialists should be contacted to continue the analysis. This places special demands on systems specialists: they must have broad erudition, relaxed thinking, the ability to attract people to work, and organize collective activities.

After listening to a real course of lectures, or reading several books on this topic, you cannot become a specialist in systems analysis. As W. Shakespeare put it: “If doing were as easy as knowing what to do, chapels would be cathedrals, huts palaces.” Professionalism is acquired through practice.

Let's consider an interesting forecast of the most rapidly expanding areas of employment in the United States: Dynamics in % 1990-2000.

average medical staff — 70%
Radiation technology specialists - 66%
travel agents - 54%
computer systems analysts - 53%
programmers - 48%
electronics engineers - 40%

Development of system views

What does the word “system” mean? large system"What does it mean to act systematically?" We will receive answers to these questions gradually, increasing the level of systematicity of our knowledge, which is the goal of this course of lectures. For now, we have enough of those associations that arise when using the word “system” in ordinary speech in combination with the words “socio-political”, “Solar”, “nervous”, “heating” or “equations”, “indicators”, “views” and beliefs." Subsequently, we will consider in detail and comprehensively the signs of systematicity, but now we will note only the most obvious and obligatory of them:

structure of the system;
interconnectedness of its constituent parts;
subordination of the organization of the entire system to a specific goal.

Systematicity of practical activities

In relation to, for example, human activity These signs are obvious, since each of us can easily detect them in our own practical activities. Every conscious action we take pursues a very specific goal; in any action it is easy to see its component parts, smaller actions. In this case, the components are performed not in any random order, but in a certain sequence. This is a specific, goal-oriented interconnectedness components, which is a sign of systematicity.

Systematic and algorithmic

Another name for this type of activity is algorithmic. The concept of an algorithm arose first in mathematics and meant specifying a precisely defined sequence of unambiguously understood operations on numbers or other mathematical objects. In recent years, the algorithmic nature of any activity has begun to be realized. They are already talking not only about adoption algorithms management decisions, about learning algorithms, algorithms for playing chess, but also about algorithms for invention, algorithms for music composition. We emphasize that in this case a departure is made from the mathematical understanding of the algorithm: while maintaining the logical sequence of actions, it is allowed that the algorithm may contain unformalized actions. Thus, explicit algorithmization of any practical activity is an important property of its development.

Systematicity of cognitive activity

One of the features of cognition is the presence of analytical and synthetic modes of thinking. The essence of analysis is to divide the whole into parts, to present the complex as a collection of simpler components. But in order to understand the whole, the complex, it is necessary to reverse process- synthesis. This applies not only to individual thinking, but also to universal human knowledge. Let's just say that the division of thinking into analysis and synthesis and the interconnectedness of these parts are the most important sign of the systematic nature of cognition.

Systematicity as a universal property of matter

Here it is important for us to highlight the idea that consistency is not only a property of human practice, including external active activity and thinking, but a property of all matter. The systematic nature of our thinking follows from the systematic nature of the world. Modern scientific data and modern systemic concepts allow us to talk about the world as an endless hierarchical system of systems that are in development and at different stages of development, at different levels of the system hierarchy.

Summarize

In conclusion, as food for thought, we present a diagram depicting the connection between the issues discussed above.

Fig 1.8 - Connection of the issues discussed above

System Analysis – This is a methodology of systems theory, which consists in the study of any objects represented as systems, their structuring and subsequent analysis. main feature

system analysis lies in the fact that it includes not only methods of analysis (from the Greek. analysis – division of an object into elements), but also methods of synthesis (from the Greek. synthesis - connecting elements into a single whole).

The main goal of systems analysis is to detect and eliminate uncertainty in solving a complex problem by finding the best solution from existing alternatives.

