By the name of Christianity we mean, on the one hand, emanating from Jesus Christ doctrine, as a saving self-revelation and mediation of God in the person of Jesus Christ, restoring and leading to perfection the good elements of human nature, and on the other hand, the perception of this doctrine by humanity, its relationship to God and the forms of organization resulting from the interaction of these factors (objective and subjective) public religious life.
El Greco. Savior Not Made by Hands. 1580-1582
Beginning of Christianity
The earliest of these forms was a single, ethnographically divided, but firmly united spiritual society of Jews and Jewish proselytes, formed after the descent of the Holy Spirit and the first sermon apostles in Jerusalem. From here the gospel teaching spread in a wide wave throughout most of the Mediterranean countries. St. Peter, according to legend, founded a church in Antioch, then preached in the regions of Asia Minor and visited Rome. Saint Paul founded churches in some cities of Asia Minor, on the island of Cyprus, in many cities of Greece and Macedonia. Saint Bartholomew preached in India and Arabia, Saint Matthew - in Ethiopia, Saint Andrew - in Scythia. The Persian and Malabar churches trace their genealogy to St. Thomas; Saint Mark enlightened the Adriatic coast with Christianity. Through the movement of Roman legions, trade relations, the constant exchange of thoughts and information between Rome and the provinces, travel and preaching of the closest successors and assistants of the holy apostles (Timothy, Silouan, Aristarchus, Stachy, Origen, Pantena, etc.) Christianity penetrated into Gaul, Germany, Spain, Britain, the North African coast, Egypt and the countries bordering it.
Organization of the first Christian communities
At the beginning of the 3rd century AD, Christian communities already existed in all parts of the then known world. The structure and administration of these primitive communities were extremely simple. Church ministers were elected by the community of believers and were divided into three degrees: deacons who fulfilled unimportant spiritual needs and were busy with secular affairs, elders, who taught and officiated depending on the bishops, and bishops, enjoyed the highest rights after the apostles to teach, officiate and govern the church. The gifts of the priesthood, received by the apostles from the Head of the church, were transferred by them through ordination to the first bishops, who, in turn, became successive distributors of these gifts to other members of the primitive hierarchy.
Persecution of Christians
Among the first members of Christianity, whose distinguishing features were ardent faith, true humility and impeccable purity of morals, there were no disputes for supremacy or claims to primacy. However, the beginning of the spread of Christianity was met with cruel hatred and bloody persecution. On the one hand, Jews saw Christians as renegades from their ancient religion. On the other hand, due to its universal nature, Christianity did not fit within the framework of Roman tolerance, which imparted state sanction only national religions, and with its mystery it inspired fears in the Roman government, which took it for a dark and anti-social superstition.
A series of strange and terrible accusations, based on a misinterpretation of Christian rites and institutions, served as a pretext for cruel persecutions, which in Judea reached their highest degree under Herod Agrippa and ended with the war of 67-70. In the Roman Empire they began under Nero (64 - 68), repeated under Domitian and Trajan and reached astonishing atrocities under Decius (249 - 251) and Diocletian (284 - 305), under the Caesars Severus (in Italy and Africa) and Maximin (in Egypt and Palestine). The extraordinary firmness in enduring torture and the touching fate of the Christian martyrs attracted many new followers under the banner of the persecuted teaching - and so “the blood of the martyrs became the seed of faith.”
Christian apologetics
From the 2nd century A long series of defensive treatises on the Christian faith appeared, aimed at ingratiating its followers with the favor of the Roman government and repelling the accusations leveled against it by representatives of pagan religion and philosophy. Between the writers of this direction ( apologists) deserve special attention Codratus, Bishop of Athens, Tertullian, presbyter of Carthage, philosopher Hermias, Origen of Alexandria and others. During the reign of Constantine the Great (306 - 337), a number of edicts were issued that guaranteed Christians freedom of confession and provided the clergy with some benefits, but the final triumph of Christianity over paganism came only under the successors of Julian the Apostate (Valentinian, Gratian, Theodosius I and Justinian).
