Oleg Fedorov's drawings are based on reliable archaeological and scientific data, many of them were created for major museums and private collectors from Russia, Ukraine and other countries. We have already talked about reconstruction in Fedorov’s watercolors, this time we will talk about the warriors of Ancient Rus'.
The druzhina culture in Ancient Rus' was formed simultaneously with the Old Russian statehood and embodied the ethnic, social and political processes of the 9th – early 11th centuries.
As historical materials show, the Slavs, the main population of the ancient Russian territories, were relatively weak in military-technical terms. The only weapons they used were arrows, spears and axes. The situation changed after the so-called “Rus” came to the territory of Ancient Rus'. According to scientists, this was the name given to warriors who came from northern Europe in ancient times. Along with the Rus, items of military weapons and protection that were progressive for that time appeared.
Among the archaeological materials, children's wooden swords and other “toy” weapons are often found. For example, a wooden sword was found with a handle width of about 5–6 cm and a total length of approximately 60 cm, which corresponds to the size of the palm of a boy aged 6–10 years. Thus, the games were used to teach skills that would be useful to future warriors in adulthood.
It is important to note that the “Russian” army at the initial stage of its existence fought exclusively on foot, which is confirmed by Byzantine and Arab written sources of that time. At first, the Rus viewed horses solely as a means of transportation. True, the horse breeds common at that time in Europe were quite short, so for a long time they simply could not carry a warrior-horseman in full armor.
By the end of the 10th century, military conflicts increasingly occurred between the detachments of the Rus and the troops of the Khazar Kaganate, as well as Byzantine Empire, who had strong and trained cavalry. Therefore, already in 944, Prince Igor’s allies in the campaign against Byzantium were the Pechenegs, whose detachments consisted of light horsemen. It was from the Pechenegs that the Rus began to buy specially trained horses for a new type of army. True, the first attempt of Russian troops in battle on horseback, made in 971 at the Battle of Dorostol, ended in failure. However, failure did not stop our ancestors, and since they still did not have enough cavalry of their own, the practice of attracting mounted detachments of nomads, who were even part of the ancient Russian squads, was introduced.
Old Russian warriors adopted from the steppe people not only the skills of mounted combat, but also borrowed weapons and clothing characteristic of the “horsemen” culture. It was at that time that sabers, spheroconic helmets, flails, caftans, tash bags, complex bows and other items of rider weapons and horse equipment appeared in Rus'. The words caftan, fur coat, feryaz, sarafan are of eastern (Turkic, Iranian, Arabic) origin, which, apparently, reflects the corresponding origin of the objects themselves.
Taking into account the fact that in most of the territory of Ancient Rus' the climatic conditions were quite harsh, historians suggest that woolen fabric could have been used when sewing Russian caftans. “They put on him trousers, leggings, boots, a jacket, and a brocade caftan with gold buttons, and they put a sable brocade hat on his head” - this is how the Arab traveler and geographer of the 10th century Ibn Fadlan describes the funeral of a noble Russian. The wearing of wide trousers gathered at the knee by the Russians is mentioned, in particular, by the Arab historian of the early 10th century, Ibn Ruste.
In some military burials of the ancient Rus, silver conical caps, decorated with filigree and grain, were found, which are presumably the ends of headdresses in the form of a cap with a fur trim. Scientists claim that this is exactly what the “Russian hat” made by the craftsmen of ancient Rus' looked like, the shape of which most likely belongs to nomadic cultures.
The need to conduct military operations mainly against steppe lightly armed horsemen led to a gradual change in Russian weapons towards greater lightness and flexibility. Therefore, at first, the completely European (Varangian) weapons of the Russian squads from the time of the campaigns against Byzantium gradually acquired more eastern features: Scandinavian swords were replaced by sabers, warriors moved from rooks to horses, and even heavy knightly armor, which over time became widespread in Europe, never had analogues in the works of ancient Russian gunsmiths.
Plate armor XIII century
Plate armor is armor consisting of metal plates to cover the body of a warrior. The plates of such armor could be very diverse: square, semicircular, wide rectangular, narrow oblong, with a thickness of 0.5 to 2 mm. Several small holes were made on the plates, through which the plates were attached to a leather or fabric base with threads or straps. On more ancient shells there was no base, the plates were connected only to each other, and the shell was put on a thick quilted jacket or chain mail. All the plates were convex and overlapped one another, which enhanced the protective properties of the armor.
Armor of such a system - “belt fastening” - existed in Rus' until the end of the 15th century.
“Give the Pecheneg prince Pretich a horse, a saber, arrows, and he will give him armor, a shield, a sword,” - this is how ancient armor was mentioned in The Tale of Bygone Years.
A well-protected horseman might not even have a chopping weapon in his hands. For the horseman, the mace and flail became very important weapons, which made it possible to quickly deliver stunning blows and quickly continue the battle in another place of the battle.
Helmet with half mask and aventail of the 12th-13th centuries
At the end of the 12th-13th centuries, in connection with the pan-European tendency to make defensive armor heavier, helmets appeared in Rus', equipped with a face mask, that is, a visor that protected the warrior’s face from both chopping and piercing blows. Face masks were equipped with slits for the eyes and nose holes, and covered the face either half (half mask) or entirely. A helmet with a mask was put on a balaclava and worn with an aventail, a chain mail mesh that usually covered the warrior’s entire face, neck and shoulders. Masks, in addition to their direct purpose - to protect the face of a warrior, were also supposed to intimidate the enemy with their appearance, for which they were designed accordingly.
Helmets, armor, shields - the entire set of defensive and offensive military armor - became an indispensable item of use in the turbulent and bloody time(XII-XIII centuries) Russian history. Feudal strife, wars with the Cumans, knights, Lithuania, the Mongol invasion... The chronicles are replete with records of battles, campaigns, and enemy raids. Here is one of these messages (year 1245): “Lithuania fought near Torzhok and Bezhitsa; and the New Torzhians chased after them with Prince Yaroslav Volodymyrich and fought with them, and took away the New Torzhians’ horses and Samekh Bisha, and went on a ride with a whole lot of other things...” (Novgorod First Chronicle).
Slashing weapon
A very common chopping weapon in the ancient Russian army was the ax, which was used by princes, princely warriors, and militias, both on foot and on horseback. However, there was a difference: those on foot more often used large axes, while those on horseback used “axes,” that is, short axes. For both of them, the ax was put on wooden ax handle with a metal tip. The back flat part of the ax was called the butt, and the hatchet was called the butt. The blades of the axes were trapezoidal in shape. The axes themselves were divided into hammer-axes and mace-axes.
A large wide ax was called a “berdysh”. Its blade - the “piece of iron” - was long and was mounted on a long ax handle, which had an iron frame, or thread, at the lower end. Berdysh were used only by infantrymen. In the 16th century, berdysh were widely used in the Streltsy army.
At the beginning of the 17th century, halberds appeared in the Russian army (initially among the entourage of False Dmitry) - modified axes of various shapes, ending in a spear. The blade was mounted on a long shaft (or axe) and was often decorated with gilding or embossing.
A type of metal hammer, pointed at the butt side, was called “chase”, or “klevets”. The coin was mounted on an ax with a tip. There were coins with a screw-out, hidden dagger. The coin served not only as a weapon: it was a distinctive attribute of the military authorities.
Chain mail of the 12th-13th centuries
Since the end of the 12th century, the appearance of chain mail has changed. Chain mail appeared with long sleeves, knee-length, with chain mail stockings - “nagavits”. Now chain mail began to be made not from round, but from flat rings. Such rings were made from round iron wire and then flattened using a special iron stamp.
The chain mail of the 13th century consisted of flat rings different sizes. The largest rings were located in the form of rectangles on the back and chest; smaller rings covered the shoulders, sides, sleeves and hem of the chain mail. The right side of the chain mail was woven from thick, massive rings. When the chain mail was fastened, it covered the left flap, woven from thinner rings. The collar was square, split, with a shallow cutout. In appearance, such chain mail resembled a shirt with sleeves and a square collar. The warrior’s neck and upper chest were covered with a special ringed necklace - “aventail”, which was connected to the helmet.
The rings from which such chain mail was made were of two types: riveted, as well as cut from a sheet of iron and forged in the form of small washers with an ellipsoidal cross-section. In total, about 25 thousand rings were needed for the chain mail.
Warrior XII century
From the beginning of the 12th century, defensive battles with nomads became the main wars for Russian warriors.
In this regard, in Rus', armor does not become as heavy and immobile as is typical for Western Europe: battles with nomadic horsemen required quick maneuvering and mobility of the Russian warrior.
Main role Cavalry played on the battlefields. However, infantry often came ahead of the cavalry and began the battle. The 12th century was characterized by mixed infantry and horse battles that took place near the walls and fortresses of cities.
Infantrymen - “footmen” - were used to protect city walls and gates, cover the rear of the cavalry, to carry out the necessary transport and engineering work, and for reconnaissance and punitive attacks.
The foot soldiers were armed with various types of weapons - throwing, slashing and percussion weapons. Their clothing and weapons were generally simpler and cheaper than those of the vigilantes, since the infantry detachments were for the most part formed from common people - smerds, artisans, and not from professional warriors. The weapons of the cave were a marching axe, a heavy spear and a sulitsa, a club and a spear.
The armor on the pawn was often chain mail, or even none at all. The infantrymen of the 12th century used both round and almond-shaped shields.
Ceremonial armor XVII century
“My father has gold armor and a gold shell with precious stones and fathoms of pearls, and my brothers are wearing silver armor, only gold shells...”, says the ancient story. This is exactly the impression created by precious weapons, which only kings and their commanders could own. Ceremonial armor was decorated with silver, gold, precious stones, framed with filigree frames and covered with engraving. The decorative ceremonial armor was a 17th-century mirror made by Dimitry Konovalov, Nikita Davydov, Grigory Vyatkin - masters of the Armory Order. The mirrors made by Konovalov in 1616 for Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich were valued at 1,500 rubles in the 17th century (while the price of an ordinary piece of armor then ranged from 5 to 10 rubles). The decoration of the horse matched the ceremonial armor. “And then when they led the sovereign’s stable,” wrote the Danish resident Moise Gay, “the horses were wearing archaks and saddlecloths, and the whole outfit was studded with pearls and precious stones.” “The main leaders and noble persons,” reported the Englishman D. Fletcher, who visited Russia in 1588, “have horses covered with rich harnesses, saddles made of gold brocade, bridles also luxuriously decorated with gold, with silk fringe.”
Rynda XVI-XVII centuries
In the 16th-17th centuries, the great princes and kings had squire-bodyguards (rynds), who accompanied the monarch on campaigns and trips, and during palace ceremonies stood in ceremonial clothes on both sides of the throne. The term itself dates back to an earlier time. Prince Dmitry during the Battle of Kulikovo “... ordered his bell to carry the great black banner over Mikhail Ondreevich Brenko” (Nikon Chronicle).
