Conceptual approaches (ideas), as noted by V.P. Malakhov, are the initial judgments about the subject, its programmatic assumptions. They act as key points in the organization of the intellectual process of cognitive activity and contain all kinds of riches in the content of the subject of research. Conceptual approaches (ideas) relate to a specific subject, although they are born outside the theory of this subject.
P.M. Rabinovich defines the conceptual approach as an axiomatic idea built on general ideological categories, which is a postulate of the general research strategy, the selection of facts under study and the interpretation of research results1.
Thus, conceptual approaches (ideas) reflect the methodological foundations of cognition, which act as spotlights illuminating the researcher’s path to understanding the object of research. Within the framework of conceptual approaches, a certain system of methodological principles and methods can be used.
In the structure of the methodology of comparative legal research, it is advisable to highlight a number of conceptual approaches, in particular civilizational, hermeneutical, axiological and anthropological.
Civilizational approach
One of the popular conceptual approaches (ideas) in the methodology of comparative legal research, formed within the framework of civilizational theory, is the civilizational approach, according to which civilization is the central category. There are various definitions of this concept, each of which reflects the philosophical, sociological or historical directions of social knowledge.
Most researchers believe that the concept of “civilization” first arose in the concepts of the “social contract” at the end of the 18th century. Of particular interest in this regard is the work of A. Ferguson “An Essay on the History of Civil Society”2 (1767), which examines the transition from savagery and barbarism to civilization. Civilization emerges as a new, higher stage in human history, due to the need to curb contradictions dangerous to the integrity of society and create a way of existence that will allow humanity to live and develop further.
But, despite the prevalence of this statement, it should be noted that long before this, in the 14th century, the need to use a civilizational approach when studying public life, a part of which, naturally, is legal life, drew the attention of the famous Arab philosopher, historian, and economist Abd ar-Rahman Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406). In particular, he noted that various states of social life must be explained from the perspective of a civilizational approach, which can serve as an explanation of facts related to the life of society. Moreover, as researchers of his activities note, Ibn Khaldun was probably the first to introduce the concept of “civilization” into scientific use, and was the first thinker who looked at the historical process from a civilizational point of view, and in accordance with this, he defined the task of history not only in describing the change of generations of society, but also in the study of civilizational features various peoples. Thus, the countdown to the application of the civilizational approach must not begin from the end
century, and from the 14th century. and associated with the name of Ibn Khaldun.
According to A. J. Toynbee, each civilization represents a unique attempt at a single, great, universal human creativity, and if you look at it in retrospect, it is a unique example of a single, great, universal human experience. He presents civilizations as types of human communities that evoke certain associations in the field of religion, architecture, painting, morals, customs, i.e. in the field of culture. A. J. Toynbee also argued that if you go from Greece and Serbia, trying to understand their history, you come to Orthodox Christianity or the Byzantine world. If you start your journey from Morocco and Afghanistan, you will inevitably come to the Islamic world.”
S. Huntington pays great attention to revealing the concept of civilization and the laws of its formation and development. In his opinion, civilization is the broadest level of cultural identity of people, associated with the presence of such features of an objective order as language, history, religion, customs, institutions, as well as subjective self-identification of people (for example, a resident of Rome can characterize himself as a Roman, an Italian , Christian, European, Westerner). Civilizations are unique value worlds, and that is why people of different civilizations have different views on the relationship between God and people, an individual and a group, a citizen and a state, parents and children, husband and wife, and have different ideas about the relative importance of rights and duties, freedom and coercion, equality and hierarchy.
Thus, civilization can be defined as the socio-historical structure of established communities, characterized by ideological, religious, cultural, moral and moral features of formation, reflecting the transition of humanity from barbarism to a new, more orderly level of development.
Currently, there is a tendency to use a civilizational approach when studying state and legal phenomena, including legal systems. The use of a civilizational approach presupposes a refusal to apply the principle of Eurocentrism, which consists in a narrow approach to the analysis of world history, which is a consequence of insufficient knowledge about the history of other peoples and a sense of superiority over other, non-Western civilizations. On this basis, the transformation of ideas about law and the state within the framework of the civilizational approach is most directly related to the objective study of the legal panorama of the world in general, and various legal systems in particular, which is the main condition for achieving objective research results and is most consistent with the realities of legal development.
The civilizational approach makes it possible to consider the history of mankind as a multivariate process. Accordingly, the use of this approach in comparative law will, on the one hand, make our vision of the evolution of legal systems more multidimensional. On the other hand, the consistent use of this approach in the study of the evolution of legal systems leads to the conclusion about their fundamental equivalence in terms of cultural and historical development, which, in turn, necessitates the study of all legal systems.
Thus, the civilizational approach allows us to identify both the uniqueness and equivalence of not only different civilizations, but also legal systems. This approach not only points out the differences between legal traditions and systems, but also opens up new horizons for legal acculturation within the framework of the dialogue of legal systems.
21. The concept of methodological principles of comparative legal research and their varieties.
The methodology of comparative legal research also consists of methodological principles as fundamental cognitive attitudes within the framework of which comparative legal research is conducted. They are formed within and under the influence of conceptual approaches (ideas). In other words, fundamental cognitive attitudes (methodological principles) are formed under the influence of initial judgments, axiomatic ideas that determine general research strategies (conceptual approaches), i.e. their relationship is the ratio of the particular and the general.
Methodological principles, according to V.P. Malakhov, act as mental prerequisites, cognitive algorithms for theoretical comprehension of the subject. They serve as conditions for penetration into the subject and allow one to construct a semantic model of the subject as a result of its theoretical comprehension. The choice of methodological principles determines the result of the study.
The main methodological principles of comparative legal research are: the principle of objectivity; principle of functionalism; principle of comparability; the principle of comprehensive consideration of historical, national, economic, socio-political conditions, etc.
The principle of objectivity within the framework of the methodology of comparative legal research is one of the most important methodological principles, since in comparative law there is no and there should be no place for religious or cultural prejudices in relation to a particular legal system or against a particular people. "The main objective comparative analysis legal systems,” as K. Osakwe rightly notes, “do not praise one system and discredit another, do not whitewash one legal culture and denigrate another, but understand the historical prerequisites for the formation of each of them.” For example, within the framework of this principle, the observance of the optimal diversity of legal systems and subsystems (legal phenomena, norms and institutions) when classifying them comes to the fore, according to which it is necessary to avoid chaotic cluttering of the system with unnecessary diversity and determine the real value of legal reforms in the legal system according to the overall result of lawmaking and law enforcement practice.