The problem in systems analysis is a complex theoretical or practical question, requiring permission. At the heart of any problem is the resolution of some contradiction. For example, choosing an innovative project that would meet the strategic goals of the enterprise and its capabilities is a particular problem. Therefore the search the best solutions When choosing innovative strategies and tactics, innovation activities must be carried out on the basis of system analysis. The implementation of innovative projects and innovative activities is always associated with elements of uncertainty that arise in the process of nonlinear development of both these systems themselves and environmental systems.

The methodology of system analysis is based on the operations of quantitative comparison and selection of alternatives in the decision-making process to be implemented. If the requirement for the quality criteria of alternatives is met, then their quantitative assessments can be obtained. In order for quantitative assessments to allow comparison of alternatives, they must reflect the criteria for choosing alternatives involved in the comparison (result, efficiency, cost, etc.).

In systems analysis, problem solving is defined as an activity that maintains or improves the characteristics of a system or creates a new system with specified qualities. Techniques and methods of system analysis are aimed at developing alternative options for solving a problem, identifying the extent of uncertainty for each option and comparing options according to their effectiveness (criteria). Moreover, the criteria are built on a priority basis. System analysis can be represented as a set of basic logical elements:

– the purpose of the research is to solve the problem and obtain a result;
– resources – scientific means of solving the problem (methods);
– alternatives – solution options and the need to choose one of several solutions;
– criteria – a means (sign) for assessing the solvability of a problem;
– a model for creating a new system.

Moreover, the formulation of the goal of system analysis plays a decisive role, since it gives a mirror image existing problem, the desired result of its solution and a description of the resources with which this result can be achieved (Fig. 4.2).

Rice. 4.2.

The goal is specified and transformed in relation to performers and conditions. Goal more high order always contains an initial uncertainty that must be taken into account. Despite this, the goal must be specific and unambiguous. Its staging should allow for the initiative of the performers. “It is much more important to choose the “right” goal than the “right” system,” pointed out Hall, author of a book on systems engineering; “to choose the wrong goal means to solve the wrong problem; and to choose the wrong system means simply to choose a suboptimal system.”

If the available resources cannot ensure the implementation of the set goal, then we will receive unplanned results. The goal is the desired result. Therefore, appropriate resources must be selected to achieve goals. If resources are limited, then the goal must be adjusted, i.e. plan the results that can be obtained with a given set of resources. Therefore, the formulation of goals in innovation activities must have specific parameters.

Basic tasks system analysis:

decomposition problem, i.e. decomposition of the system (problem) into separate subsystems (tasks);
the task of analysis is to determine the laws and patterns of system behavior by detecting system properties and attributes;
the task of synthesis is to create a new model of the system, determining its structure and parameters based on the knowledge and information obtained when solving problems.

The general structure of system analysis is presented in Table. 4.1.

Table 4.1

Main tasks and functions of system analysis

System Analysis Framework
decomposition
Definition and decomposition of the overall goal, main function	Functional structural analysis	Development of a new system model
Isolating the system from the environment	Morphological analysis (analysis of the relationship of components)	Structural synthesis
Description of influencing factors	Genetic analysis (analysis of background, trends, forecasting)	Parametric synthesis
Description of development trends, uncertainties	Analysis of analogues	Evaluation of the new system
Description as a "black box"	Performance Analysis
Functional, component and structural decomposition	Formation of requirements for the system being created

In the concept of system analysis, the process of solving any complex problem is considered as a solution to a system of interrelated problems, each of which is solved by its own subject-matter methods, and then a synthesis of these solutions is made, assessed by the criterion (or criteria) for achieving the solvability of a given problem. The logical structure of the decision-making process within the framework of system analysis is presented in Fig. 4.3.

Rice. 4.3.

In innovation, there cannot be ready-made decision models, since the conditions for innovation can change; a methodology is needed that allows, at a certain stage, to form a solution model that is adequate to existing conditions.

In order to make “weighted” design, management, social, economic and other decisions, a wide scope and comprehensive analysis of factors that significantly influence the problem being solved is required.