When the bells carried out their service in the palace, their weapon was a large “embassy axe” (an indispensable attribute of the audiences that Moscow sovereigns gave to foreign ambassadors; hence the name of the axe).
It was made of damask steel and steel, decorated with silver and gold notching. The handles of these axes were decorated with belts made of precious metals (sometimes, however, they made do with gilded copper), and were often covered with inlay.
Mirror XVII century
To strengthen the chain mail or shell in the 16th-17th centuries in Russia, additional armor was used, which was worn over the armor. This armor was called “mirrors”. They consisted in most cases of four large plates: front, back and two side ones. The plates, whose weight rarely exceeded 2 kg, were connected to each other and fastened on the shoulders and sides with belts with buckles (shoulder pads and amices). Mirror, ground and polished to mirror shine(hence the name of the armor), often covered with gilding, decorated with engraving and chasing, in the 17th century most often had a purely decorative character; by the end of the century, their importance, like any other defensive armor, fell completely.
In the collection of the Armory Chamber, complete mirror armor of the 17th century has been preserved, consisting of a helmet, mirror, bracers and leggings.
Bakhterets and trach of the 16th century
“Some,” wrote Herberstein, the ambassador of the German emperor at the court of Ivan III, about the Moscow horsemen, “have a ringed shell and breast armor, consisting of rings and plates connected together, arranged like fish scales.” Such armor was called “bekhterets”, or “bakhterets” (from the Persian “begter” - a type of armor). Bakhterets was made from oblong plates arranged in vertical rows, connected by rings on two short sides. Side and shoulder slits were fastened with buckles or belts with a metal tip. To make bakhterz, up to 1,500 plates were used, which were mounted in such a way as to create a double or triple coating. The pearl hem, and sometimes the collar and sleeves, were added to the bakhterts. The average weight of such armor reached 10-12 kg, and the length was 66 cm.
If the bakhterets became widespread in Rus' in the 16th-17th centuries, then the shield at the same time lost its combat purpose and became a ceremonial item. This also applies to the shield, the pommel of which consisted of a metal “arm” with a blade; this “hand” included left hand warrior. This type of shield with a blade, called “tarch” (from the Arabic “ture” - “shield”), was used in the defense of fortresses, but was extremely rare.
Tegilyai 16th century
“Tegilya and Veneditsky velvet are valuable with gold and loops, there are buttons on it,” says the inventory of the property of Tsar Ivan the Terrible. Being a faktan-type garment with short sleeves and a high stand-up collar, lined with cotton wool or hemp and quilted through and through, the tegilyai had sufficient protective qualities and was worn instead of armor by poor warriors. In this case, the tegilai was made of thick paper material and could be lined with metal plates along the chest. To match the tegilya there was a “paper hat”, which was made on cotton wool from cloth, silk or paper fabrics and was sometimes reinforced with a chain mail net placed in the lining. Sometimes the cap was equipped with an iron cap.
Archer 16th century
In the 16th century, despite the rapid development of firearms, defensive weapons continued to exist - Russian soldiers still wore bakhtertsy, kolontari, mirrors and, of course, chain mail.
Some Russian armor of the 16th century has its own interesting fate. Thus, in the Moscow Armory Chamber there is a chain mail with a small copper plaque, on which there is the inscription “Prince Petrov Ivanovich Shuiskov.” Boyar and governor Pyotr Ivanovich Shuisky died in 1564 during Livonian War. It is believed that it was this chain mail that Tsar Ivan the Terrible sent as a gift to Ermak and that it was in it that the conqueror of Siberia drowned in the Irtysh when in the summer of 1584 his detachment was destroyed by the Tatars of Khan Kuchum. In 1646, the chain mail, which outlived its two owners, was captured by Russian governors in one of the Siberian towns and again returned to the royal arsenal.
In the 16th century, a significant part of Russian armor was still manufactured in Moscow, where government decrees moved artisans from other cities and along the outskirts of which, as Herberstein testifies, there was a long row of “houses of blacksmiths and other artisans working with fire.” Blacksmithing and armor production was then concentrated in the area of the Kuznetsky Bridge, present-day Bronny Streets and Old Kuznetskaya Sloboda in Kotelniki, where today, during excavation work, the tombstone of a certain Grigory Dmitriev, “the son of a chainmailer,” who died in 1596, was found. Thanks to this find, it became known that somewhere in the second half of the 16th century, new variety armored chainmailers, who specialized exclusively in making armor from metal rings. The Russian army would finally abandon the use of such armor only at the end of the 17th century, at the dawn of Peter the Great’s time.
Helmets
Helmets have been used in Rus' since the 10th century. Simpler helmets - without additional protective parts for the face - were fastened at the bottom with a hoop, which was sometimes ornamented. It had holes for the aventail, that is, a chainmail “necklace” to protect the neck.
Since the 12th century, helmets began to be equipped with a nosepiece, cutouts for the eyes - a half mask or mask. The “nose” is an iron strip that passes through a hole made in the visor or flange of the helmet. The “nose” was lowered and raised with the help of a “screw”. The mask - the “mask” - was made mostly motionless, but sometimes it was attached with hinges and could be raised.
In the 14th century, in written monuments there were first references to a headdress called “shishak”.
Archaeologists believe that this type of protective headdress spread to Rus' in the 12th-14th centuries.
A type of protective headgear was the “paper hat.” It was made on cotton wool from cloth, silk or paper fabrics, sometimes reinforced with chain mail and quilted. It became most widespread in the 16th century.
Misyurka - an iron cap was a military headdress with aventail and ears. The term comes from the Arabic word "Misr" - Egypt. Perhaps the most unpretentious of the helmets was the misyurka, which protected only the upper part of the warrior’s head. In Rus', misyurka has been known since the 14th century.
Erichonka is a tall hat with a crown (the lower edge of the crown), a pommel (the upper edge of the crown) and a burdock (metal decoration) on it. Ears, the back of the head and a shelf through which the “nose” with the “pinch” passed were attached to the crown of the erihonka. Such hats were worn by rich and noble warriors and were decorated with gold, silver, and precious stones.
All protective headgear was worn by warriors on hats or thick linings.
Chaldar (Horse headdress) 16th century
Saddles, saddle cloths and chaldars (horse coverings made of metal plaques sewn onto cloth, covering the horse's croup, sides and chest and having a specific protective purpose) were richly decorated with gold, enamels, and precious stones. Jenkinson, who visited Moscow in 1557, wrote: “Their saddles are made of wood and sinew, they are gilded, decorated with damask work and covered with cloth or morocco.” Both ceremonial and combat Russian saddles were different original design, resting on the horse's back only with the saddle's shelves; the front pommel was high, in most cases tilted forward.
The rear pommel was made lower and sloping, as a result of which it did not hinder turning in the saddle.
Baron Sigismund Herberstein, who visited Moscow twice on a diplomatic mission at the beginning of the 16th century, describes the then horse equipment adopted in the Russian army: “... their saddles are adapted in such a way that riders can turn and pull the bow without any difficulty.. The rein they use is long and cut at the end; they tie it to the finger of the left hand so that they can grab the bow and, drawing it, use it. Although they together and at the same time hold in their hands a bridle, a bow, a saber, an arrow and a whip, they deftly and without any difficulty know how to use them.”
Russian stirrups had basically two forms: some with a narrow bow and a round base, others in the form of a bent narrow strip tapering upward.
The design of the Russian harness ideally met the requirements imposed by the conditions of the war with the nomads, the main enemy of the Moscow state.
Yushman XVI century
“... Having started to arm myself, I put yushman on myself” (Nikon Chronicle). This type of stacked armor was first mentioned in 1548, and apparently became widespread a little earlier. Yushman, or yumshan (from the Persian “dj awshan”), is a chain mail shirt with a set of horizontal plates woven into the chest and back.
The production of yushmans, which usually weighed 12-15 kg, required about 100 plates, which were mounted on top of each other with a small allowance. Yushman could be worn over chain mail, had a full slit from the neck to the hem, was worn in sleeves like a caftan, fastened with clasps - “curls” and loops. Sometimes the “boards” of the yushman were lined with gold or silver; such armor could be very expensive.
The hands of a warrior, dressed in a yushman or another type of armor, were protected from the elbow to the wrist with bracers. At the hands, the bracers were connected by rectangular plates - wombs, and were attached to the hand with straps.
Swords and sabers
Among the cutting and piercing weapons in Rus', swords, knives and sabers were common.
The sword consisted of a wide strip, sharp on both sides, that is, a blade, and of a kryzh - a handle, the parts of which were called: apple, black and flint. Each flat side of the blade was called “golomen”, or “golomya”, and the points were called “blades”. One wide or several narrow notches were made on the holomen. Blades were made of steel or iron.
The sword was placed in a sheath upholstered in leather or velvet.
The scabbard was made of iron and decorated with gold or silver notches. The sword was hung from the belt using two rings located at the mouth of the scabbard.
The knives used by ancient Russian warriors were of several types. Short knives with two blades hooked onto a belt were called “belt” knives. Knives that were slightly longer and wider than belt knives, with one blade curved towards the end, were called “underside knives.”
These knives were hung from the belt on the left side. Knives with a curved blade, which was called a “shlyak”, worn behind the top of the right boot, were called “boot knives”.
In the southern regions of Ancient Rus', the saber became widespread already in the 10th century. IN Novgorod land The saber came into use later - from about the 13th century. The saber consisted of a strip and a handle - “kryzha”. The sharp side of the saber had a blade and a back. The handle was made from a flint, a handle and a knob, into which a cord, a “lanyard,” was threaded through a small hole.
Kuyak XVI century
“... He himself is on a horse - like a clear falcon; the armor on the mighty shoulders is strong: the kuyak and the shell are pure silver, and the chain mail on it is red and gold” (Bylina about Mikhail Kazarinov).
Kuyak was armor made of metal plates, rectangular or round, each set separately on a leather or cloth base. Kuyaks were made with and without sleeves; had floors like a caftan. Kuyak could be reinforced on the chest and back with large plate boards - “shields”. Such armor was used in Rus' from the 13th to the 17th centuries and has close analogies in Western Europe. The term “kuyak” itself appears only in the 16th century.
The movement of regiments clad in armor, kuyaks shining with planks, bristling with spears, was often accompanied by the sounds of music. “The trumpets sounded, half the time began to finish” (Ipatiev Chronicle).
The most common musical instrument that accompanied the army on the campaign was the trumpet. At first, military trumpets were straight, without elbows, reminiscent of a shepherd's horn. Later, pipes were made from three bends located at equal distances from each other, connected by transverse bridges. Sometimes rectangular “curtains” made of taffeta or brocade with silk, gilded or silvered fringe and tassels were attached to the pipes for decoration. During campaigns, the pipes were hidden in fabric covers - “nagalishka”.
It is said about the glorious Russian warriors in the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign”: “Worn under the trumpets, cherished under the helmets.”