The next methodological principle of comparative legal research is the principle of comprehensive consideration of historical, national, economic, socio-political conditions in which, according to M.N. Marchenko, “comparable legal norms, institutions, branches and systems of law arise and develop. This principle involves establishing not only the common features and characteristics of the legal systems being compared, but also their features, as well as specific characteristics characteristic of individual systems; highlighting the main and secondary characteristics and features of the systems being compared; comparative study of legal matter not only in statics, but also in dynamics, etc.”
The theoretical concept of functionalism is the fundamental methodological principle of comparative law, which assumes that the legal system has system-forming attributes and system-wide patterns that consider the legal system not simply as a condition of life for people in a state-organized society, or as a complex of connections between individuals, but rather as a fairly independent integral entity , the main task of which is self-preservation and self-reproduction in the multi-temporal aspect of the system’s existence.
Functionalism is understood by K. Zweigert and H. Kötz as a fundamental, irrevocable quality of legal systems, i.e. In law, only that which performs the same function is comparable.
The legal system is a functional system, and in relation to its specific environment, to society, it is a subsystem, the main task of which is to achieve the internal stability of society. Compliance with the principle of functionalism allows us to explain certain trends in the development of legal systems various types and suggest possible directions of their evolution.
Among the methodological principles, the principle of comparability of the phenomena and institutions under consideration also stands out, which follows from the previous methodological principle, the essence of which is that in the process of preparing and conducting comparative legal research it is necessary to strictly observe the requirement that the objects of comparison must be “comparable” otherwise, there must be a direct connection between them. This principle presupposes that various phenomena, institutions and institutions have common features, signs that they belong to the same genus or species, that they have similar structures, functions, a common scope of application, similar tasks and goals.
As noted by A.B. Surilov, the relations in which objects are in the process of comparison are called comparative, and the property (or properties) by which these objects form comparative relations with each other are called the basis of comparison. The main function of comparison is to reduce the compared state legal institutions to a certain unity, due to which they become qualitatively comparable and quantitatively commensurate.
Thus, the use of methodological principles, along with conceptual approaches, allows for a more objective and comprehensive study of the subject of comparative law.
22. Methods of comparative legal research.
Any socio-legal research requires the presence of methodology, techniques, techniques and procedures. It can be presented as a set of certain theoretical postulates, conceptual models, methods, procedures, techniques for collecting, processing and analyzing information about social and legal facts - the behavior of individuals and social groups, their assessments, judgments and opinions.
Socio-legal research is a sequential implementation of the following stages:
– development of a research program (preparatory stage);
–collection of primary socio-legal information;
–processing of received data;
–analysis and synthesis of the information received;
– preparation of a report on the research results.
Program development is one of the decisive elements of socio-legal research. A research program is a statement of the basic principles, theory and methodology of research, its procedure and organization. Taking into account this understanding, it performs three main functions in socio-legal research:
–methodological (definition of the scientific problem, goals, objectives and principles of research);
–methodological (development of a general logical plan and research tools);
– organizational (determining the nature and structure, division of labor during work, monitoring the sequence of the main stages of the study).
The structure of the program includes two main sections - methodological and methodological (methodological and procedural).
The methodological section of the socio-legal research program should include the following components:
–formation of a problem situation and a scientific problem;
– determination of the goals and objectives of the study; definition of the object and subject of research;
–interpretation of basic concepts;
–preliminary system analysis of research objects;
– putting forward hypotheses.
For example, with regard to the subject of research, it would be a mistake to understand it as the side of the object that is recorded and studied in the research. In fact, there is no object in an object; more precisely, there can be as many of them (objects) as there are different cognitive schemes offered. The subject is created by the researcher on the basis of methodological heuristics, which is an approximation of existing knowledge to obtain new knowledge. This is what is called “theory input”. The subject of research may include idealized objects, as well as unobservable phenomena and latent factors. This principle should help to separate the essential (significant) from the unimportant, strengthen it and make it fundamental in the subject of research. “Thus, to explain the methodology of empirical research, one should cite the main provisions of the “input theory” and the principles that were used in identifying the object and constructing the subject of research” (Shavel, S.A. Methodological representation of empirical sociological research / S.A. Shavel // Social knowledge and Belarusian society: materials of the international scientific and practical conference, Minsk, December 3-4, 2009 - Minsk “Law and Economics,” p. 97).
The methodological section of the program provides:
– justification, calculation and planning of sample placement;
– development of basic procedures for data collection and analysis;
–formation of a strategic research plan.
That is, the methodological (methodological and organizational) section of the program consists of the following components:
–development of a strategic research plan;
–choice of research strategy;
– justification and sampling;
– development of methodological research tools;
–formation of an organizational plan.
Issues of the structure of the research program, their components, as a rule, are discussed quite fully in textbooks and teaching aids on sociology and sociology of law (Sociology of law: textbook / V.V. Glazyrin and others; edited by V.M. Syrykh. - M.: Legal. House "Justitsinform", 2001. P. 300-320), so we will limit ourselves to only covering the main elements of this program.
Socio-legal research begins with the formulation of a problem. There are two sides to the research problem – epistemological and sociological (subject-based). If the sociological side of the problem consists of real social contradictions that require their practical resolution, then the epistemological side reflects a certain contradiction between knowledge about the needs of people for some practical or theoretical actions and ignorance of methods, ways of implementing these actions, since there is no knowledge of the laws of those objects that have to operate. Defining a research problem is a complex process that begins with a general formulation of the question, but requires specification of the content of the problem, which allows the researcher to offer more informed, specific and effective recommendations for its practical solution. Thus, the study of the problem of the effectiveness of justice is concretized by the study of factors influencing the quality of justice, and the latter is detailed in turn, for example, by the problem of the independence of the judiciary from external pressure, etc.
The purpose of socio-legal research determines its orientation - theoretical or applied. The research program must clearly answer the question: what problem and what result is this research aimed at solving?
If the goals of socio-legal research are not clear enough to scientists or representatives of organizations that have approached them with a social order, then disagreements may arise based on the results of the research. In this regard, it is important that socio-legal research is comprehensive, for which the program develops a system of main and non-core tasks.