System analysis is based on many principles that determine its main content and difference from other types of analysis. This needs to be known, understood and applied in the process of implementing a systemic analysis of innovation activity.

These include the following principles :

1) the final goal - formulating the purpose of the study, determining the main properties of the functioning system, its purpose (goal setting), quality indicators and criteria for assessing the achievement of the goal;
2) measurements. The essence of this principle is the comparability of system parameters with system parameters top level, i.e. external environment. The quality of functioning of any system can only be judged in relation to its results to the supersystem, i.e. to determine the effectiveness of the functioning of the system under study, it is necessary to present it as part of a higher-level system and evaluate its results in relation to the goals and objectives of the supersystem or the environment;
3) equifinality - determination of form sustainable development system in relation to the initial and boundary conditions, i.e. determination of its potential. The system can reach the required final state regardless of time and determined solely by the system's own characteristics under different initial conditions and in different ways;
4) unity – consideration of the system as a whole and a set of interconnected elements. The principle is focused on a “look inside” the system, on dismembering it while maintaining holistic ideas about the system;
5) relationships - procedures for determining connections, both within the system itself (between elements) and with the external environment (with other systems). In accordance with this principle, the system under study, first of all, should be considered as a part (element, subsystem) of another system, called a supersystem;
6) modular construction - identifying functional modules and describing the totality of their input and output parameters, which avoids excessive detail to create an abstract model of the system. The selection of modules in the system allows us to consider it as a set of modules;
7) hierarchy - determining the hierarchy of the functional and structural parts of the system and their ranking, which simplifies the development of a new system and establishes the order of its consideration (research);
8) functionality – joint consideration of the structure and functions of the system. If new functions are introduced into the system, a new structure should be developed, rather than incorporating new functions into the old structure. Functions are associated with processes that require analysis of various flows (material, energy, information), which in turn affects the state of the elements of the system and the system itself as a whole. Structure always limits flows in space and time;
9) development - determination of the patterns of its functioning and potential for development (or growth), adaptation to changes, expansion, improvement, integration of new modules based on the unity of development goals;
10) decentralization - a combination of centralization and decentralization functions in the management system;
11) uncertainty - taking into account uncertainty factors and random impact factors, both in the system itself and from the external environment. Identification of uncertainty factors as risk factors allows them to be analyzed and a risk management system to be created.

The principle of the ultimate goal serves to determine absolute priority the final (global) goal in the process of system analysis. This principle dictates the following rules:

1) first it is necessary to formulate the objectives of the study;
2) the analysis is carried out based on the main purpose of the system. This makes it possible to determine its main essential properties, quality indicators and evaluation criteria;
3) in the process of synthesis of solutions, any changes must be assessed from the standpoint of achieving the final goal;
4) the purpose of the functioning of an artificial system is set, as a rule, by a supersystem in which the system under study is an integral part.

The process of implementing system analysis when solving any problem can be characterized as a sequence of main stages (Fig. 4.4).

Rice. 4.4.

At the stage decomposition are carried out:

1) determination and decomposition of the general goals of solving the problem, the main function of the system as a limitation of development in space, the state of the system or the area of acceptable conditions of existence (a tree of goals and a tree of functions are determined);
2) isolating the system from the environment according to the criterion of participation of each element of the system in the process leading to the desired result based on considering the system as an integral part of the supersystem;
3) identification and description of influencing factors;
4) description of development trends and uncertainties of various types;
5) description of the system as a “black box”;
6) decomposition of the system according to functional characteristics, according to the type of elements included in it, but structural features (based on the type of relationships between elements).

The level of decomposition is determined based on the stated purpose of the study. Decomposition is carried out in the form of subsystems, which can be a sequential (cascade) connection of elements, parallel connection elements and connection of elements with feedback.