Baidana XV century
Baidana is a type of ringed armor. It differs from chain mail itself only in the size and shape of its rings. The rings of the canoe are large, flat and relaxed. The rings were attached either on an overlay, or on a nail or spike, which gave the joint greater strength. The most famous is the canoe that belonged to Boris Godunov. On many of the rings of this armor there is an inscription stamped: “God is with us, no one else is with us.”
Weighing up to 6 kg, the canoe was reliable protection from sliding saber strikes, but could not save from piercing weapons and arrows due to the large diameter of its rings.
“Baidana Besermenskaya,” as this type of defensive armor is called in “Zadonshchina,” a literary monument of the 14th century, has been known in Rus' since 1200. It could be supplemented with other items of defensive weapons, for example, greaves that protected the legs of a warrior. Leggings buturlyks, or batarlyks, came in three types: from three wide boards connected by metal rings in such a way that the buturlyk covered the entire leg from heel to knee; from one wide board and two narrow ones; from one curved board, attached to the leg with straps.
Kolontar XIV century
“Wonderfully the fortunes of the great Don are plowed with berchati banners, golden kalantyrs are shining” (“Zadonshchina”).
Kolontar - sleeveless armor of two halves, front and back, fastened on the shoulders and sides of the armor with iron buckles. Each half, from the neck to the waist, consisted of rows of large metal horizontal plates, fastened with chain mail weaving. A chain mail net was attached to the belt - the hem - down to the knees. The back plates of the kolontar were made thinner and smaller than the chest plates. When the kolontar was part of the ceremonial armor, then, decorated with gold notching, engraving, and cut-out ornaments, it rose in price to 1000 rubles - an astronomical amount for the 17th century.
Russian armor, similar to the kolontar, was highly valued among the neighbors of the Moscow state. “Yes, the Grand Duke came, sent a pansyr for the third year; and I attacked my enemies, but lost my armor; and he would have sent the armor,” wrote the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey to Moscow in 1491, whose request and naive cunning are the best certificate of the high skill of Russian armored men.
Throwing weapons
Bows and arrows have been used since ancient times and were both combat and hunting weapons. Bows were made of wood (juniper, birch, etc.) and horn. Already in the 10th century, bows in Rus' had a rather complex design. The middle part of the bow was called the “hilt”, and the entire tree of the bow was called the “kibit”.
The long elastic curved halves of the bow were called “horns” or “shoulders”. The horn consisted of two wooden planks, well processed, fitted and glued. They were covered with birch bark on their flat sides. Tendons were glued to the back of the bow and secured at the handle and ends. To enhance elasticity, bone and horn plates were sometimes glued instead of birch bark. Tendons were wound around the joints of individual parts of the bow, which were then coated with glue, and strips of boiled birch bark were placed on it. Strong fish glue was used to make the bow. At the ends of the “horns” there were upper and lower pads. A bowstring passed through the lower pads. The total length of the bow reached two or more meters. A cover was put on the bow, which was called “naluch”, or “naluchye”. Bow arrows could be made of reed, reed, birch, apple, or cypress. The case for arrows was called a “quiver” or “tul”. The entire equipment was called “saadak” or “sagadak”. The bow and bow were worn on the left; quiver with arrows - on the right. The bow and quiver were often made of leather, morocco and decorated with embroidery, precious stones, velvet or brocade.
Another type of throwing weapon was crossbows or crossbows. The crossbow was inferior to the bow in terms of rate of fire, but superior to it in the force of the arrow's impact and the accuracy of the battle.
A self-fired “bolt” from two hundred meters knocked a rider off his horse and easily pierced iron chain mail.
Crossbow XIV century
The use of a crossbow in Rus' was first reported in the Radziwill Chronicle in 1159. This weapon, while significantly inferior to the bow in terms of rate of fire (the archer fired about 10 arrows per minute, the crossbowman - 1-2), surpasses it in the force of the arrow's impact and in the accuracy of the battle. A self-propelled bolt pierced heavy armor at a great distance.
The crossbow consisted of a wooden stock, which usually ended with a butt. On the stock there was a longitudinal groove into which a short arrow was inserted - a “bolt”. A bow, short and extremely powerful, was attached to the end of the stock opposite the butt. It was made of steel, wood or horn. In order to load the crossbow, the shooter rested his foot on the stirrup and pulled the bowstring, fastening it to the hook - the so-called “nut”. When fired, the cranked release lever came out of the recess of the “nut”; the latter, turning, released the bowstring and the bolt connected to it. “He strained a self-propelled arrow, but let it go in vain, and with it wounded his angry heart” (IV Novgorod Chronicle).
The bowstring of the early models of the crossbow was pulled by hand. From the second half of the 12th century, a belt hook appeared, with the help of which the shooter, straightening the body, pulled the bowstring to the hook. In the 13th century, crossbows were loaded using a brace. The oldest belt hook in Europe was found during excavations in the Volyn city of Izyaslavl.
Armor of the XIII-XIV centuries
Since the 14th century in Rus' there have been shells in which they mix different types armor The armor could be scaly on the hem and plate (or ringed) on the chest and back. The sleeves and hem of the chain mail were trimmed with long tongue-shaped plates. The warrior's chest was additionally protected by large plaques, which were worn over the armor. Later, in the 16th century, they received the name “mirrors”, since their smooth metal plates were specially ground, polished to a shine, and sometimes coated with gold, silver and engraved. Such armor was very expensive, was inaccessible to ordinary soldiers and could only be worn on the battlefield by princes, governors and leading boyars.
A heavily armed warrior in the 14th century had a spear and a sword as part of his melee weapons.
In the XII-XIII centuries, swords of all types known at that time in Western Europe were used in Rus'. The main types were the so-called “Carolingian swords” - the earlier ones (its length is 80-90 cm, and the width of the blade is 5-6 cm) and the “Romanesque” ones, which arose somewhat later with a disc-shaped pommel. Until about the 13th century, the sword served primarily as a cutting weapon. “Cutting down with a sword mercilessly,” the Laurentian Chronicle says about him. In the second half of the 13th century, a piercing blade also appeared (“Who calls to the window will be pierced with a sword”). In the 13th century, the blade of the sword was lengthened and its handle strengthened, which increased impact force this terrible weapon. In the 14th century, large swords were common - up to 120-140 cm long.
Impact weapons
Impact weapons are classified as melee weapons; due to their ease of manufacture, they have become widespread in Rus'. Maces, clubs and poles are military weapons. It is difficult to say for sure whether the flail - a heavy metal weight attached to the end of a strap, about 50 cm long - was used in the army, but repeated archaeological finds of the flail indicate its considerable popularity. The maces were a short rod, on the end of which a massive knob was mounted. The head of the shestoper consisted of metal plates called “feathers” (hence its name). The shestoper, widespread mainly in the 15th-17th centuries, could serve as a sign of the power of military leaders, while remaining at the same time a terrible weapon: “And not with light sabers you cut them down, but with them Muscovites, ... like pigs, shestoper” (Pskov Chronicle) .
Both the mace and the shestoper originate from the club - a massive club with a thickened end, usually bound in iron or studded with large iron nails. The club may have been the oldest weapon known to man. “...Before that, I beat him with clubs and stones,” says the Ipatiev Chronicle.
Archer XIII century
At the dawn of their history, the ancient Slavs fought mainly on foot. The Old Russian state did not yet know cavalry in the wars with Byzantium (10th century). The feudalization of society and troops leads to its appearance at the end of the 10th century.
The emergence of cavalry was also facilitated by the continuous war with the steppe - the Pechenegs, Torques, and Cumans. It was impossible to withstand the nomads without cavalry.
By the 12th century, the Russian cavalry had become a significant force, stopping and repelling the onslaught of nomadic peoples on the borders of the Kyiv state.
The cavalry army consisted of heavily armed horsemen - spearmen and light cavalry - archers.
Spearmen are a force specially created for attacking and starting a decisive battle. The ramming action of a “spear” strike upon impact with the enemy often predetermined the outcome of the battle.
The purpose of archers was different. They carried out “reconnaissance in force”, probed the enemy’s forces, lured him into a false flight, and served as security guards. The archer's main weapon - a bow and arrows - was supplemented with an axe, flail, mace, shield or metal armor, a type of which could be a plate shell, the prototype of the later Bakhterets.
The archers mainly included “young people,” that is, junior members of the squad.
Shields
“...The great Russians fenced their fields with their shields...” (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”).
The oldest Russian shield (VIII-XI centuries), round, reaching a quarter of human height, was convenient for parrying blows. In profile, such a shield is oval or funnel-shaped, which enhanced its protective properties.
The round shield was replaced in the 11th century by an almond-shaped one, which protected the rider from the chin to the knees. As the helmet improves, the top of the shield becomes more straightened. In the second quarter of the 10th century, a triangular shield with an inflection appeared, that is, a gable shield pressed tightly against the body. Then there were curved trapezoidal shields. From the end of the 10th century, complex-figured tarch shields came into use, covering the rider’s chest during spear rams. In the 14th century, the evolution of defensive weapons led to the appearance of a shield with a lobe groove, which served as a receptacle for the hand and made it easier to maneuver the shield in battle. In Western Europe, such shields, reaching a height of 130 cm, were called “pavezes”.
It is known that shields of various shapes have existed for a long time. For example, along with round ones, trapezoidal shields, etc. could be used. Shields were made of iron, wood, reeds, and leather. The most common were wooden shields. The center of the shield was usually reinforced with a metal top - a “umbon”. The edge of the shield was called the crown, and the space between the crown and the pommel was called the border. The back side of the shield had a lining; the shield was held on the arm with bindings - “columns”. The color of the shield could be very different, but red throughout the existence of Russian armor was given clear preference.
Slavic warrior 6-7 centuries
Information about the earliest types of weapons of the ancient Slavs comes from two groups of sources. The first is written evidence mainly from late Roman and Byzantine authors who knew well these barbarians who often attacked the Eastern Roman Empire. The second is materials from archaeological excavations, which generally confirm the data of Menander, John of Ephesus and others. Later sources covering the state of military affairs and, in particular, the weapons of the era of Kievan Rus, and then the Russian principalities of the pre-Mongol period, in addition to archaeological ones, include reports from Arab authors, and then the Russian chronicles themselves and the historical chronicles of our neighbors. Valuable sources for this period are also visual materials: miniatures, frescoes, icons, small sculptures, etc.
Byzantine authors repeatedly testified, that the Slavs of the 5th – 7th centuries. had no defensive weapons except shields (the presence of which among the Slavs was noted by Tacitus in the 2nd century AD) (1). Their offensive weapons were extremely simple: a pair of darts (2). It can also be assumed that many, if not all, had bows, which are mentioned much less frequently. There is no doubt that the Slavs also had axes, but they are not mentioned as weapons.
This is fully confirmed by the results of archaeological studies of the territory where the Eastern Slavs settled at the time of the formation of Kievan Rus. In addition to the ubiquitous arrowheads and throwing arrows, less often spears, only two cases are known when in the layers of the 7th - 8th centuries. more advanced weapons were found: armor plates from excavations of the Khotomel military settlement in Belarusian Polesie and fragments of a broadsword from the Martynovsky treasure in Porosye. In both cases, these are elements of the Avar weapons complex, which is natural, because in the previous period it was the Avars who had the greatest influence on the Eastern Slavs.