The main objectives correspond to the purpose of the study. In theoretically oriented research, priority is given to scientific tasks, while in practically oriented research, priority is given to applied ones. Minor tasks are set to prepare future research, solve methodological issues, and test side hypotheses not directly related to this problem.
With a theoretical or applied orientation of socio-legal research, it is advisable to solve non-main problems on the basis of the material obtained to find an answer to the central question, to analyze the same data, but from a different angle. It is possible that minor problems will not receive a complete solution, but they can help in formulating a scientific problem when preparing a new study for a new program.
If the main goal of the study is theoretical, then the main attention is paid to theoretical and methodological tasks. When solving applied problems, the specific object of study is initially known. The applied option involves the development of practical recommendations. For example, if the goal or task of the study is to identify the population’s attitude to a particular law, then the goal is primarily of an applied nature, although the theoretical component is not excluded if the development of a different concept of the law is required.
The formulation of the research problem is closely related to the definition of its object and subject. Any social problem does not exist on its own and always presupposes its carrier, i.e. a certain community, group of people or social process, phenomenon. The object of study is characterized quantitatively, structurally, and also in terms of its spatiotemporal certainty. If the object is independent of the research and opposes it, then the subject of study, on the contrary, is formed by the researcher themselves. The subject of research is considered to be that side of the object that is directly subject to study. Thus, the independence of the judiciary will be the object of research, and, for example, corruption pressure should be considered, if it is to be studied, the subject of research.
One of the sections of the research program involves work on the interpretation of basic concepts, i.e. clearly, clearly and accurately indicate what is meant in the study by the most important terms and concepts. As is known, jurisprudence requires rigor and uniformity of key categories and terms, the development of uniform definitions for the branch of law, legislation, which, unfortunately, has not yet been achieved by any branch of law. Therefore, the same term “corruption,” if its content is not defined by law, will require theoretical and empirical interpretation.
Having clarified the meaning of the concepts and categories used, the researcher proceeds to a preliminary systematic description of the subject of study. A systematic approach involves considering social objects as integral phenomena consisting of individual elements, the interaction of which leads to the emergence of specific systemic qualities of the object and forms its internal structure.
In socio-legal research, a hypothesis is a logically substantiated assumption about the structure of social objects, the nature and essence of the connections between the socio-legal phenomena being studied. It is the result of scientific research related to the formulation and justification of the problem, the definition of the subject and objectives of the study, the empirical interpretation of basic concepts, and a preliminary systematic description of the object of study. Thus, the hypothesis is the main methodological element of the study, allowing us to suggest possible answers to the questions posed. An example of putting forward hypotheses is a socio-legal study of the problem of the effectiveness of justice. The main hypothesis here is based on the assumption of the legality and validity of the resolution of specific cases. But we must remember that the methodological basis for the study of law as a social phenomenon is the recognition of the existing differences between positive law and actual social relations and, accordingly, the possible “pathology of law” (dysfunction of law), when, due to certain circumstances of an objective and subjective order, “legal attitudes can not fulfill their functions, moreover, they can disorganize social relations if they do not correspond to reality" (Lapina, S.V. Sociology of law: answers to exam questions / S.V. Lapina, I.A. Lapina. - Minsk : TetraSystems, 2008. P. 9).
It is important to remember here that any law or pattern discovered in natural knowledge is an event of enormous significance, which often has a huge impact on the entire technology modern production, improving the quality of products, i.e. has great social significance. The discovery of these laws is the result of observations, experiments and generalization of vast practical experience. The situation is much more serious with the practical recommendations of scientists, including lawyers, which affect the interests and destinies of many millions of people. There are a great many such recommendations that have been and are being presented to public opinion in the name of science. Often the authors of these practical recommendations and hypotheses propose solving social problems at the expense of the people. Therefore, it is necessary that scientists be deeply imbued with the idea of their social responsibility, and the idea of building a rule of law state, put forward in theory, does not turn into lawlessness and anarchy in practice (Sociology. Fundamentals of general theory: textbook / G.V. Osipov et al.; resp. ed. G.V. Osipov, L.N. Moskvichev - 2nd ed., corrections and additions - M: Norma, 2008 P. 155).
The methodological section of the socio-legal research program ends with the formulation of hypotheses. Further work of the researcher focuses on issues of procedure and technology (methodological and organizational section).
This section includes detailed questionnaires, interview questionnaires, observation forms, documents, as well as comprehensive sampling calculations. We noted earlier that the concept of “methodology” reveals to a greater extent the techniques of data collection techniques, in contrast to the term “method”. In the sociological literature, a methodology is understood as a set of methods or methodological techniques, therefore, methods for establishing specific social facts (document analysis, observation, survey, experiment) are often included in the methodological section of a research program. Methods and technical techniques include methods of checking data for validity and reliability, various types of measuring characteristics, statistical techniques and sample calculations. This section of the program should not be reduced to a simple list of these techniques. “It is important to achieve a situation where the interpreted concepts and the hypothetical assumptions put forward are in inextricable unity with the methods of collecting data and their processing. This involves a kind of “linking” of certain methodological and technical techniques for obtaining information to the corresponding provable hypotheses” (Sociology of Law: textbook / V.V. Glazyrin and others; edited by V.M. Syrykh. - M.: Legal House "Justitsinform", 2001. P. 319).
Thus, the methodology of the sociology of law as an integral system is formed by being interconnected:
– methods of collecting empirical information (observation, questionnaires, tests, etc.);
– generalization methods (comparative legal, statistical analysis, modeling, etc.);
– general logical methods (induction, synthesis, analogy analysis, etc.);
– methods of systems research (system-structural approach, ascent from the abstract to the concrete).
The science of the totality (system) of these methods makes it possible to reveal the subject of the sociology of law in all its completeness and comprehensiveness.