Heresies and Ecumenical Councils
In addition to external persecution, the Christian Church from the first centuries of its existence was disturbed by the schisms that arose in its midst and, Such were those who spoke out in the 1st century Nazirites, which added to Christian duties the observance of the Mosaic Law; evionites who denied the divinity of Jesus Christ. In the 2nd century appeared Gnostics who preached the dualism of spirit and matter; ascetic sect Montanists And Monarchians, shared neither dynamists And modalists. The heresies of Paul of Samosata and the presbyter Sabellius and the sect that had an oriental flavor date back to the 3rd century. Manichaeans, schisms Novatian And Donatists. The significant development of heresies, which increased with the spread and establishment of Christianity as the dominant religion, led to the convening of Ecumenical Councils, partly resolving pressing dogmatic issues, partly issuing rules of church deanery. The first in their series was a council convened in 325 in Nicaea regarding heresy arian, in condemnation of which the dogma of the consubstantiality of God the Son with God the Father was affirmed and a clear and intelligible Creed was issued. In the 2nd half of the 4th century, through the consistent development of the Arian heresy, the heresy of the patriarch arose Macedonia, who denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit, and the Second Ecumenical (Constantinople) Council, convened on this occasion in 381, added five new members to the Nicene Symbol. In 431, the Third Ecumenical Council met in Ephesus, condemning heresy Nestorian, who recognized only human nature in Jesus Christ, but in 451, Emperor Marcian was forced to convene the (4th) Council of Chalcedon again, regarding the heresy of the Nestorians’ opponent, Eutyches, who recognized in Christ only the divine nature (monophysitism). The Fifth and Sixth Ecumenical Councils, convened in Constantinople, in 553 and 680, completed the exposure of the Monophysite false teaching. In 681, the Council of Trullo (“Fifth-Sixth”) developed the rules of church government, which served as the main basis for collections of canon law - Nomocanon or Helmsman. In 787, the Seventh and last Ecumenical Council was convened in Nicaea, which refuted the heresy of the iconoclasts that arose in the first half of the 8th century, and was finally eradicated by the Local Council of Constantinople in 842.
Church Fathers
In close connection with the activities of the ecumenical councils were the works of the fathers and teachers of the church, who, through the written transmission of the apostolic traditions and the explanation of the true teaching of faith and piety, greatly contributed to the preservation of Christianity in its primitive purity. The activity of Saints Athanasius the Great, Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, John Chrysostom, Ambrose of Milan, Blessed Jerome and others was especially beneficial.
Monasticism
No less important moral and educational significance was also monasticism, as the realization of the desire for the highest moral perfection, which arose with the advent of Christianity, but during the first two centuries it had the character of solitary asceticism and only at the end of the 3rd century it took on mass forms. In the 4th century it was founded in Egypt hermit monasticism(Saint Anthony the Great) and cenobitic monasticism(by Saint Pachomius). In the 5th century, two more types of asceticism appeared: pillarism, founded by Saint Simeon, and foolishness about Christ, the most famous and respected representative of which was St. Andrew. In the West, monasticism was organized in the 6th century according to the Eastern model by Saint Benedict of Nursia, the founder of the Benedictine order.
Patriarchs and the Pope
In addition to the emergence of monasticism, several other changes occurred in the spiritual hierarchy of Christianity over time. Even in the time of the apostles, metropolitans, that is, regional bishops, occupied a more honorable position among bishops. Among them, in turn, the bishops of the capital cities stood out, for five of which (Roman, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem and Constantinople) the Ecumenical Councils recognized certain identical privileged rights and a common title patriarchs. Over time, the spread of Islam, which limited the dioceses of the three Eastern patriarchs, caused a corresponding decrease in their influence. The patriarchs of Constantinople were busy fighting iconoclasm; area of the Roman patriarchs ( dad) meanwhile expanded throughout the west of Europe, and due to historical conditions their power acquired an important political significance, on which the popes based their claims to primacy in the spiritual hierarchy. These claims, based on forged acts that appeared in the 9th century ( False Isidore's decretals), some dogmatic deviations of the Western Church from the decrees of the ecumenical councils were added.
The split of Christianity into Orthodoxy and Catholicism
Since the popes stubbornly refused to recognize these deviations as erroneous and disputed the rights of other patriarchs and the supreme authority of the Ecumenical Councils, in 1054 there was an open and final break between Pope Leo IX and the Patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cerullarius. Since that time, the broad mainstream of Christianity has been divided into two large streams - western church or Roman Catholic And eastern church(Greek) or Orthodox. Each of them follows its own path of development, without uniting into a single whole under a common name.
Reviews
One feels that the author is a famous historian, and maybe he will be.
One feels that he, like Mavrodi, is also an enchanted Participant, in the stage...
The times of restructuring of our society, events both familiar and unknown to everyone, are still interpreted contradictorily.
Historians, relying on very specific historical events, say one thing, witnesses, ranging from prostitutes to late killers, relying on the same events, say something completely different. Everyone began to twist the history of everyone, depending on their perversity. And depending on the goals they sought to achieve with the help of History, they multiplied the circumstances. And circumstances already dictate to everyone the “correct” understanding, which constantly changes the very goals that justify all the perversions.
And the main thing is that the distortions of History, with which interpreters justify their goals in their own eyes, are based on testimony and interpretations of representatives of, basically, only two ancient professions (killers and prostitute journalists).