At the stage analysis A detailed study of the system is being carried out, which includes:

1) functional-structural analysis existing system, allowing you to formulate requirements for the new system. It includes clarification of the composition and patterns of functioning of elements, algorithms for the functioning and interaction of subsystems (elements), separation of controlled and uncontrollable characteristics, setting the state space, time parameters, analysis of the integrity of the system, formation of requirements for the created system;
2) analysis of the relationships between components (morphological analysis);
3) genetic analysis (background, reasons for the development of the situation, existing trends, making forecasts);
4) analysis of analogues;
5) analysis of the effectiveness of results, use of resources, timeliness and efficiency. The analysis includes the selection of measurement scales, the formation of indicators and performance criteria, and evaluation of results;
6) formulation of system requirements, formulation of evaluation criteria and limitations.

During the analysis process they use various ways problem solving.

At the stage synthesis :

1) a model of the required system will be created. This includes: a certain mathematical apparatus, modeling, evaluating the model for adequacy, efficiency, simplicity, errors, balance between complexity and accuracy, various options implementation, block and systematic construction;
2) a synthesis of alternative system structures is made to solve the problem;
3) a synthesis of various system parameters is carried out in order to eliminate the problem;
4) an assessment is made of options for the synthesized system with justification for the assessment scheme itself, processing of the results and selection of the most effective solution;
5) assessment of the degree of solution of the problem is carried out upon completion of the system analysis.

As for the methods of system analysis, they should be considered in more detail, since their number is quite large and suggests the possibility of their use in solving specific problems in the process of problem decomposition. A special place in system analysis is occupied by the modeling method, which implements the principle of adequacy in systems theory, i.e. description of the system as an adequate model. Model – this is a simplified likeness of a complex object-system in which its characteristic properties are preserved.

In system analysis, the modeling method plays a decisive role, since any real complex system during research and design can only be represented a certain model(conceptual, mathematical, structural, etc.).

In systems analysis, special methods modeling:

– simulation modeling, based on statistical methods and programming languages;
– situational modeling, based on methods of set theory, theory of algorithms, mathematical logic and representation problem situations;
– information modeling, based on mathematical methods of the theory of the information field and information chains.

In addition, inductive and reduction modeling methods are widely used in system analysis.

Inductive modeling is carried out with the aim of obtaining information about the specifics of an object-system, its structure and elements, methods of their interaction based on the analysis of particulars and bringing this information to general description. The inductive method of modeling complex systems is used when it is impossible to adequately represent a model of the internal structure of an object. This method allows you to create a generalized model of an object-system, preserving the specificity of organizational properties, connections and relationships between elements, which distinguishes it from another system. When constructing such a model, methods of logic and probability theory are often used, i.e. such a model becomes logical or hypothetical. Then the generalized parameters of the structural and functional organization of the system are determined and their patterns are described using methods of analytical and mathematical logic.

Reduction modeling is used to obtain information about the laws and patterns of interaction in the system various elements in order to preserve the entire structural formation.

With this research method, the elements themselves are replaced by a description of them. external properties. The use of the reduction modeling method makes it possible to solve problems of determining the properties of elements, the properties of their interaction and the properties of the system structure itself, in accordance with the principles of the whole formation. This method is used to find methods for decomposing elements and changing the structure, giving the system as a whole new qualities. This method meets the goals of synthesizing the properties of the system based on the study of the internal potential for change. The practical result of using the synthesis method in reduction modeling is a mathematical algorithm for describing the processes of interaction of elements in the whole formation.

The main methods of system analysis represent a set of quantitative and qualitative methods that can be presented in the form of a table. 4.2. According to the classification of V.N. Volkova and A.A. Denisov, all methods can be divided into two main types: methods of formal representation of systems (MFPS) and methods and methods of activating the intuition of specialists (MAIS).

Table 4.2

System analysis methods

Let's consider the content of the main methods of formal representation of systems that use mathematical tools.