In the second half of the 9th century., the activation of the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks” led to an increase in Scandinavian influence on the Slavs, including in the field of military affairs. As a result of its merger with the steppe influence, on the local Slavic soil in the middle Dnieper region, its own original ancient Russian weapons complex began to take shape, rich and universal, more diverse than in the West or East. Absorbing Byzantine elements, it was mainly formed by the beginning of the 11th century. (3)
Viking swords
The defensive weapons of a noble warrior from the time of the first Rurikovichs included P a tall shield (Norman type), a helmet (usually Asian, pointed), plate or ringed armor. The main weapons were a sword (much less often a saber), a spear, a battle axe, a bow and arrows. Flails and darts - sulitsa - were used as additional weapons.
The warrior's body was protected chainmail, which looked like a mid-thigh length shirt made of metal rings, or armor made of horizontal rows of metal plates tied together with straps. Making chain mail required a lot of time and physical effort. First, wire was made by hand drawing, which was wrapped around a metal rod and cut. One piece of chain mail required about 600 m of wire. Half of the rings were welded, and the ends of the rest were flattened. Holes less than a millimeter in diameter were punched at the flattened ends and riveted, having previously connected this ring with four other already woven rings. The weight of one chain mail was approximately 6.5 kg.
Until relatively recently, it was believed that it took several months to make ordinary chain mail, but recent research has refuted these speculative theories. Making a typical small chain mail of 20 thousand rings in the 10th century. took “only” 200 man-hours, i.e. one workshop could “deliver” up to 15 or more pieces of armor in a month. (4) After assembly, the chain mail was cleaned and polished with sand until it was shiny.
In Western Europe, canvas cloaks with short sleeves were worn over armor, protecting them from dust and overheating in the sun. This rule was often followed in Rus' (as evidenced by the miniatures of the Radziwill Chronicle of the 15th century). However, the Russians sometimes liked to appear on the battlefield in open armor, “as if in ice,” for greater effect. Such cases are specifically mentioned by the chroniclers: “And it’s scary to see someone in bare armor, like water to the sun shining brightly.” Especially shining example quotes the Swedish “Chronicle of Eric,” although it goes beyond the scope of our study (XIV century): “When the Russians arrived there, they could see a lot of light armor, their helmets and swords shone; I believe that they went on a campaign in the Russian way.” And further: “...they shone like the sun, their weapons were so beautiful in appearance...” (5).
It has long been believed that chain mail in Rus' appeared from Asia, supposedly even two centuries earlier than in Western Europe (6), but now the opinion has become established that this type of protective weapon is an invention of the Celts, known here since the 4th century. BC, used by the Romans and by the middle of the first millennium AD. reached Western Asia (7). Actually, the production of chain mail arose in Rus' no later than the 10th century (8)
From the end of the 12th century. the appearance of the chain mail has changed. Armor with long sleeves, knee-length hem, chain mail stockings, gauntlets and hoods appeared. They were no longer made from round cross-sections, but from flat rings. The collar was made square, split, with a shallow cutout. In total, one chain mail now required up to 25 thousand rings, and by the end of the 13th century - up to 30 of different diameters (9).
Unlike Western Europe in Rus', where the influence of the East was felt, at that time there was a different system of defensive weapons - lamellar or “plank armor”, called by experts lamellar armor . Such armor consisted of interconnected and pulled over each other metal plates. The most ancient “armors” were made of rectangular convex metal plates with holes along the edges through which straps were threaded that pulled the plates together. Later, the plates were made in various shapes: square, semicircular, etc., up to 2 mm thick. Early belt-mounted armor was worn over a thick leather or quilted jacket or, according to Khazar-Magyar custom, over chain mail. In the XIV century. the archaic term “armor” was replaced by the word “armour”, and in the 15th century a new term appeared, borrowed from the Greek language, “shell”.
The lamellar shell weighed slightly more than ordinary chain mail - up to 10 kg. According to some researchers, the cut of Russian armor from the times of Kievan Rus differed from the steppe prototypes, which consisted of two cuirasses - chest and back, and was similar to the Byzantine one (cut on the right shoulder and side) (10). According to tradition going through Byzantium from ancient Rome, the shoulders and hem of such armor were decorated with leather strips covered with inlaid plaques, which is confirmed by works of art (icons, frescoes, miniatures, stone items).
Byzantine influence e manifested itself in the borrowing of scale armor. The plates of such armor were attached to a fabric or leather base with their upper part and overlapped the row below, like tiles or scales. On the sides, the plates of each row overlapped one another, and in the middle they were still riveted to the base. Most of these shells found by archaeologists date back to the 13th – 14th centuries, but they have been known since the 11th century. They were hip-length; the hem and sleeves were made from longer plates. Compared to the plate lamellar shell, the scaly one was more elastic and flexible. Convex scales attached only on one side. They gave the warrior greater mobility.
Chain mail dominated quantitatively throughout the early Middle Ages, but in the 13th century it began to be replaced by plate and scale armor. During the same period, combined armor appeared that combined both of these types.
The characteristic spheroconic pointed helmets did not immediately gain dominance in Rus'. Early protective headdresses differed significantly from each other, which was a consequence of penetration into the East Slavic lands different influences. Thus, in the Gnezdovo burial mounds in the Smolensk region, of the two helmets found in the 9th century. one turned out to be hemispherical, consisting of two halves, connected by stripes along the lower edge and along the ridge from the forehead to the back of the head, the second was typically Asian, consisting of four triangular parts with a pommel, a lower rim and four vertical stripes covering the connecting seams. The second had brow cutouts and a nosepiece, and was decorated with gilding and a pattern of teeth and notches along the rim and stripes. Both helmets had chain mail aventails - nets that covered the lower part of the face and neck. Two helmets from Chernigov, dating back to the 10th century, are close in manufacturing method and decoration to the second Gnezdov helmet. They are also of the Asian, pointed type and are topped with finials with sleeves for plumes. In the middle part of these helmets there are rhombic linings with protruding spikes. These helmets are believed to be of Magyar origin (11).
The northern, Varangian influence was manifested in the Kyiv discovery of a fragment of a half-mask-mask - a typically Scandinavian part of a helmet.
Since the 11th century, a unique type of sphero-conical helmet, smoothly curved upward, ending in a rod, has developed and taken hold in Rus'. Its indispensable element was a fixed “nose”. And often a half mask with decorative elements combined with it. From the 12th century helmets were usually forged from a single sheet of iron. Then a separately made half mask was riveted to it, and later - a mask - a mask that completely covered the face, which is generally believed to be of Asian origin. Such masks became especially widespread from the beginning of the 13th century, in connection with the pan-European tendency to make protective weapons heavier. The face mask with slits for the eyes and holes for breathing was able to protect against both slashing and piercing blows. Since it was attached motionlessly, the soldiers had to take off their helmet in order to be recognized. From the 13th century known helmets with visors on a hinge, folding upward, like a visor.
Somewhat later, a high spheroconic helmet appeared with a domed one. There were also helmets of a unique shape - with brims and a cylindrical-conical top (known from miniatures). Under all types of helmets it was necessary to wear a balaclava - “prilbitsa”. These round and apparently low hats were often made with a fur trim. The chain mail aventail, attached to the edges of the helmet and half mask, could reach the size of a cape covering the shoulders and upper chest.
As mentioned above, shields have been an integral part of Slavic weapons since ancient times. Initially, they were woven from wicker rods and covered with leather, like all the barbarians of Europe. Later, during the time of Kievan Rus, they began to be made from boards. The height of the shields was close to the height of a person, and the Greeks considered them “difficult to carry.” Round shields of the Scandinavian type, up to 90 cm in diameter, also existed in Rus' during this period. In the center of both, a round cut was made with a handle, covered from the outside with a convex umbon. The edge of the shield was necessarily bound with metal. Often outer side it was covered with skin. XI century teardrop-shaped (otherwise known as “almond-shaped”) of the pan-European type, widely known from various images, have spread. At the same time, round funnel-shaped shields also appeared, but flat round shields continued to be found. By the 13th century, when the protective properties of the helmet increased, the upper edge of the teardrop-shaped shield straightened, since there was no longer a need to protect the face with it. The shield becomes triangular, with a deflection in the middle, which made it possible to press it tightly to the body. At the same time, trapezoidal and quadrangular shields also existed. At that time there were also round ones, of the Asian type, with a lining on the back side, fastened to the arm with two belt “columns”. This type most likely existed among the service nomads of the southern Kiev region and along the entire steppe border.
It is known that shields different forms existed for a long time and were used simultaneously ( The best illustration of this situation is the famous icon “The Church Militant"). The shape of the shield mainly depended on the tastes and habits of the owner.
The main part of the outer surface of the shield, between the umbo and the bound edge, the so-called “crown,” was called the border and was painted to the owner’s taste, but throughout the use of shields in the Russian army, preference was given to various shades of red. In addition to the monochromatic coloring, it can also be assumed that the shields will contain images of a heraldic nature. So on the wall of the St. George Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky, on the shield of St. George, a predator of the cat family is depicted - a maneless lion, or rather a tiger - the “fierce beast” of Monomakh’s “Teachings”, apparently, which became the state emblem of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.
Swords of the 9th-12th centuries from Ust-Rybezhka and Ruchiev.
“The sword is the main weapon of a professional warrior throughout the entire pre-Mongol period of Russian history,” wrote the outstanding Russian archaeologist A.V. Artsikhovsky. “In the early Middle Ages, the shape of swords in Rus' and Western Europe was approximately the same” (12).
After clearing hundreds of blades dating back to the period of formation of Kievan Rus, stored in museums different countries Europe, including former USSR, it turned out that the vast majority of them were produced in several centers located on the Upper Rhine, within the Frankish state. This explains their similarity.
Swords forged in the 9th – 11th centuries, originating from the ancient Roman long cavalry sword - spatha, had a wide and heavy blade, although not too long - about 90 cm, with parallel blades and a wide fuller (groove). Sometimes there are swords with a rounded end, indicating that this weapon was originally used exclusively as a chopping weapon, although from the chronicles there are examples of stabbing blows already at the end of the 10th century, when two Varangians, with the knowledge of Vladimir Svyatoslavich, met a brother walking towards him at the door - the overthrown Yaropolk, pierced him “under the sinuses” (13).
With an abundance of Latin marks (as a rule, these are abbreviations, for example, INND - In Nomine Domini, In Nomine Dei - In the name of the Lord, In the name of God), a considerable percentage of blades do not have marks or cannot be identified. At the same time, only one Russian mark was found: “Lyudosha (Lyudota?) Farrier.” One Slavic mark is also known, made with Latin letters, - “Zvenislav”, probably of Polish origin. There is no doubt that local production of swords already existed in Kievan Rus in the 10th century, but perhaps local blacksmiths branded their products less often?