23. International Centers for Comparative Law.
The International Association of Legal Sciences (IASS) was founded in 1955 in Paris under the auspices of UNESCO, has consultative status "B" and appoints one member to the International Council of Social Sciences. The association is located in Paris at the UNESCO headquarters. The goal is to promote the development of legal sciences through a comparative study of existing national legal systems, intensifying scientific contacts and exchange of information between scientists from different countries, and providing assistance to national scientific organizations studying foreign law. Members of the Association are national committees created in different countries. Currently, IJUN includes national committees from more than 50 countries. There are national committees - members of the International Law Society in many countries of the world. The National Committee is free to choose its name. He pays an annual membership fee, setting the amount himself, which cannot be less than $150. The activities of IJUN are coordinated by the Association Council, which consists of representatives personally appointed by each national committee. The Council in turn elects an Executive Committee, called the International Committee of Comparative Law. The activities of IJUN are as follows: 1) Preparation and publication of legal bibliographic reference books on individual countries, as well as individual articles and monographs. 2) Publication of individual works on foreign law on topics such as sources of law, institutions, as well as translations of the most important works. 3) Publishing newsletters. 4) Preparation and publication of an international encyclopedia of comparative law. Officially, the purpose of publishing the encyclopedia is to create an incentive for the development of comparative legal research, as well as to provide a source of information for legislators in various countries in the process of developing draft national legislative acts and unifying the law. A large number of studies with subsequent publications and presentation of reports are prepared by IJUN on behalf of UNESCO. These include studies on such issues as: - teaching law in different countries of the world; - constitutions of countries that have recently gained independence; - ways in which states fulfill international obligations; - main aspects of agrarian reforms; - sovereignty and international cooperation; - rules of national law, regulating the peaceful use of atomic energy; - legal means of combating racial discrimination; - problems of family law in African countries, etc. The official languages of IJUN are English and French. International Academy of Comparative Law (IACL) – founded in 1924 in The Hague. Its goal is to study law on a comparative basis from a historical perspective and improve the legislation of various countries. Members of the Academy are prominent experts in the field of comparative law from many countries of the world. The number of active members is limited to 50 people, but can be increased by another 10 by decision of the IASP Executive Committee. Academy members are divided into six groups: 1) Latin group; 2) common law group; 3) northern and central European group; 4) Eastern European group; 5) Middle East African groups; 6) Asian group. The main form of activity of the IASP is the organization of international congresses on comparative law, which take place once every four years. At the congresses, the main problems of law in all legal disciplines are discussed. The congresses are very representative and numerous. During the congress there is usually general meeting Academy. The main form of IASP publications is collections of general reports presented at the IASP Congress. The official languages of IASP are English and French. The International Faculty of Comparative Law (IFCL) was created in the fall of 1960 on the basis of the University of Strasbourg (France). Organizationally, it is connected with well-known scientific organizations - the International Association of Legal Sciences and International Academy comparative law. The Faculty aims to promote the development of comparative law through its teaching, research and publication scientific works. The Faculty usually holds two “general” sessions a year: a spring session in Strasbourg (France) and a summer session in one of the other European countries. In addition, the faculty holds several annual specialized sessions dedicated to specific areas of law. The bodies of the IFSP are the general meeting, the faculty council, the standing commission and its executive committee, specialized advisory commissions and the dean's office (consisting of the dean and deputy dean). Due to the success of the faculty, the geography of its activities was expanded. In addition to Europe, sessions began to be held in various Latin American countries and Canada. In total, about 150 sessions were held in 25 countries. The main source of funds for the faculty is subsidies and grants from the government of the host country (France - every spring session, another country - summer session). Education at the faculty is paid - students pay for “academic rights,” i.e., attending lectures and taking exams. Speeches at the faculty are public. The International Faculty of Comparative Law is an important center for the training of teachers and researchers in the field of comparative law. The comparative law teaching program includes a general study of comparative law in individual disciplines and is carried out in the form of lecture courses, seminars and colloquia, divided into three cycles. The first cycle is an introduction to comparative law, constitutional law, introduction to comparative international private law, introduction to procedural law. The course is divided into Romance law and Anglo-American law. The second cycle is divided into two sections. The first is devoted to issues of private law (contract in comparative law, commercial law, civil liability in comparative law, inheritance in comparative law, marriage). The second section is devoted to issues of public law (administrative contracts in comparative law, liability government agencies in comparative law, administrative process, government bodies, regime of rights and freedoms, state enterprises, the concept of legality in comparative law, etc.). The third cycle includes courses and colloquia on selected topics related to various legal comparative disciplines. This program is complemented by elective lecture courses, as well as a program of study of the European Communities. At the end of the first and second cycles, a “diploma in comparative law” is awarded, there is also a “diploma of higher studies in comparative law” and a “diploma of doctor of comparative law”. To obtain a doctorate, you must attend an additional course of lectures in the third cycle and defend a dissertation. The Faculty has established the International Association of Students and Former Students of Comparative Law, which aims to maintain scientific contacts between individuals who studied at the Faculty or have graduated from it, as well as to monitor the development of scientific thought in the field of comparative law. French Center for Comparative Law The Center for Comparative Law is a public organization consisting of: 1) the Society for Comparative Law; 2) the Institute of Comparative Law; 3) commissions for the study of foreign law. The first two public organizations are subsidized by universities, and the last one by the French Ministry of Justice. The main task of the Institute of Comparative Law is teaching, organizing lectures for French students and other people studying law. The commission studies and summarizes foreign legislation. The main role is played by the Society of Comparative Legislation, which is mainly engaged in organizing international symposia and bilateral meetings of French scientists with foreign ones. In particular, the Society systematically holds bilateral meetings with lawyers from various countries. Bilateral meetings of scientists are held by the Center for Comparative Law alternately in different countries every two years. 8-10 people from each side take part in the meetings. At all meetings, three problems in different areas of law are discussed. The materials of the meetings are published in both countries in the form of collections. The motto of the French Center for Comparative Law is “The law is diverse, the right is one.”
In the generally accepted sense, a concept (lat. conceptio) is a leading idea, a certain way of understanding, interpreting a phenomenon; the sudden birth of an idea, a basic thought. Paradigm (Latin para - near, near, past and deigma - sample, example) is understood as a set of prerequisites that determine a specific Scientific research(knowledge) and recognized at this stage.
The concept of “paradigm” has become widespread thanks to the works of T. Kuhn. According to his view, the undivided dominance of a certain model (paradigm) is a period of normal (extensive) development, which ends when the paradigm seems to “explode” from within under the pressure of anomalies (contradictions and problems that cannot be resolved within its framework). A crisis is coming, new paradigms are being created, competing with each other. The crisis is resolved by the superiority of one of them, which means the beginning of a new normal period (cycle, stage of development), and the whole process repeats itself.
As we see, the term “paradigm” can also be applied in the aspect of methodology. Nevertheless, further we will focus on the term “logistics concepts”.