Analytical methods including methods of classical mathematics: integral and differential calculus, search for extrema of functions, calculus of variations; mathematical programming; methods of game theory, algorithm theory, risk theory, etc. These methods make it possible to describe a number of properties of a multidimensional and multiply connected system, displayed in the form of a single point moving in n -dimensional space. This mapping is done using the function f (s ) or through an operator (functional) F (S ). It is also possible to represent two or more systems or their parts by points and consider the interaction of these points. Each of these points moves and has its own behavior in n -dimensional space. This behavior of points in space and their interaction are described by analytical laws and can be presented in the form of quantities, functions, equations or systems of equations.

The use of analytical methods is due only when all system properties can be represented in the form of deterministic parameters or dependencies between them. It is not always possible to obtain such parameters in the case of multicomponent, multicriteria systems. To do this, it is necessary to first establish the degree of adequacy of the description of such a system using analytical methods. This, in turn, requires the use of intermediate, abstract models that can be studied by analytical methods, or the development of completely new ones. system methods analysis.

Statistical methods are the basis of the following theories: probability, mathematical statistics, operations research, statistical simulation modeling, queuing, including the Monte Carlo method, etc. Statistical methods allow you to display a system using random (stochastic) events, processes that are described by corresponding probabilistic (statistical) characteristics and statistical patterns. Statistical methods are used to study complex non-deterministic (self-developing, self-governing) systems.

Set-theoretic methods, according to M. Mesarovich, they serve as the basis for the creation of a general theory of systems. Using such methods, the system can be described in universal concepts (set, element of a set, etc.). When describing, it is possible to introduce any relationships between elements, guided by mathematical logic, which is used as a formal descriptive language of relationships between elements of different sets. Set-theoretic methods make it possible to describe complex systems using a formal modeling language.

It is advisable to use such methods in cases where complex systems cannot be described by methods of one subject area. Set-theoretic methods of system analysis are the basis for the creation and development of new programming languages and the creation of computer-aided design systems.

Boolean Methods are a language for describing systems in terms of logical algebra. The most widespread logical methods are called Boolean algebra as a binary representation of the state of the computer's elemental circuits. Logical methods make it possible to describe a system in the form of more simplified structures based on the laws of mathematical logic. On the basis of such methods, new theories of formal description of systems are being developed in the theories of logical analysis and automata. All these methods expand the possibility of using system analysis and synthesis in applied computer science. These methods are used to create models of complex systems that are adequate to the laws of mathematical logic for constructing stable structures.

Linguistic methods. With their help, special languages are created that describe systems in the form of thesaurus concepts. A thesaurus is a set of semantic units of a certain language with a system of semantic relations specified in it. Such methods have found their application in applied computer science.

Semiotic methods are based on the concepts: symbol (sign), sign system, sign situation, i.e. used to symbolically describe content in information systems.

Linguistic and semiotic methods have become widely used in the case when, for the first stage of research, it is impossible to formalize decision-making in poorly formalized situations and it is impossible to use analytical and statistical methods. These methods are the basis for the development of programming languages, modeling, and automation of the design of systems of varying complexity.

Graphic methods. They are used to display objects as an image of the system, and also allow you to display system structures and connections in a generalized form. Graphic methods can be volumetric or linear-planar. Mainly used in the form of Gantt charts, histograms, charts, diagrams and drawings. Such methods and the representation obtained with their help make it possible to visually display a situation or decision-making process in changing conditions.

Alekseeva M. B. System approach and system analysis in economics.

Alekseeva M. B., Balan S. N. Fundamentals of systems theory and system analysis.

“What is right” (and the rules of law even more so!) we put the rights and freedoms of a person, a citizen or the measures and forms of freedom of the individual, then whether we want it or not, when analyzing the structure of the rule of law (and the law!) we cannot do without without this person, citizen, individual. In the hypothesis, disposition and sanction, it “is not visible, it is simply hidden there somewhere...”, and even more so in rights and freedoms.