Sheaths and hilts for imported blades were made locally. Just as massive as the blade of the Frankish sword was its short, thick guard. The hilt of these swords has a flattened mushroom shape. The actual handle of the sword was made of wood, horn, bone or leather, and the outside was often wrapped with twisted bronze or silver wire. It seems that the differences in the styles of decorative design of the details of the handles and scabbards actually have much less significance than some researchers think, and there is no basis for deducing from this the percentage of a particular nationality in the squad. The same master could master both different technical techniques and different styles and decorate the weapon in accordance with the wishes of the customer, and it could simply depend on fashion. The scabbard was made of wood and covered with expensive leather or velvet, and decorated with gold, silver or bronze overlays. The tip of the scabbard was often decorated with some intricate symbolic figure.
Swords of the 9th-11th centuries, as in ancient times, continued to be worn on a shoulder belt, raised quite high, so that the hilt was above the waist. From the 12th century, the sword, as elsewhere in Europe, began to be worn on a knight's belt, on the hips, suspended by two rings at the mouth of the scabbard.
During the XI - XII centuries. the sword gradually changed its shape. Its blade lengthened, sharpened, thinned, the crosspiece - the guard - stretched out, the hilt first took on the shape of a ball, then, in the 13th century, a flattened circle. By that time, the sword had turned into a cutting-and-piercing weapon. At the same time, there was a tendency to make it heavier. “One and a half” samples appeared, for working with two hands.
Speaking about the fact that the sword was the weapon of a professional warrior, it should be remembered that it was such only in the early Middle Ages, although exceptions for merchants and the old tribal nobility existed even then. Later, in the 12th century. the sword also appears in the hands of the townspeople's militia. At the same time, in the early period, before the start of the mass serial production weapons, not every warrior owned a sword. In the 9th - first half of the 11th centuries, only a person who belonged to the highest stratum of society - the senior squad - had the right (and opportunity) to possess precious, noble weapons. In the younger squad, judging by the materials of excavations of squad burials, back in the 11th century. Only officials owned swords. These are the commanders of detachments of junior warriors - “youths”, in peacetime they performed police, judicial, customs and other functions and bore the characteristic name - “swordsmen” (14).
In the southern regions of Ancient Rus', from the second half of the 10th century, the saber, borrowed from the arsenal of nomads, became widespread. In the north, in the Novgorod land, the saber came into use much later - in the 13th century. It consisted of a strip - the blade and a "roof" - the handle. The blade had a blade, two sides - “holomeni” and “rear”. The handle was assembled from a “flint” - a guard, a handle and a knob - a hilt, into which a cord - a lanyard - was threaded through a small hole. The ancient saber was massive, slightly curved, so much so that the rider could use it, like a sword, to stab someone lying on a sleigh, which is mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years. The saber was used in parallel with the sword in the areas bordering the Steppe. To the north and west, heavy armor was common, against which the saber was not suitable. To fight the light cavalry of the nomads, the saber was preferable. The author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” noted a characteristic feature of the weapons of the inhabitants of the steppe Kursk: “they... have sharp sabers...” (15). From the 11th to the 13th centuries, the saber in the hands of Russian soldiers is mentioned in chronicles only three times, and the sword - 52 times.
Cutting and piercing weapons also include a large combat knife, occasionally found in burials no later than the 10th century, the skramasax, a relic of the barbarian era, a typical weapon of the Germans, found throughout Europe. Combat knives have long been known in Rus' and are constantly found during excavations. They are distinguished from economic ones by their large length (over 15 cm), the presence of a lobe - a blood flow or a stiffening rib (rhombic cross-section) (16).
A very common cutting weapon in the ancient Russian army was the ax, which had several varieties, which was determined by differences both in combat use and in origin. In the IX-X centuries. The heavy infantry were armed with large axes - axes with a powerful trapezoidal blade. Appearing in Rus' as a Norman borrowing, this type of ax remained for a long time in the north-west. The length of the ax handle was determined by the height of the owner. Usually, exceeding a meter, it reached the gudi of a standing warrior.
Universal battle hatchets of the Slavic type for one-handed action, with a smooth butt and a small blade, with a beard drawn downwards, have become much more widespread.. They differed from a regular ax mainly in their smaller weight and size, as well as the presence in the middle of the blade in many specimens of a hole for attaching a cover.
Another variety was the cavalry hatchet - a hammered hatchet with a narrow wedge-shaped blade, balanced by a hammer-shaped butt or, less commonly, a claw - clearly of Eastern origin. There was also a transitional type with a hammer-shaped butt, but a wide, often equilateral blade. It is also classified as Slavic. The well-known hatchet with the initial “A”, attributed to Andrei Bogolyubsky, belongs to this type. All three types are very small in size and fit in the palm of your hand. The length of their ax – “cue” – reached a meter.
Unlike the sword, a weapon primarily of the “noble”, hatchets were the main weapon of the junior squad, at least its lowest category - the “youths”. As recent studies of the Kem squad burial mound near White Lake show, the presence of a battle hatchet in the burial in the absence of a sword clearly indicates that its owner belonged to the lower category of professional warriors, at least until the second half of the 11th century (17). At the same time, in the hands of the prince, a battle ax is mentioned in the chronicles only twice.
Melee weapons include striking weapons. Due to the ease of production, it became widespread in Rus'. These are, first of all, various kinds of maces and flails borrowed from the steppe people.
The mace - most often a bronze ball filled with lead, with pyramidal projections and a hole for a handle weighing 200 - 300 g - was widespread in the 12th - 13th centuries. in the average Dnieper region (in third place in the number of weapons finds). But in the north and northeast it is practically not found. Solid forged iron and, less commonly, stone maces are also known.
The mace is a weapon primarily used in equestrian combat, but undoubtedly was also widely used by infantry. It made it possible to deliver very fast short blows, which, although not fatal, stunned the enemy and incapacitated him. Hence the modern “stun”, i.e. “stun”, with a blow to the helmet - get ahead of the enemy while he swings a heavy sword. The mace (as well as a boot knife or hatchet) could also be used as a throwing weapon, as the Ipatiev Chronicle seems to indicate, calling it a “horn.”
Flail- a weight of various shapes made of metal, stone, horn or bone, usually bronze or iron, usually round, often drop-shaped or star-shaped, weighing 100 - 160 g on a belt up to half a meter long - was, judging by frequent finds, very popular everywhere in Rus', however, it had no independent significance in battle.
The rare mention in sources of the use of impact weapons is explained, on the one hand, by the fact that they were auxiliary, backup, spare, and on the other, by the poeticization of “noble” weapons: the spear and sword. After a ramming spear collision, having “broken” the long thin lances, the fighters took up swords (sabers) or hammered axes, and only in case of their breakage or loss came the turn of maces and flails. By the end of the 12th century, in connection with the beginning of mass production of bladed weapons, hammered hatchets also became a backup weapon. At this time, the butt of the hatchet sometimes takes on the shape of a mace, and the mace is equipped with a long spike curved downwards. As a result of these experiments, at the beginning of the 13th century in Rus', archaeologists noted the appearance of a new type of impact weapon - the shestoper. To date, three samples of iron eight-bladed pommels of a rounded shape with smoothly protruding edges have been discovered. They were found in settlements south and west of Kyiv (18).
A spear – essential element weapons of the Russian warrior during the period under review. Spearheads, after arrowheads, are the most common archaeological finds of weapons. The spear was undoubtedly the most popular weapon of that time (19). A warrior did not go on a campaign without a spear.
Spearheads, like other types of weapons, bear a stamp various influences. The oldest local, Slavic arrowheads are a universal type with a leaf-shaped feather of medium width, suitable for hunting. Scandinavian ones are narrower, “lanceolate”, adapted for piercing armor, or vice versa - wide, wedge-shaped, laurel-leaved and diamond-shaped, designed to inflict severe wounds on an enemy not protected by armor.
For the XII – XIII centuries. The standard infantry weapon became a spear with a narrow “armor-piercing” four-wound tip about 25 cm long, which indicates the widespread use of metal defensive weapons. The sleeve of the tip was called vtok, the shaft was called oskep, oskepische, ratovishche or shavings. The length of the shaft of an infantry spear, judging by its images on frescoes, icons and miniatures, was about two meters.
Cavalry spears had narrow faceted tips of steppe origin, used to pierce armor. It was a first strike weapon. By the middle of the 12th century, the cavalry spear had become so long that it often broke during collisions. “Breaking the spear...” in squad poetry became one of the symbols of military valor. Chronicles also mention similar episodes when we're talking about about the prince: “Andrey break your copy against yours”; “Andrei Dyurgevich took up his spear and rode forward and came together before everyone else and broke his spear”; “Izyaslav rode alone into the military regiments, and broke his spear”; “Izyaslav Glebovich, grandson Yurgev, having arrived with his squad, took a spear... having driven the raft to the city gates, broke the spear”; “And Daniel struck his spear against the warrior, breaking his spear, and drew his sword.”
The Ipatiev Chronicle, written, in its main parts, by the hands of secular people - two professional warriors - describes such a technique almost as a ritual, which is close to Western knightly poetry, where such a blow is sung countless times.
In addition to the long and heavy cavalry and short main infantry spears, a hunting spear was used, although rarely. The horns had a feather width of 5 to 6.5 cm and a laurel tip length of up to 60 cm (including the bushing). To make it easier to hold this weapon. Two or three metal “knots” were attached to its shaft. In literature, especially fiction, a spear and an ax are often called peasant weapons, but a spear with a narrow tip capable of piercing armor is much cheaper than a spear and incomparably more effective. It occurs much more often.
Sulitsa darts have always been the favorite national weapon of the Eastern Slavs. They are often mentioned in chronicles. Moreover, as a piercing melee weapon. The tips of the sulitsa were both socketed, like those of spears, and stalked, like those of arrows, differing mainly in size. They often had ends pulled back, making it difficult to remove them from the body, and jagged, like a spear. The length of the throwing spear shaft ranged from 100 to 150 cm.
Bow and arrows have been used since ancient times as hunting and combat weapons. Bows were made from wood (juniper, birch, hazel, oak) or from turk horns. Moreover, in the north, simple bows of the European “barbarian” type from one piece of wood prevailed, and in the south, already in the 10th century, complex, composite bows of the Asian type became popular: powerful, consisting of several pieces or layers of wood, horn and bone overlays, very flexible and elastic. The middle part of such a bow was called the handle, and the rest was called the kibit. The long, curved halves of the bow were called horns or limbs. The horn consisted of two slats glued together. On the outside, it was covered with birch bark, and sometimes, for reinforcement, with horn or bone plates. The outer side of the horns was convex, the inner side was flat. Tendons were glued onto the bow and secured at the handle and ends. The joints of the horns with the handle, previously coated with glue, were wrapped with tendons. The glue used was high quality, made from sturgeon ridges. The ends of the horns had upper and lower pads. A string woven from veins passed through the lower ones. The total length of the bow, as a rule, was about a meter, but could exceed human height. Such bows had a special purpose.