Let us dwell a little on the fairly widespread concept of integrated logistics, in which the logistics system is considered as a system of coordination and regulation (coordination, interconnection) of the goals of business processes in the direction of the flow of goods and materials from the supplier of primary material (usually natural) resources to the final consumer .
Well-known American specialists in logistics process management D. Bowersox and D. Kloss see two directions for the development of integrated logistics. The first is to integrate logistics operations within the enterprise to form a core competency. At the same time, they note that the integration of the entire system provides much more significant performance results than the fragmented management of individual functions. The second is the integration of external operations, i.e. Logistics is considered as an area of competence that connects a company with its consumers and suppliers. Read more about logistics concepts and systems in Chapter 8 of this textbook.
Based on the definition of logistics as a theory and practical activities to manage the processes of movement of a set of material, financial, labor, legal and information flows in the structures of a market economy, the main conceptual idea of logistics is aimed at achieving, with the lowest possible costs under given conditions, the firm’s adaptability to a changing market environment, expanding its market segment and gaining advantages over competitors .
Logistics, therefore, is multi-subject and multifunctional and is presented as:
the science of the movement of a set of material, information, financial, personnel flows in a market economy system;
methodology for managing (planning, organizing and controlling) the process of movement and storage in the field of procurement of raw materials and materials, bringing them to the production enterprise (in-plant processing) and delivery of finished products to the end consumer;
systems approach, representing the movement and development of material, information, financial and human resources in the categories of flows and stocks;
modern competitive strategy of business entities, the goal-setting factor of which is a resource-saving algorithm entrepreneurial activity;
an algorithm for organizing the rational movement of material flows and accompanying information and finance at all stages of the reproduction process (materials and technical support, production, sales);
functional management in the company management system;
a type of business activity specializing in the storage and delivery of inventory resources to consumers.
Further development of logistics is impossible without its computerization. The use of computers and modern information communications greatly increases the possibility of rationalizing the activities of all participants in the supply chain. The automatic control system clearly monitors such indicators as the availability of semi-finished products and the output of finished products, the state of inventories, the volume of supplies of materials and components, and the degree of order fulfillment.
The present stage of development of logistics is characterized by the formulation and solution of a number of theoretical problems. Thus, in order to minimize costs over the service life of products, it is proposed to expand the concept of “logistics concept” to include the entire product life cycle (from the design stage to the disposal of secondary raw materials and waste).
With a monopoly of both the manufacturer and the intermediary, the self-regulation of the market mechanism inevitably ceases to work, with all the ensuing consequences. negative consequences, including limited opportunities on the application of logistics. Therefore, in all developed countries, state regulation of market relations is aimed primarily at creating and maintaining conditions that ensure their self-regulation on a competitive basis, i.e. in a market economy, the state must carry out a wide range of measures to counter the monopoly aspirations of market entities.
A necessary condition for the development of domestic logistics is the elimination of economic prerequisites for the reproduction of monopolistic tendencies. Otherwise, it is impossible to create conditions for the development of competition based on the free choice of partners, pricing and the formation of orders based on market conditions. It is these conditions that determine the presence of an economic environment adequate to market relations, and only if they are present can we talk about effective application in the domestic economy of logistics management methods.
The use of marketing, logistics and other means by firms to strengthen their positions in the market is strong evidence of the emergence of competitive principles in our economy.
CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES TO IMPROVING RISK MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS
Concept (from Latin conceptio - understanding, system), a certain way of understanding, interpreting an object, phenomenon, process, the main point of view on the subject, etc., a guiding idea for their systematic coverage. The concept of managing an economic entity includes strategic and tactical goals and ways to achieve them. The concept of improving risk management mechanisms at the enterprise is part of the general concept of enterprise management, corresponds to the interests of consumers, state requirements, and the interests of the owners and personnel of the company.
Ensuring strategic protection from risks and production safety while maximizing the efficiency of business processes is possible through continuous improvement of the quality of each aspect of these processes. The essence of enterprise risk management and their classification are revealed when solving problems to ensure economic security.
The organization of risk management directly depends on what management concept the enterprise adheres to.
Currently, two concepts of risk management have emerged: traditional and modern. The traditional concept assumes a fragmented nature of risk management, episodic risk management. Modern - an integrated approach to management and continuous risk management (Table 3.1).
In the theory and practice of management, the following main approaches to management are distinguished:
situational approach;
process approach;
complex (integrated, systemic) approach.
These management approaches are used when building a risk management system at enterprises (Fig. 3.1):
Rice. 3.1. Approaches to building a risk management system
A situational approach to organizing risk management at an enterprise consists of choosing management methods that best suit the current situation. Thus, this approach assumes a fragmented, unsystematic nature of the impact on risk; the range of manageable risks is limited.
Table 3.1
Comparison of existing risk management concepts
|
Peculiarities |
Traditional concept of risk management |
Corporate risk management concept |
|
the list of manageable risks is limited; the main focus is on insurable and financial risks |
the desire to take into account the maximum possible number of risks and the possibility of managing them (ideally - all risks and all management methods) |
|
|
Organization |
each department independently manages risks related to its activities; as a result, it is difficult to optimize costs for risk management and take risks into account when making management decisions |
coordination is carried out by the top management of the organization; all departments are involved in risk management; For every employee, risk management is part of their job responsibilities |
|
risk management is episodic in nature and is carried out as needed (i.e. when the manager deems it necessary) |
risk management is organized as a continuous process, including constant consideration of risks and the costs of managing them |
The process approach views risk management as a continuous series of interrelated management functions. This approach, despite its formalization, does not solve the issues of integrated design of a risk management system, providing only a description of its process structure.
Comprehensive risk management allows an enterprise to achieve its strategic goals and assumes the unity of the risk management system and the general management of the enterprise.
Rice. 3.2 Characteristics of the concept of corporate risk management
International risk management standards, the most famous of which are listed in table. 3.2 can be taken as a basis when developing internal corporate risk management standards.