This, however, does not fit well with the ideas of a democratic, humane society and rule of law, not to mention human freedom, personality. Moreover, if we adhere to the concept of market legal understanding, then various participants in social relations (and not only the subjects mentioned by G.O. Petrov) can act as subjects in the structure of legal norms. It is also necessary to keep in mind that the legal norm is often addressed to a circle of persons defined by specific characteristics (citizens, parents, spouses, tax inspectors, bailiffs, etc.).

Unlike an order addressed to precisely designated subjects and valid until its execution (decision on the construction of a building, transfer of precisely defined property, payment of a bonus, dismissal), the rule of law is not limited to execution. It is directed to the future in the sense that it is designed not only for a given, present case, but also for a type, an indefinite number of defined in general form cases and relationships (conclusion of an agreement, transfer of property, marriage, birth of a child) and is implemented every time the circumstances and situations envisaged by it arise.

In relation to procedural norms, as shown by R.V. Shagieva, the subject is very important. It is characterized by many specific features and aspects. In particular, the procedural state can also be associated with the natural properties of inanimate objects. Based on the natural properties of things, the legislator creates norms for the behavior of subjects associated with these things. Such conditions include storage of material sources of evidence and various items, valuables, and money. A similar situation arises in connection with the choice of a preventive measure in the form of bail: the bail in monetary terms or in the form of valuables is deposited with the court by the accused, suspect or other person and is kept by the court until the need for this preventive measure is no longer necessary. It also occurs when applying such a measure to secure a claim as seizure of property or sums of money belonging to the defendant.

Such a possible element of a procedural legal norm as an indication of the subject often appears in legislation because procedural norms are almost always designed not for everyone, but only for certain persons (subjects) who may turn out to be

in the field of legal process. This is a court elected in the manner prescribed by law, a prosecutor, an investigator, arbitration, a labor dispute commission, the administration of an organization, etc. However, this also applies to participants in the process (for example, a person who speaks languages whose knowledge is necessary in the case, and who is appointed by the inquiry body, investigator, prosecutor as a translator). Moreover, most procedural norms are not addressed to everyone, but only to a very specific participant in the social relations they regulate (court, plaintiff, defendant, defense attorney, etc.), therefore, an indication of the subject composition in them is often necessary. The content of the subject composition of procedural norms is usually a description of the quality of the subject acquired by birth or derived from any actions (citizenship, marriage, disability, length of service, kinship, specialty).

Due to the specific nature of their activities, certain persons cannot (and sometimes do not want) to exercise their procedural rights and obligations without the intervention of specially authorized government officials, without exercising their authority. Thus, a person to whom moral, physical or property harm has been caused by a crime is involved in criminal proceedings only after the person conducting the inquiry, the investigator and the judge make a decision recognizing him as a victim. All this affects the structure of procedural norms, suggesting the need for a clear indication of their subject composition.

An indication of the addressees of a criminal law norm is sometimes formulated not only in a positive, but also in a negative form. The procedural law contains big number articles devoted to conditions that exclude the possibility and necessity of participation of subjects in procedural actions. Thus, the translator must not only speak the required language, but also not have a direct or indirect interest in the outcome of the case (according to the law). The institutions of recusal, replacement of an improper party (in civil proceedings), etc. play a major role in determining the subject composition. Not very often in procedural legislation there is an indication of the immediate purpose of procedural actions. It is known that the investigative experiment is carried out “in order to verify and clarify data relevant to the case.”

Subjects in modern conditions must be included in the structure of any rule of law, or in any case, they must always be kept in mind, considered, put into effect, etc., and not denied or pretended that they simply do not exist. Moreover, in every norm, situation, etc. the subject will be his own, with his own set of traits, rights, responsibilities, line of behavior, etc. The subject - essential element legal norms

III. Problems of legal theory

Va. But what about other parts of the rule of law? With the same hypothesis, disposition and sanction? Without them, we would also never have received the full norm (with one link, two or three, it doesn’t matter). Hypothesis, disposition and sanction constitute the core of any rule of law, the basis of the logical structure of any legal norm.