They wore bows with a stretched string, in a leather case - a bow attached to the belt on the left side, with the mouth forward. Bow arrows could be made of reed, reed, various breeds trees, such as apple or cypress. Their tips, often forged from steel, could be narrow, faceted - armor-piercing or lanceolate, chisel-shaped, pyramidal with lowered ends-stings, and vice versa - wide and even two-horned “cuts”, to form large wounds on an unprotected surface, etc. In the 9th – 11th centuries. Mostly flat arrowheads were used in the 12th - 13th centuries. – armor-piercing. A case for arrows in this period was called a tula or tula. It was hung from a belt with right side. In the north and west of Rus', its form was close to the pan-European one, which is known, in particular, from the images on the Bayeux Tapestry, which tells about the Norman conquest of England in 1066. In the south of Rus', tuls were equipped with lids. So about the Kuryans in the same “Tale of Igor’s Host” it is said: “Their crowns are open,” i.e. brought into combat position. This tula had a round or box-shaped shape and was made of birch bark or leather.
At the same time, in Rus', most often by serving nomads, a steppe-type quiver was used, made from the same materials. Its form is immortalized in Polovtsian stone sculptures. This is a box that is wide at the bottom, open and tapering at the top, oval in cross-section. It was also suspended from the belt on the right side, with the mouth forward and upward, and the arrows in it, in contrast to the Slavic type, lay with their points upward.
Bow and arrows are weapons most often used by light cavalry - “streltsy” or infantry; the weapon that started the battle, although absolutely all men in Rus' at that time knew how to shoot a bow, this main weapon of hunting. Most people, including warriors, probably had a bow as a weapon, which made them different from Western European chivalry, where in the 12th century only the British, Norwegians, Hungarians and Austrians owned bows.
Much later, a crossbow or crossbow appeared in Rus'. It was much inferior to the bow in rate of fire and maneuverability, significantly surpassing it in price. In a minute, the crossbowman managed to fire 1-2 shots, while the archer, if necessary, was able to fire up to ten in the same time. But a crossbow with a short and thick metal bow and a wire bowstring was far superior to a bow in power, expressed in the range and impact force of the arrow, as well as accuracy. In addition, it did not require constant training from the shooter to maintain the skill. A crossbow “bolt” is a short self-firing arrow, sometimes solid-forged in the West, piercing any shields and armor at a distance of two hundred steps, and the maximum firing range from it reached 600 m.
This weapon came to Rus' from the West, through Carpathian Rus', where it was first mentioned in 1159. The crossbow consisted of a wooden stock with something like a butt and a powerful short bow attached to it. A longitudinal groove was made on the stock, into which a short and thick arrow with a socketed spear-shaped tip was inserted. Initially, the bow was made of wood and differed from the usual one only in size and thickness, but later it began to be made of an elastic steel strip. Only an extremely strong person could pull such a bow with his hands. An ordinary shooter had to rest his foot on a special stirrup attached to the stock in front of the bow and with an iron hook, holding it with both hands, pull the bowstring and put it into the slot of the trigger.
A special round-shaped trigger device, the so-called “nut”, made of bone or horn, was attached to the transverse axis. It had a slot for the bowstring and a figured cutout into which the end of the trigger lever entered, which, when not pressed, stopped the rotation of the nut on the axis, preventing it from releasing the bowstring.
In the 12th century. A double belt hook appeared in the crossbowmen's equipment, which made it possible to pull the bowstring, straightening the body and holding the weapon with the foot in the stirrup. The oldest belt hook in Europe was found in Volyn, during excavations in Izyaslavl (20).
From the beginning of the 13th century, a special mechanism of gears and a lever, the “rotary wheel,” began to be used to tighten the bowstring. Is this where the nickname of the Ryazan boyar Evpatiy - Kolovrat - comes from for his ability to do without it? Initially, such a mechanism was apparently used on heavy machine tools, which often fired solid forged arrows. The gear from such a device was found on the ruins of the lost city of Vshchizh in the modern Bryansk region.
In the pre-Mongol period, the crossbow (crossbow) spread throughout Rus', but nowhere except the western and northwestern outskirts was its use widespread. As a rule, finds of crossbow arrow tips account for 1.5–2% of their total number (21). Even in Izborsk, where the largest number of them were found, they make up less than half (42.5%), inferior to the usual ones. In addition, a significant part of the crossbow arrowheads found in Izborsk are of the Western, socket type, most likely having flown into the fortress from outside (22). Russian crossbow arrows are usually stalked. In Rus', the crossbow was an exclusively serf weapon; in field warfare it was used only in the lands of Galicia and Volyn, and moreover, not earlier than the second third of the 13th century. - already outside the period we are considering.
With throwing machines East Slavs They met no later than the campaigns of the Kyiv princes to Constantinople. The church tradition about the baptism of the Novgorodians preserved evidence of how they, having dismantled the bridge across the Volkhov to the middle and installed a “vice” on it, threw stones at the Kyiv “crusaders” - Dobrynya and Putyata. However, the first documentary evidence of the use of stone throwers in Russian lands dates back to 1146 and 1152. when describing the inter-princely struggle for Zvenigorod Galitsky and Novgorod Seversky. Domestic weapons expert A.N. Kirpichnikov draws attention to the fact that around the same time, a translation of Josephus Flavius’ “The Jewish War” became known in Rus', where throwing machines are often mentioned, which could increase interest in them. Almost simultaneously, a hand-held crossbow also appeared here, which should also have led to experiments in creating more powerful stationary samples (23).
In the following, stone throwers are mentioned in 1184 and 1219; also known the fact of the capture of a mobile ballista-type throwing machine from the Polovtsians of Khan Konchak, in the spring of 1185. Indirect confirmation of the spread of throwing machines and easel crossbows capable of throwing cannonballs is the appearance of a complex echeloned system of fortifications. At the beginning of the 13th century, such a system of ramparts and ditches, as well as dams and dams located on the outside, rows of gouges and similar obstacles, was created with the aim of moving throwing machines beyond the effective range of their action.
At the beginning of the 13th century in the Baltic states, Polotsk residents, followed by Pskov and Novgorod residents, encountered the effects of throwing machines. The German crusaders entrenched here used stone throwers and crossbows against them. These were probably the most common balance-lever type machines in Europe at that time, the so-called peterellas, since stone throwers in chronicles are usually called “vices” or “praks”. those. slings. Apparently, similar machines prevailed in Rus'. In addition, the German chronicler Henry of Latvia often, speaking about the Russian defenders of Yuryev in 1224, mentions ballistae and ballistarii, which gives reason to talk about their use of not only hand crossbows.
In 1239, when trying to relieve Chernigov besieged by the Mongols, the townspeople helped their saviors by throwing swords at the Tatars with stones that only four loaders were able to lift. A machine of similar power operated in Chernigov several years before the invasion, when troops of the Volyn-Kiev-Smolensk coalition approached the city. Nevertheless, we can say with confidence that in most of Rus', throwing machines, like crossbows, were not widely used and were regularly used only in the south- and north-western lands. As a result, most cities, especially in the northeast, continued to arrive in readiness only for passive defense and turned out to be easy prey for conquerors equipped with powerful siege equipment.
At the same time, there is reason to believe that the city militia, which usually made up the majority of the army, was armed no worse than the feudal lords and their warriors. During the period under review, the percentage of cavalry in the city militias increased, and at the beginning of the 12th century, completely mounted campaigns in the steppe became possible, but even those who in the middle of the 12th century. There was not enough money to buy a war horse; they often found themselves armed with a sword. A case is known from the chronicle when a Kiev “footman” tried to kill a wounded prince with a sword (24). Owning a sword by that time had long ceased to be synonymous with wealth and nobility and corresponded to the status of a full member of the community. So, even “Russkaya Pravda” admitted that a “husband” who insulted another with a blow of a sword might not have the money to pay a fine. Another extremely interesting example on the same topic is given by I.Ya. Froyanov, referring to the Charter of Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich: “If a “robichich,” the son of a free man adopted from a slave, was supposed to take a horse and armor even from the “little belly...”, then we can safely say that in a society where such rules existed, weapons were an integral sign of free status, regardless of one’s social rank” (25). Let us add that we are talking about armor - an expensive weapon, which was usually considered (by analogy with Western Europe) to belong to professional warriors or feudal lords. In such a rich country, which pre-Mongol Rus' was in comparison with Western countries, a free person continued to enjoy his natural right to own any weapon, and at that time there were enough opportunities to exercise this right.
As you can see, any middle-income urban resident could have a war horse and a full set of weapons. There are many examples of this. In support, one can refer to archaeological research data. Of course, the excavation materials are dominated by arrowheads and spears, axes, flails and maces, and items of expensive weapons are usually found in the form of fragments, but one must keep in mind that the excavations give a distorted picture: expensive weapons, along with jewelry, were considered one of the the most valuable trophies. It was collected by the winners first. They searched for it deliberately or found it by accident later on. Naturally, finds of armor blades and helmets are relatively rare. It has been preserved. As a rule, something that was of no value to the victors and looters. Chain mail in general, in its entirety, seems to be more often found in water, hidden or abandoned, buried with its owners under ruins, than on the battlefield. This means that the typical set of weapons of a city militia warrior of the early 13th century was in fact far from being as poor as was commonly believed relatively recently. Continuous wars in which, along with dynastic interests, the economic interests of urban communities collided. They forced the townspeople to arm themselves to the same extent as the vigilantes, and their weapons and armor could only be inferior in price and quality.
This nature of socio-political life could not but affect the development of weapons craft. Demand generated supply. A.N. Kirpichnikov wrote about this: “An indicator of the high degree of armament of ancient Russian society is the nature of military craft production. In the 12th century, specialization in the manufacture of weapons noticeably deepened. Specialized workshops appeared for the production of swords, bows, helmets, chain mail, shields and other weapons.” “...Gradual unification and standardization of weapons are being introduced, examples of “serial” military production are appearing, which are becoming massive.” At the same time, “under the pressure of mass production, the differences in the manufacture of “aristocratic” and “plebeian”, ceremonial and folk weapons are increasingly erased. The increased demand for cheap products leads to limited production of unique designs and increased production of mass products (26). Who were the buyers? It is clear that the majority of them were not princely and boyar youths (although their number was growing), not the newly emerging layer of servicemen, conditional land holders - nobles, but primarily the population of growing and richer cities. “Specialization also affected the production of cavalry equipment. Saddles, bits, and spurs became mass products” (27), which undoubtedly indicates the quantitative growth of the cavalry.