Table 3.2
International risk management standards
|
Developer/Publisher |
Name |
|
Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission (COSO), USA. Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission, USA. |
Enterprise Risk Management – Integrated Framework (ERM), 2004. Enterprise risk management – an integrated framework. |
|
The Institute of Risk Management (IRM), The Association of Insurance and Risk Managers (AIRMIC) and ALARM The National Forum for Risk Management in the Public Sector, UK. Adopted by Federation of European Risk Management Associations. Institute of Risk Management, Association of Risk Management and Insurance. National Forum for Risk Management in the Public Sector (UK). Adopted by the Federation of European Risk Managers Associations. |
A Risk Management Standard. 2002. Risk Management Standard. |
|
Standards Australia. |
Australian/New Zealand Risk Management Standard (AS/NZS 4360), 2004. Australian and New Zealand Risk Management Standard. |
|
Basel Committee on Banking Supervision. Basel Committee on Banking Supervision. |
Basel II: International Convergence of Capital Measurement and Capital Standards: a Revised Framework, 2004. Basel II: International Standards for Capital Measurement – Revised Agreement. |
Currently, the most common standards in risk management are FERMA and COSO ERM.
In accordance with the standard, the goal of risk management is to provide maximum stability to all types of company activities. The main task of risk management is to identify risks and influence them. The FERMA standard also states that risk management is a central part of a company's strategic management. In my opinion, this is not entirely true. The fact is that risk management, like other areas of management, does not contain a procedure for developing business ideas. Therefore, the main thing for strategy is the business idea, and it is the people who can offer it that are the central part of strategic management. The use of risk management is necessary when analyzing strategic alternatives, which will be discussed further, but the risk management system is only a management tool.
The FERMA standard specifies four types of risks: strategic, financial, operational and hazard risks. In addition, there are external and internal risk factors.
The FERMA standard specifies a significant number of possible methods for identifying and analyzing risks.
Here are some of them:
SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats). A traditional analysis tool that can also be used for risk analysis.
BPEST analysis (business, political, economic, social, technological) and PESTLE analysis (political, economic, social, technological, legal, environmental). When applied, the risks associated with each of the aspects listed in the title are analyzed. Based on the results of the analysis, a list of threats appears that may interfere with the achievement of goals. PESTLE can be expanded to STEEPLED (PESTLE + educational and demographic analyses).
Scenario analysis. When developing a company's development strategy, various development scenarios are possible. This is related to each aspect, and each section of the strategy must be interconnected with the others. The scenario analysis method allows you to choose an option that is acceptable from a risk point of view. It consistently examines all possible combinations and analyzes potential risks, which are compared with the expected return.
Business continuity planning. The method is based on identifying possible problems, which may lead to a crisis associated with the inability to carry out activities under the same conditions as before.
Consideration of each business process. The most effective way to identify operational risks. It is based on the fact that all processes are subject to detailed study for both opportunities for improvement and negative risks. The method is labor-intensive, but without such consideration there is a possibility of missing a significant number of operational risks.
HAZOP (hazard and performance studies). The name of the method comes from the English words hazard and operability. A HAZOP study is the process of detailing and identifying hazard and system performance issues, where the system refers to an industrial facility. The main task is to find potentially dangerous procedures that can lead to a malfunction of the system, for example, an explosion.
Analysis of failure modes and effects (from failure mode and effects analysis - FMEA). The method involves considering all possible failures/failures in the technological process and assessing the consequences of their implementation. To use it, all possible failures (equipment failures/shutdowns, conveyor stoppages, etc.) are classified according to the magnitude of the consequences, and then everything is examined in detail, starting with the most critical ones.
Fault tree analysis (from fault tree analysis - FTA). The method is based on the analysis of combinations of lower-level events that can lead to an undesirable state. The consideration goes from top to bottom for each of the events, that is, for a certain event, for example, an explosion, all possible options leading to it are considered. For example, an explosion occurs due to an increase in pressure, say, in a boiler. Accordingly, possible options may be failure of the safety valve, disruption of the supply of some component leading to an explosive increase in pressure, untimely response of maintenance personnel, aging of equipment, etc.
Risk assessment working groups and brainstorming sessions. To analyze risks, working groups are formed whose tasks include analyzing risks in a certain area. Identification in this case can occur through brainstorming.
Questioning. The simplest way to identify risks, based on surveying the widest possible range of people. Can be effective at the beginning of setting up a risk management system.
Audit and inspection, investigation of the causes of the event. These activities make it possible to identify current violations, as well as the causes of past events.
The practice of risk management has evolved gradually and across many areas of activity to meet different needs, but until recently there has been a lack of an approach based on the application of consistent processes within a comprehensive framework for delivering risk management throughout the organization (Figure 3.3).
The international standard ISO 31000:2009, in force in Ukraine, establishes principles and describes in detail the logical and systemic processes necessary for effective risk management. He recommends integrating the risk management process into the organization's overall governance, strategy, planning, management, reporting processes, policies, values and culture of the organization. This approach allows you to manage any type of risks, regardless of their nature, and also, regardless of what consequences they may lead to: positive or negative.
Fig.3.3. Risk management algorithm
Risk management, built on the basis of the International Standard ISO 31000:2009, can be applied across the entire structure of any organization, in different areas of its activities and at different levels, at any time, as well as to specific functions, projects and activities.
In addition, the use of this International Standard allows for the harmonization of risk management processes with existing management systems based on existing and future standards.
In modern economic conditions, characterized by political, economic and social instability, the existing management system at the enterprise must include a risk management mechanism.
The first stage in the formation of a risk management mechanism at an enterprise is the creation of a risk management service. At the current stage of development of the Ukrainian economy, the goal of this service is to minimize losses by monitoring the activities of the enterprise, analyzing the entire range of possible risks, developing recommendations for reducing risks and monitoring their implementation. At the same time, it is important to determine the place of the service in the organizational structure of the enterprise, determine the rights and responsibilities of its personnel and inform the employees of the enterprise about the functions of the service and the nature of its activities.
Sources of information intended for risk analysis. are:
financial statements of the enterprise;
organizational structure and staffing of the enterprise;
process flow maps (technical and production risks);
agreements and contracts (business and legal risks);
cost of production;
financial and production plans of the enterprise. The completeness of their implementation makes it possible to comprehensively assess the enterprise’s resistance to the entire range of risks.
Upon completion of the collection of information intended for risk analysis, the risk management service will have the opportunity to realistically assess the dynamics of the enterprise’s performance indicators, taking into account the impacts of external and internal socio-economic and political factors, which will make it possible to comprehensively and professionally predict the future state of market conditions and realistically assess possible risks .
A logical continuation of the work of the risk management service should be the formation of a risk management program, the development of which should take into account the following:
the extent of possible damage and its likelihood;
existing risk reduction mechanisms offered by the state and their production and economic efficiency;
production and economic efficiency of risk reduction measures proposed by the service;
the practical possibility of implementing activities within the allocated limit of funds;
compliance of program activities with existing ones regulations, the goals of long-term and short-term planning for the development of the enterprise and the main directions of its financial policy;
subjective attitude to risk of program developers and enterprise management.