The hypothesis, as before, acts as a part of the norm, indicating life circumstances, the occurrence of which will entail the “activation” of the action of one or another legal norm. They can be events (for example, a severe flood), a specific result of an action (submitting a manuscript to a publishing house), an age fact (60 years - men have the opportunity to raise the issue of a pension), time, place, etc. Hypotheses will be either simple (one condition, one circumstance) or complex (several circumstances necessary for the norm to operate).

The disposition acts as the “root” part of the rule of law, containing the very rule of behavior that the subjects of the relationship regulated by this rule must follow. The disposition most often indicates the rights and obligations of the subjects, contains instructions (instructions) on how those who will fall under it should act, i.e. a standard of desirable behavior is given.

The sanction determines the type and extent of consequences resulting from compliance or non-compliance with the disposition. The sanction of a rule of law is associated, first of all, with the type and measure of coercion applied to subjects who violate this rule. However, there is a certain number of sanctions that provide a positive result (receiving a bonus, gratitude, award) for performing any special, significant actions in accordance with the prescription of a legal norm. In this case, the sanction will also act as providing, first of all, the type and extent of coercive measures, negative, undesirable consequences for the subject.

The sanctions provide for the following options:

Deprivation of the subject of certain material values;

Deprivation of a subject (physical or legal) of belonging
the benefits due to him or the failure to provide those benefits with which
are used by other subjects of law (imprisonment, for
prohibition of production of non-standard products, transfer to special
former lending regime, etc.);

Belittling the honor and dignity of the subject (reprimanding
ra, dismissal from service);

Invalidation of acts of a subject (physical
or legal) aimed at achieving certain
legal results (recognition of the transaction as invalid
telny, cancellation of the right adopted in violation of competence
of the new act, etc.).

Sometimes scholars mistakenly equate sanction with legal liability. However, a sanction is an element of a legal norm that is implemented only in the event of an offense. It always exists, and responsibility comes only with a real violation of this norm. The sanction, as it were, precedes responsibility, providing in advance, indicating to law enforcement agencies the type and scope of responsibility that can be applied to the subject (citizen) for the offense he has committed. For the offender, in turn, the sanction indicates the methods that the relevant state bodies can resort to, the procedure, the limit of penalties, coercive and punitive methods of influence. It is generally accepted that sanctions are the legal basis for all types of liability.

The logical structure of a norm is of great importance for improving the practice of applying legal norms. The systematic nature of the law, the inextricable connection and consistency of the norms, the elements of which are contained in various regulations (or articles, sections of the law), require, when resolving any legal matter, to carefully study all those provisions of the law that are related to the applicable legal position.

The advantage of the four-element scheme is precisely that this scheme encourages legal scholars and practitioners not only to a comprehensive analysis of the normative material in its entirety, to determine the conditions for the application of the legal norm, its content, the consequences of its violation, but also to the analysis of problems subject, person, citizen, etc. in a democratic society, his rights and freedoms, the protection of these rights and freedoms, their promotion. Such an orientation is not provided by a two- or three-element scheme that fences off with a certain wall the right, rights and freedoms from a person, a citizen, an individual.

The rights and freedoms of man and citizen in Russia are recognized as the highest value (Article 2 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation). It turns out that this highest value of the subject (person, citizen) cannot be ignored in the structure of the rule of law as the initial element of law, but it must be placed in first place in comparison with all other elements of this rule. At the same time, it is important to take into account the rights and freedoms of man and citizen and their measures in a comprehensive study of the internal and external forms of law.

However, the internal and external forms of norms often do not coincide. It is very rare to find articles of laws that contain all the components of a rule of law (subject, hypothesis, disposition, sanction). The most common clauses are those that contain a disposition and a sanction, and the hypothesis must either be implied or contained in another clause. In the same way it can

III. Problems of legal theory

10. Systematic analysis of legal norms

It turns out that the disposition is contained in one article, the sanction in the second, and the subject in the third. Thus, in accordance with the Code of Criminal Procedure, “when bringing charges, the investigator is obliged to explain to the accused his rights provided for by law, about which a note is made on the decision to bring him as an accused, which is certified by the signature of the accused” (Article 149).