Regarding the issue of borrowing in military affairs, in particular in weapons, A.N. Kirpichnikov noted: "R We are talking... about a much more complex phenomenon than simple borrowing, a delay in development or an original path; about a process that cannot be imagined as cosmopolitan, just as it cannot be contained within a “national” framework. The secret was that Russian early medieval military science as a whole, as well as military equipment, which absorbed the achievements of the peoples of Europe and Asia, were not only eastern, or only western, or only local. Rus' was a mediator between East and West, and Kyiv gunsmiths had a wide selection of military products from near and far countries. And the selection of the most acceptable types of weapons occurred constantly and actively. The difficulty was that the weapons of European and Asian countries were traditionally different. It is clear that the creation of a military-technical arsenal was not reduced to the mechanical accumulation of imported products. The development of Russian weapons cannot be understood as an indispensable and constant crossing and alternation of foreign influences alone. Imported weapons were gradually processed and adapted to local conditions (for example, swords). Along with borrowing other people’s experience, their own samples were created and used...” (28).
It is necessary to specifically address the issue on the import of weapons. A.N. Kirpichnikov, contradicting himself, denies the import of weapons to Rus' in the 12th – early 13th centuries. on the basis that all researchers during this period noted the beginning of mass, replicated production of standard weapons. This in itself cannot serve as proof of the absence of imports. Suffice it to recall the appeal of the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” to the Volyn princes. A distinctive feature of the weapons of their troops is called “Latin sheloms”, “Lyatsky sulitsa (i.e. Polish Yu.S.) and shields”.
What were the “Latin” ones? Western European helmets at the end of the 12th century? This type, most often, is deep and deaf, only with slits - slits for the eyes and holes for breathing. Thus, the army of the Western Russian princes looked completely European, since, even if we exclude imports, there remained such channels of foreign influence as contacts with allies or military booty (trophies). At the same time, the same source mentions “Kharalu swords”, i.e. damask steel, of Middle Eastern origin, but the reverse process also took place. Russian plate armor was popular in Gotland and in the eastern regions of Poland (the so-called “Mazovian armor”) and in the later era of the dominance of solid forged armor (29). The shield is of the “lucky” type, with a shared groove in the middle, according to A.N. Kirpichnikov, spread across Western Europe from Pskov (30).
It should be noted that the “Russian weapons complex” has never represented a single whole in the vastness of the vast country. In different parts of Rus' there were local peculiarities and preferences, determined primarily by the enemy’s weapons. The western and steppe southeastern border zones stood out noticeably from the general massif. In some places they preferred a whip, in others they preferred spurs, a saber over a sword, a crossbow over a bow, etc.
Kievan Rus and its historical successors - the Russian lands and principalities were at that time a huge laboratory where military affairs were improved, changing under the influence of warlike neighbors, but without losing national basis. Both the weapons-technical side and the tactical side absorbed heterogeneous foreign elements and, processing, combined them, forming a unique phenomenon, whose name is “Russian mode”, “Russian custom”, which made it possible to successfully defend against the West and the East with different weapons and different techniques .
1. Mishulin A.V. Materials on the history of the ancient Slavs //Bulletin of Ancient History. 1941. No. 1. P.237, 248, 252-253.
2. Shtritter I.M. News of Byzantine historians explaining the Russian history of ancient times and the migration of peoples. St. Petersburg 1770. P.46; Garkavi A.Ya. Tales of Muslim writers about the Slavs and Russians. St. Petersburg 1870. pp. 265 – 266.
3. Gorelik M. Warriors of Kievan Rus // Tseichgauz. M. 1993. No. 1. P. 20.
4. Shinakov E.A. On the way to the power of Rurikovich. Bryansk; St. Petersburg, 1995. P. 118.
5. Quote. by: Shaskolsky I.P. Rus''s struggle to maintain access to Baltic Sea in the 14th century L.; Science, 1987. P.20.
6. Artsikhovsky A.V. Weapons // History of culture of Kievan Rus / Ed. B.D. Grekova. M.;L.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1951. T.1.S417; Military history of the Fatherland from ancient times to the present day. M.: Mosgorarchiv, 1995.T.1.S.67.
7. Gorelik M. Military affairs of ancient Europe // Encyclopedia for children. World History. M.: Avanta+, 1993. P. 200.
8. Gorelik M. Warriors of Kievan Rus. P.22.
9. Shinakov E.A. On the way to the power of Rurikovich. P.117.
10. Gorelik M. Warriors of Kievan Rus. P. 23.
11. Ibid. P. 22.
12. Artsikhovsky A.V. Decree. op. T.!. P. 418.
13. Complete collection of Russian chronicles (PSRL). L.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1926, T.1. Stb.78.
14. Makarov N.A. Russian North: mysterious Middle Ages. M.: b.i., 1993.P.138.
15. A word about Igor’s campaign. M. Children's literature, 1978. P. 52.
16. Shinakov E.A. Decree. op. P.107.
17. Makarov N.A. Decree. op. pp. 137 – 138.
18. Kirpichnikov A.N. Massive melee weapons from the excavations of ancient Izyaslavl // Brief communications of the Institute of Archeology (KSIA) M.: Nauka, 1978. No. 155. P.83.
19. Ibid. P. 80.
20. Kirpichnikov A.N. Hook for pulling a crossbow (1200 - 1240) // KSIA M.: Nauka, 1971. No. P. 100 - 102.
21. Kirpichnikov A.N. Military affairs in Rus' in the XIII - XV centuries. Leningrad: Nauka, 1976. P.67.
22. Artemyev A.R. Arrowheads from Izborsk // KSIA. 1978. No. P. 67-69.
23. Kirpichnikov A.N. Military affairs in Rus' in the XIII – XV centuries. P. 72.
24. PSRL. M.: Publishing House of Eastern Literature, 1962. T.2. Stb. 438 – 439.
25. Froyanov I.Ya. Kievan Rus. Essays on socio-political history. L.: Leningrad State University Publishing House, 1980. P. 196.
26. Kirpichnikov A.N. Military affairs in Rus' IX - XV centuries. Author's abstract. doc. diss. M.: 1975. P. 13; aka. Old Russian weapons. M.; L.: Nauka, 1966. Vol. 2. pp. 67, 73.
27. Kirpichnikov A.N. Military affairs in Rus' IX - XV centuries. Author's abstract. doc. diss. P.13; aka. Equipment of the rider and horse in Rus' IX - XIII centuries. L.: Nauka, 1973. P. 16, 57, 70.
28. Kirpichnikov A.N. Military affairs in Rus' IX - XV centuries. P. 78.
29. Kirpichnikov A.N. Military affairs in Rus' in the XIII - XV centuries. P.47.
http://www.stjag.ru/index.php/2012-02-08-10-30-47/%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82 %D1%8C-%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE% D0%B3%D0%BE-%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0/%D0%BA%D0%B8% D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F-%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%8C/item/29357-%D0%BE% D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B5-%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B9-% D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8.html
It is worth noting that ancient Russian warrior defenders are a topic that is inextricably linked with the druzhina culture of Ancient Rus'. More specifically, such a culture was formed when ancient Russian statehood was actively developing. The druzhina culture was able to embody the social, ethnic, and political processes of the 9th-11th centuries.
A little history
Historical materials indicate that the Slavs were relatively weak in matters of military-technical relations. Instead of weapons at that time, it was customary to use spears, arrows, and axes. The situation has changed a little in better side only when the Rus appeared on the territory. Scientists believe that in ancient times this term was used to refer to warriors who came to the territory of Ancient Rus' from Europe (its northern part). It was along with the Russians that new attributes of weapons and protection appeared among the ancient warrior-defenders.
Archaeological excavations have more than once found even children's swords, which apparently served as toys for the ancient Russian population. For example, a wooden sword, only 6 cm wide and 60 cm long, was found by archaeologists in Staraya Ladoga. It can be concluded that ancient Russian warrior-defenders introduced their children to the basic skills of defense and protection from an early age. It is worth noting that Russian warriors initially fought only on foot; they considered horses only as a convenient means of transportation. And the horses that were common in Europe at that time were short.
Scientists confirm the information that in the second half of the 10th century various conflicts between the Russians and Byzantium and the Khazar Khaganate became widespread. In 944, Prince Igor already had allies, whose role was played by the Pechenegs. It was from representatives of this nationality that the Rus began to buy horses intended for participation in military battles.
Clothing and ammunition of warriors of ancient Rus'
Old Russian warriors managed to adopt good fighting skills on horseback from the steppe inhabitants, as well as borrow the clothes and weapons necessary for a warrior-horseman. At that time, such words as sabers, flails, tash bags, helmets, caftans, etc. became common in everyday life. If we talk about kaftanags, woolen fabrics were used for them. Scientists have found mentions of bloomers since the 10th century.
Basically, the fighting of ancient Russian warriors had to be carried out against horsemen who were lightly armed. It was this factor that caused the soldiers to change their weapons to something more flexible and lighter. That is why the European weapons of Russian soldiers during the campaigns against Byzantium acquired oriental features. For example, Scandinavian swords turned into sabers, warriors began to use horses, etc. You can see all this if you look at ancient Russian warrior pictures.
Armor and weapons of the ancient Russian warrior 
Lamellar armor was armor that consisted of metal plates. This type of armor was created to cover the body of a warrior. If we talk about armor plates, they could be varied: semicircular, square, oblong, etc. The plates had holes through which the plates were attached to a fabric or leather base with threads or straps.
The rider, protected by a shell, could even be without a chopping weapon. The main weapons for a horseman are a flail and a mace, which allow them to strike the enemy during combat battles.
Closer to the 12th century, the ancient Russian helmet with a special mask-mask, which protected the warrior’s face from piercing and chopping blows, became popular. If we talk about face masks, they had slits for the eyes and nose; such military attributes could cover the face half or completely.
Video: Shield pendant of an ancient Russian knight with a lion
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Russian soldiers were skilled in using these weapons and, under the command of brave military leaders, more than once won victories over the enemy.
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The flail is a short belt whip with an iron ball suspended at the end. Sometimes spikes were also attached to the ball. They dealt terrible blows with flails. With minimal effort, the effect was stunning. By the way, the word “stun” used to mean “to hit the enemy’s skull hard.”
The head of the shestoper consisted of metal plates - “feathers” (hence its name). The shestoper, widespread mainly in the 15th-17th centuries, could serve as a sign of the power of military leaders, while remaining at the same time a serious weapon.
Both the mace and the shestoper originate from the club - a massive club with a thickened end, usually bound in iron or studded with large iron nails - which was also in service with Russian soldiers for a long time.
A very common chopping weapon in the ancient Russian army was the ax, which was used by princes, princely warriors, and militias, both on foot and on horseback. However, there was a difference: those on foot more often used large axes, while those on horseback used axes, that is, short axes.
For both of them, the ax was put on a wooden ax handle with a metal tip. The back flat part of the ax was called the butt, and the hatchet was called the butt. The blades of the axes were trapezoidal in shape.
A large wide ax was called a berdysh. Its blade, made of iron, was long and mounted on a long axe, which had an iron frame, or thread, at the lower end. Berdysh were used only by infantrymen. In the 16th century, berdysh were widely used in the Streltsy army.