When developing a program of risk management measures, risk management service specialists should focus on the maximum unification of the generated risk level assessments, which is expressed in the formation of universal parameters characterizing the amount of possible damage. As such parameters, it is most advisable to use the impact of risks on financial flows and the financial condition of the enterprise.
The final stage of program development is the formation of a set of measures to reduce risks, indicating the planned effect of their implementation, implementation deadlines, sources of financing and persons responsible for the implementation of this program. The program must be approved by the management of the enterprise and taken into account in financial and production planning.
During the implementation of the program, specialists from the risk management service must analyze the effectiveness of the decisions made and, as necessary, ensure adjustments to the goals and means of minimizing risks. At the same time, it is recommended to accumulate all information about errors and shortcomings in the development of the program that emerged during its implementation. This approach will allow for the development of subsequent risk reduction programs at a higher quality level using new acquired knowledge about risk.
Based on a study of the problems of functioning of the risk management mechanism of an enterprise, two main aspects of improving its functioning are identified (Fig. 3.4).
Main directions for improving the risk mechanism
Improving the risk management mechanism as a system within a system
Improving the interaction of the risk mechanism with the external environment
Improving the methods and principles of control influence on the functioning of the risk mechanism
Improving risk management as a system
Improving the structure of the risk management mechanism
Improving each element that makes up the risk management mechanism
Fig. 3.4 Main directions for improving the risk mechanism in a transition economy
The concepts are aimed at maximizing the effect of using each resource to obtain the greatest contribution to the overall effect of enterprise management. Finding ways to improve management efficiency will allow you to achieve competitive advantages, strengthen reliability and stable operation.
Methodology is a logical organization of human activity consisting in determining the purpose and subject of research, approaches and guidelines in its conduct, the choice of means and methods that determine the best result. Any human activity is characterized by methodology. But in research activities methodology plays decisive role in success.
The purpose of the study is to find the most effective options building a management system and organizing its functioning and development. But this is a general idea of the goal. In reality, conducting research has many purposes, for example, monitoring the quality of management. creating an atmosphere of creativity and innovation in the management system, timely recognition of problems, the aggravation of which in the future may complicate work, improving the qualifications of management personnel, assessing strategies, etc.
Research objectives can be current and prospective, general and detailed, permanent and occasional.
The methodology of any research begins with the selection, formulation and formulation of its purpose. The object of study is the control system. But from a methodological point of view, it is very important to understand and take into account the class of this system. It belongs to the class of socio-economic systems. This means that its fundamental element is man; human activity determines the characteristics of all processes of its functioning and development. The connections through which this system exists characterize complex and contradictory relationships between people, based on their interests, values, motives and attitudes.
No matter how advanced modern technical means are, their role depends on human interests, motives for use and development. The management system is based on human activity. You can study technology, but you cannot study it in isolation from a person and all the factors of its use in his activities.
The subject of the study is a problem. A problem is a real contradiction that requires resolution. The functioning of the management system is characterized by many different problems that act as a contradiction between management strategy and tactics, market conditions and the company's capabilities, personnel qualifications and needs for innovation, etc. Research is needed to solve these problems, some of which are “eternal”, others are transitory or maturing .
Purpose is the basis for recognizing and selecting problems in research.
The next component in the content of the research methodology is approaches. An approach is a research perspective, it is like a starting position, a starting point (to dance from the stove - folk wisdom) from which the research begins and which determines its direction relative to the goal.
Approaches can be aspect-based, systemic and conceptual. The aspect approach represents the selection of one facet of a problem based on the principle of relevance, or taking into account the resources allocated for research. So. for example, the problem of personnel development may have an economic, socio-psychological, educational, etc. aspect. The systems approach reflects more high level research methodology. It requires the maximum possible consideration of all aspects of the problem in their interrelation and integrity, highlighting the main and essential, determining the nature of the connections between aspects, properties and characteristics. The conceptual approach involves the preliminary development of the research concept, i.e. a set of key provisions that determine the direction, architectonics and continuity of the study.
Approaches can be empirical, pragmatic and scientific. If they rely mainly on experience - empirical, if - on the tasks of obtaining the nearest result - pragmatic. The most effective is, of course, the scientific approach, which is characterized by the scientific formulation of research goals and the use of scientific apparatus in its implementation.
The research methodology should also include the identification and formulation of guidelines and limitations. They allow you to conduct research more consistently and purposefully. Guidelines can be flexible or rigid, and restrictions can be explicit or implicit.
The main role in methodology is played by research tools and methods, which can be divided into three groups: formal - logical, general scientific and specific.
Formal - logical - these are methods of human intellectual activity, which form the basis of management research. General scientific methods reflect the scientific apparatus of research that determines the effectiveness of any type. Specific are methods that are born of the specifics of government systems and reflect the specifics of management activities.
I. Astashkina, V. Mishin
Study control systems,
Conceptual approach in management
Practical application of bacteriophages. The strict specificity of bacteriophages allows them to be used for phage typing and differentiation of bacterial cultures, as well as for indicating them in the external environment, for example, in water bodies.
The method of phage typing of bacteria is widely used in microbiological practice. It allows not only to determine the species of the culture under study, but also its phagotype (phagovar). This is due to the fact that bacteria of the same species have receptors that adsorb strictly specific phages, which then cause their lysis. The use of sets of such type-specific phages allows phage typing of the studied cultures for the purpose of epidemiological analysis of infectious diseases: establishing the source of infection and routes of its transmission.
In addition, by the presence of phages in the external environment (reservoirs), one can judge the content of corresponding bacteria in them that pose a danger to human health. This method of indicating pathogenic bacteria is also used in epidemiological practice. Its effectiveness increases when a phage titer increase reaction is performed, which is based on the ability of specific phage lines to reproduce on strictly defined bacterial cultures. When such a phage is introduced into the test material containing the desired pathogen, its titer increases. The widespread use of the phage titer increase reaction is complicated by the difficulty of obtaining indicator sets of phages and other reasons.