In this article there is a subject - “the accused”, “his rights”, a hypothesis - “when charges are brought (circumstances)”, there is a disposition - the rule: “is obliged to explain the rights and make a note in the resolution.” However, there is no sanction contained in Art. 213-214 of the Code of Criminal Procedure: when the prosecutor, approving the indictment, discovers that the requirements of this article have not been met, he will not approve the conclusion, but, returning it to the investigator, will force the latter to eliminate this violation. Returning the case for further investigation is a sanction.

In the process of law-making, the practice of presenting the rules of law in articles of normative acts has been developed, consisting in its multivariance, when one article normative act corresponds to one rule of law (the article and the rule coincide), i.e. in one article there is a subject, a hypothesis, a disposition, a sanction. This statement of legal norm is rare. One article of a normative act contains only one part of a rule of law, for example a disposition; one article of a normative act contains several rules of law; one article of a normative act contains two parts of a rule of law, for example, a hypothesis and a sanction (or a hypothesis and a disposition).

The most common option for presenting legal norms is when one norm is located in several articles of a normative act and even in several normative acts, for example, the subject is in one, the hypothesis is in the second, and the disposition is in the third normative act. This is due to the requirements (rules) of legislative technology, which require the brevity and compactness of the publication of a normative act. Otherwise, codexes would turn from easy-to-use, compact editions into bulky, heavy-duty volumes that would be very difficult to use.

Systemic, comprehensive analysis rules of law requires the development of a scientifically based classification of rules of law, which play an important role in law enforcement practice government agencies and other subjects. Theorists of state and law often begin by differentiating norms according to sectoral criteria (based on branches of law). Then they analyze the norms of substantive and procedural law, then differentiate the norms according to the form of the order (binding, empowering and prohibitive) and finally characterize the basic ones (program norms, norms-rules of behavior and general norms).

The classification of norms, if we adhere to the concept of civil law, must begin with the programmatic, initial norms of law. It is from them that the entire “legal beginning” of any democratic state begins, the entire (and not from branches) process of general knowledge, comprehension and, in the future, the construction of the entire regulatory and legal system of a democratic state. These are programmatic, basic (initial) norms, norms of rule-behavior and general norms.

Programmatic, initial norms are norms-principles, norms-definitions that serve as the starting point for the law-making bodies of a democratic state. They must be followed by all subjects, accepting all other norms. This is a kind of pointer, guideline and at the same time a requirement for the legislator. Such norms are mainly contained in constitutions. Constitutional law contains many programmatic ideas that are important for establishing order in many areas of social relations, but not through the emergence of specific legal relations, but by declaring the most general rules and principles that are aimed at creating specific norms.

An example is the norm contained in Art. 2 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation: “Human rights and freedoms in Russian Federation are the highest value,” or in Part 1 of Art. 68: " State language The Russian language is the Russian language throughout its entire territory.” The same norm will be established by Part 1 of Art. 129 provision that “the prosecutor’s office of the Russian Federation constitutes a single centralized system with the subordination of lower prosecutors to higher ones and the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation.”

Norms - rules of behavior - are the bulk of legal norms. These are the rules that make up the majority in all branches of law. Among them, regulatory and protective standards are the most common.

General norms are norms that extend their effect not to one branch or institution of law, but to several branches and institutions. This type of norm is most obvious in the general parts of a particular branch of law (criminal, administrative, penal, etc.). General norms cover the complex of relations they regulate as general rule for their participants. Programmatic, initial norms may be accompanied by norms on ways of influencing the behavior of subjects.

This classification of legal norms bears traces of the initial formation of law. During the period of formation of rights, its source

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