Later, halberds appeared in the Russian army - modified axes of various shapes, ending in a spear. The blade was mounted on a long shaft (axe) and was often decorated with gilding or embossing.
A type of metal hammer, pointed at the butt side, was called a mint or klevets. The coin was mounted on an ax with a tip. There were coins with an unscrewing, hidden dagger. The coin served not only as a weapon, it was a distinctive accessory of military leaders.
Piercing weapons - spears and spears - were no less important than the sword as part of the armament of the ancient Russian troops. Spears and spears often decided the success of a battle, as was the case in the battle of 1378 on the Vozha River in the Ryazan land, where Moscow cavalry regiments, with a simultaneous blow “on spears” from three sides, overturned the Mongol army and defeated it.
The spear tips were perfectly suited for piercing armor. To do this, they were made narrow, massive and elongated, usually tetrahedral.
The tips, diamond-shaped, laurel-leaved or wide wedge-shaped, could be used against the enemy in places not protected by armor. A two-meter spear with such a tip inflicted dangerous lacerations and caused the rapid death of the enemy or his horse.
The spear consisted of a shaft and a blade with a special sleeve, which was mounted on the shaft. In Ancient Rus', shafts were called oskepische (hunting) or ratovishche (battle). They were made from oak, birch or maple, sometimes using metal.
The blade (the tip of the spear) was called a feather, and its sleeve was called a vtok. It was often all-steel, but welding technologies from iron and steel strips, as well as all-iron ones, were also used.
The rods had a tip in the form bay leaf 5-6.5 centimeters wide and up to 60 centimeters long. To make it easier for a warrior to hold a weapon, two or three metal knots were attached to the shaft of the spear.
A type of spear was the sovnya (owl), which had a curved stripe with one blade, slightly curved at the end, which was mounted on a long shaft.
The first Novgorod chronicle records how the defeated army “... ran into the forest, throwing away weapons, shields, owls, and everything from themselves.”
Sulitsa was a throwing spear with a light and thin shaft up to 1.5 meters long. The tips of the sulits are petiolate and socketed.
Old Russian warriors defended themselves from bladed and thrown weapons with the help of shields. Even the words “shield” and “protection” have the same root. Shields have been used since ancient times until the spread of firearms.
At first, shields served as the only means of protection in battle; chain mail and helmets appeared later. The earliest written evidence of Slavic shields was found in Byzantine manuscripts of the 6th century.
According to the definition of the degenerate Romans: “Each man is armed with two small spears, and some of them with shields, strong, but difficult to carry.”
An original feature of the design of heavy shields of this period was the embrasures sometimes made in their upper part - windows for viewing. In the early Middle Ages, militiamen often did not have helmets, so they preferred to hide behind a shield “with their heads.”
According to legends, berserkers gnawed their shields in a battle frenzy. Reports of this custom of theirs are most likely fiction. But it is not difficult to guess what exactly formed its basis.
In the Middle Ages, strong warriors preferred not to bind their shield with iron on top. The ax would still not break from hitting the steel strip, but it could get stuck in the tree. It is clear that the axe-catcher shield had to be very durable and heavy. And its top edge looked “gnawed”.
Another original aspect of the relationship between berserkers and their shields was that the “warriors in bearskins” often had no other weapons. The berserker could fight with only one shield, striking with its edges or simply throwing enemies to the ground. This style of fighting was known back in Rome.
The earliest finds of shield elements date back to the 10th century. Of course, only metal parts were preserved - umbons (an iron hemisphere in the center of the shield, which served to repel a blow) and fittings (fasteners along the edge of the shield) - but from them it was possible to restore the appearance of the shield as a whole.
According to reconstructions by archaeologists, the shields of the 8th – 10th centuries had round shape. Later, almond-shaped shields appeared, and from the 13th century, triangular-shaped shields were also known.
The Old Russian round shield is of Scandinavian origin. This makes it possible to use materials from Scandinavian burial grounds, for example, the Swedish Birka burial ground, to reconstruct the Old Russian shield. Only there the remains of 68 shields were found. They had a round shape and a diameter of up to 95 cm. In three samples it was possible to determine the type of wood of the shield field - maple, fir and yew.
The species for some wooden handles was also established - juniper, alder, poplar. In some cases, metal handles made of iron with bronze overlays were found. A similar overlay was found on our territory - in Staraya Ladoga, now it is stored in private collection. Also, among the remains of both Old Russian and Scandinavian shields, rings and brackets for belt fastening the shield on the shoulder were found.
Helmets (or helmets) are a type of combat headgear. In Rus', the first helmets appeared in the 9th – 10th centuries. At this time, they became widespread in Western Asia and Kievan Rus, but were rare in Western Europe.
The helmets that appeared later in Western Europe were lower and tailored to the head, in contrast to the conical helmets of ancient Russian warriors. By the way, the conical shape gave great advantages, since the high conical tip made it impossible to apply direct blow, which is important in areas of horse-saber combat.
Norman type helmet
Helmets found in burials of the 9th – 10th centuries. have several types. Thus, one of the helmets from the Gnezdovo burial mounds (Smolensk region) was hemispherical in shape, tied along the sides and along the ridge (from the forehead to the back of the head) with iron strips. Another helmet from the same burials had a typically Asian shape - made of four riveted triangular parts. The seams were covered with iron strips. A pommel and lower rim were present.
The conical shape of the helmet came to us from Asia and is called the “Norman type”. But she was soon supplanted by the “Chernigov type.” It is more spherical - it has a spheroconic shape. On top there are pommels with bushings for plumes. In the middle they are reinforced with spiked linings.
Helmet "Chernigov type"
According to ancient Russian concepts, the combat attire itself, without a helmet, was called armor; later this word came to refer to all the protective equipment of a warrior. For a long time, chain mail held undisputed primacy. It was used throughout the X-XVII centuries.
In addition to chain mail, protective clothing made of plates was adopted in Rus', but did not prevail until the 13th century. Lamellar armor existed in Rus' from the 9th to the 15th centuries, and scale armor - from the 11th to the 17th centuries. The latter type of armor was particularly elastic. In the 13th century, a number of items enhancing body protection, such as leggings, knee pads, breast plates (Mirror), and handcuffs, became widespread.
To strengthen the chain mail or shell in the 16th-17th centuries in Russia, additional armor was used, which was worn over the armor. These armors were called mirrors. They consisted in most cases of four large plates - front, back and two side ones.
The plates, whose weight rarely exceeded 2 kilograms, were connected to each other and fastened on the shoulders and sides with belts with buckles (shoulder pads and amices).
A mirror, polished and polished to a mirror shine (hence the name of the armor), often covered with gilding, decorated with engraving and chasing, in the 17th century most often had a purely decorative character.
In the 16th century in Rus', ringed armor and breast armor made of rings and plates connected together, arranged like fish scales, became widespread. Such armor was called bakhterets.
Bakhterets was assembled from oblong plates arranged in vertical rows, connected by rings on the short sides. The side and shoulder slits were connected using straps and buckles. A chain mail hem was added to the bakhterts, and sometimes collars and sleeves were added.
The average weight of such armor reached 10-12 kilograms. At the same time, the shield, having lost its combat significance, becomes a ceremonial item. This also applied to the tarch - a shield, the top of which was a metal hand with a blade. Such a shield was used in the defense of fortresses, but was extremely rare.
Bakhterets and shield-tarch with a metal “arm”
In the 9th-10th centuries, helmets were made from several metal plates connected to each other with rivets. After assembly, the helmet was decorated with silver, gold and iron plates with ornaments, inscriptions or images.
In those days, a smoothly curved, elongated helmet with a rod at the top was common. Helmets of this shape Western Europe I didn’t know at all, but they were widespread both in Western Asia and in Rus'.
In the 11th-13th centuries, domed and spheroconic helmets were common in Rus'. At the top, helmets often ended with a sleeve, which was sometimes equipped with a flag - a yalovets. In early times, helmets were made from several (two or four) parts riveted together. There were helmets made from one piece of metal.
The need to enhance the protective properties of the helmet led to the appearance of steep-sided dome-shaped helmets with a nose or a face mask (visor). The warrior's neck was covered with a net-barmitsa, made of the same rings as the chain mail. It was attached to the helmet from the back and sides. The helmets of noble warriors were trimmed with silver, and sometimes were entirely gilded.
The earliest appearance in Rus' of headgear with a circular chainmail aventail hung from the crown of the helmet, and a steel half-mask laced in front to the lower edge, can be assumed no later than the 10th century.
At the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century, in connection with the pan-European tendency to make defensive armor heavier, helmets appeared in Rus', equipped with a mask-mask that protected the warrior’s face from both chopping and piercing blows. Face masks were equipped with slits for the eyes and nasal openings and covered the face either half (half mask) or entirely.
The helmet with the mask was put on a balaclava and worn with the aventail. Face masks, in addition to their direct purpose - to protect the warrior’s face, were also supposed to intimidate the enemy with their appearance. Instead of a straight sword, a saber appeared - a curved sword. The saber is very convenient for the conning tower. In skillful hands, the saber is a terrible weapon.
Around 1380, firearms appeared in Rus'. However, traditional melee and ranged weapons have retained their importance. Pikes, spears, maces, flails, pole-toppers, helmets, armor, round shields were in service for 200 years with virtually no significant changes, and even with the advent of firearms.
From the 12th century, the weapons of both horsemen and infantry gradually became heavier. A massive long saber appears, a heavy sword with a long crosshair and sometimes a one-and-a-half hilt. The strengthening of defensive weapons is evidenced by the technique of ramming with a spear, which became widespread in the 12th century.
The weighting of the equipment was not significant, because it would have made the Russian warrior clumsy and turned him into a sure target for the steppe nomad.
The number of troops of the Old Russian state reached a significant figure. According to the chronicler Leo the Deacon, an army of 88 thousand people took part in Oleg’s campaign against Byzantium; in the campaign to Bulgaria, Svyatoslav had 60 thousand people. Sources name the voivode and the thousand as the commanding staff of the Russian army. The army had a certain organization associated with the organization of Russian cities.
The city exhibited a “thousand”, divided into hundreds and tens (by “ends” and streets). The “thousand” was commanded by the tysyatsky, who was elected by the veche; subsequently, the tysyatsky was appointed by the prince. The “hundreds” and “tens” were commanded by elected sotskys and tens. Cities fielded infantry, which at that time was the main branch of the army and was divided into archers and spearmen. The core of the army was the princely squads.
In the 10th century, the term “regiment” was first used as the name of a separately operating army. In the “Tale of Bygone Years” for 1093, regiments are called military detachments brought to the battlefield by individual princes.
The numerical composition of the regiment was not determined, or, in other words, the regiment was not a specific unit of organizational division, although in battle, when placing troops in battle formation, the division of troops into regiments was important.
A system of penalties and rewards was gradually developed. According to later data, gold hryvnias (neck hoops) were awarded for military distinctions and services.
Gold hryvnia and gold plates-upholstery of a wooden bowl with the image of a fish