The use of phages for therapeutic and prophylactic purposes is relatively rare. This is due to a large number of negative results, which are explained by the following reasons:
1) the strict specificity of phages, which lyse only those cells of the bacterial population that are equipped with the appropriate receptors, as a result of which the phage-resistant individuals present in each population completely retain their viability;
2) the widespread use of more effective etiotropic drugs - antibiotics that do not have the specificity of bacteriophages.
Currently, bacteriophage preparations are used to treat dysentery, salmonellosis, and purulent infections caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria. In each case, the sensitivity of the isolated pathogens to this bacteriophage preparation is preliminarily determined.
Salmonella phages are used to prevent the disease of the same name in children's groups.
Conceptual approach in management
Current state The Russian economy indicates the emergence of positive trends and an improvement in the economic situation in the country, despite the ongoing global economic and financial crisis. At the same time, we have to admit that the vast majority of the reproduced and socio-economic resources of the state have not yet been realized. Thus, despite the existing supply of natural resources, the powerful human and scientific and technical potential in the Russian Federation is not the best level of quality of life. Among the main reasons for this state of economic and social components are social development The following may be included.
1. Lack of experience in functioning in market conditions and a spontaneous, often unregulated by the state, transition to market relations. For the most part, this relates to the legislative and legal sphere in the field of entrepreneurship and business.
2. In the educational part, there is a shift in the emphasis of training specialists from the traditional natural science approach to a predominantly humanitarian approach. Along with this, it also seems obvious that there has been a significant decline in the quality and level of pre-university training, the passion of a number of teaching specialists in almost all domestic universities for “foreign technologies” and the direct, unadapted transfer of these technologies to Russian reality.
3. Failure of management to develop and implement ideas and recommendations based on scientific planning methodology, including the theory of complex systems, forecasting, optimization and decision theory.
All this does not allow us to solve pressing problems at all levels of management in an optimal way. Research shows that these problems lie in the area of quality assurance management decisions, i.e. modern conditions make strict demands on managers and businessmen in terms of the intensity of their work, the ability to value and take into account not only their own opinions, but also those of their subordinates, the need to professionally master a set of organizational qualities and bring an element of creativity to their work. The most important factor increasing the efficiency of the country's potential is currently ensuring the quality of management decisions.
In this regard, the qualitative parameters of the professional training of managers and businessmen become particularly relevant. It should be taken into account that their work is not only a rather complex field of activity, but at the same time it requires deep knowledge and practical skills in the field of economics, engineering, technology and production organization. Therefore, even the most experienced entrepreneur needs to improve the methods and management style used in practice, and pay attention to the search for innovative and rational forms of activity within the framework of practical management.
Practical management is a fairly dynamically developing direction in management, aimed at developing solutions to pressing problems of entrepreneurship and business. It is based on rational use and harmonious interaction between theory and practice. Practical management is the field of activity of specialists in various fields of social reproduction, based on market ideas. In addition, its formation in Russia occurs under the influence of a number of factors that necessitate the use of a conceptual approach in a new management paradigm. Factors include:
An increasing degree of diversification of products and services, including diversification and cooperation of organizations and firms;
Increasing influence of both external and internal competition and the associated need to adapt to international standards;
Strengthening economic, social and environmental requirements for the activities of organizations and firms;
The desire of management to improve professionalism and assess its social significance;
Working off market mechanisms within the framework of the transition period with direct and active government regulation.
The country's leadership today has determined the prospects for economic development, the core directions of which are considered to be diversification of products and the widespread use of innovative technologies. A set of national projects has been developed, the implementation of which will allow Russia to develop dynamically and significantly improve its economic condition. Not the last role in implementation economic policy allocated to enterprises and firms of small and medium level. At the same time, the most popular functional areas of practical management are diversification, innovation, logistics, marketing, quality management, design, management systems, business planning, theory of organization and management, game theory and decision making.
Based on these premises, this monograph attempts to systematize lecture materials and methodological developments used by the author in teaching practice within the framework of the concepts of practical management.
The conceptual approach to management synthesizes the advantages and capabilities of the systems approach, which is essentially a logical core that unites the listed functional areas of practical management. Therefore, for managers, the conceptual approach can serve as the basis for the creative use and application in everyday practice of forms and methods of work known in management science.
On the other hand, the conceptual approach in practical management predetermines the need to instill in specialists dynamic thinking and a flexible organizational perception of reality, based on innovative educational programs.
The main goals of such programs are:
Training of highly qualified specialists and personnel who are competitive in the modern labor market;
Expanding the scope of fundamental and applied research, developing innovation activities in demand in the region;
Ensuring sustainable dynamic development of education in a market economy;
Strengthening cooperation with leading manufacturing organizations in the country and region, with the business community, with leading domestic and foreign academic and educational institutions and centers.
The use of new ones, incl. information, educational technologies, implementation progressive forms organization of the educational process and active teaching methods, as well as educational and methodological materials that correspond to the modern world level;
- integration of education, science and innovation;
- formation among graduates professional competencies ensuring their competitiveness in the labor market
Training in practical management is, first of all, component a holistic educational process on the basic components in the preparation of a professional manager of various specializations, as well as retraining and advanced training for this qualification group. In this case, the use of practical management methods based on conceptual approach, can be considered as an independent course focused on mastering progressive methods enterprise and business management.
The content of the proposed development is presented in the form of conceptual components, according to the theory of system organization, diversification, renewal, quality, organization and production management, logistics. Each of the components is an independent separate block, starting from setting tasks and ending with practical recommendations. Particular attention is paid to the issues of making optimal decisions based on modeling a problem situation, the widespread use of economic-mathematical modeling and mathematical statistics.
General provisions
The main goal of developing the monograph is a preliminary attempt to systematize the currently available bibliography in the applied field of classical management and to assist students with their independent work. The monograph contains a processed part of the lecture material, adapted to the specialization of the institute. Some sections of the monograph may be of interest to teachers and graduate students.
The monograph contains the main theoretical premises, concepts and methods used by managers in the interests of reliable functioning of enterprises and firms.
The methodological basis of the monograph is a systems approach that provides a number of organizational and economic advantages compared to empirical methods of studying any, including commercial and production systems. The main focus is on students learning fundamental concepts, their dialectical development and expansion of capabilities on modern stage development of the domestic economy, operating in conditions of fierce competition and developing market relations.
In this regard, in this development Special attention focuses on practical skills in mastering operations research methods, constructing functional models of management and business organization, the integrated use of the fundamentals of modeling and game theory in the practice of making optimal decisions, and analyzing network models of management and organization.