The author's merit lies in the fact that he included evidence of the third oldest profession (clowns and buffoons). And for three – you can already “confirm”... and then - for rest and “accept”... and accordingly, you can think about it.
And then begin to deal with relatives of the gypsies, familiar gamblers and passing dealers who are attached or are being assigned - to everyone as leader-idols...
That is why the author’s story, published in hardback for readers of infant consciousness, but interested in the history of relatives, but unfamiliar ones, can serve as a faithful compass in the turbulent life of the World Circus Alliance...
For this we can wish the author happiness
Thank you for your kind words! I wonder how to write correctly: “prostitutes are journalists” or “prostitutes are journalists” when we are talking about men?
Hello!
Nikolai.
Greetings from the Sun to Nikolai Chernov.
You have keenly noticed the root of many problems that often appear against the backdrop of trifles.
And the reasons for long discussions, which more often arise due to poor hearing or... the “evil eye” of the perceiver against the background of emotional incontinence of the writer.
I was delighted with your work and wanted to combine in one word “prostitute-journalist”, emphasizing both prostitutes and journalists - as different professionals, but doing the same **** (fraudulent) job.
The question arises - is it necessary to fight emotions, or is this the hook by which a person is pulled into different, but TRAPS.
I WISH YOU HAPPINESS
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Extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Euphrates and from the North Sea to the African Desert. Population - 12,000,000.
Julius Caesar - from 46 to 44. BC - ruler of the Roman Empire.
August - from 31 BC. to 14 A.D. During his reign, Jesus Christ was born.
Tiberius - from 12 to 37 AD. During his reign, Jesus Christ was crucified.
Caligula - from 41-54. according to R.H.
Nero - from 54 to 68 according to R.H. He persecuted Christians. Executed by Ap. Pavel.
Alba - from 68 to 69. according to R.H. Otto, Vialius-69 A.D. Vespasian - from 69 to 79. according to R.H. Destroyed Jerusalem. Titus from 79 to 81 according to R.H.
Domitian - from 117-138. according to R.H. Persecuted Christians. Hadrian - from 117-138. according to R.H. Persecuted Christians. Anthony Pni-from 138-161 AD. Persecuted Christians. Marcus Aurelius - from 138-161. according to R.H. Persecuted Christians. Anthony Pni - from 161 to 180. according to R.H. Persecuted Christians.
Decline and fall of the Roman Empire, 180-476. according to R.H.
Comedies - from 180 to 192. according to R.H.
Barracks emperors - from 192-284. according to R.H. Supplied by the army. Civil War.
Septimius Severus - from 193 to 211. according to R.H. Persecuted Christians. Caracalla - from 218 to 222. after R.H. He tolerated Christianity. Elagabalus - from 218 to 222. according to R.H. He tolerated Christianity.
Alexander Severus - from 222 to 235. according to R.H. Favorable to Christianity.
Maximian - from 235 to 238. according to R.H. Persecuted Christians. Philip - from 244 to 249 according to R.H. He approved of Christianity. Denmark - from 249 to 251. according to R.H. He brutally persecuted Christians. Gallienus - from 260 to 268. according to R.H. Favorable to Christianity. Aurelian - from 270 to 275. according to R.H. Persecuted Christians. Diocletian - from 284 to 305 according to R.H. He brutally persecuted Christians. Constantine - from 306 to 337 according to R.H. He converted to Christianity himself.
Julian - from 361 to 363. according to R.H. Apostate. Tried to restore paganism.
Baboon - from 363 to 364. according to R.H. Restored Christianity.
Theodosius - from 378 to 395. according to R.H. Established Christianity as the state religion.
Division of the Empire, 395 A.D.
Honorius-395-423 according to A.H. Valentinian 3-423-455. according to R.H. The Western Empire fell in 476 AD. from the attacks of the barbarians who brought the Middle Ages.
Arkady - from 395-408 according to R.H. Theodosius - from 408-450. according to R.H. Anastasius - from 491-518 according to R.H. Justinian - from 527-565. according to R.H. The Eastern Empire fell in 1453 AD.
From the ruins of the Western Empire, the Papal Empire arose, and Rome ruled the world for another 1000 years.
Christianization of the Roman Empire
Rapid spread of Christianity. Tertullian (160-220 AD) wrote: “We are recent. But we filled your empire, your cities, your islands, your tribes, your barracks, palaces, assemblies and senate." At the end of the imperial persecution (313 AD), half the population of the Roman Empire were Christians.
Konstantin
His appeal. During the war with rivals to establish his throne, on the eve of the battle for the Milvan Bridge, located outside of Rome (October 27, 312 AD), he saw in the sky, above the setting sun, a vision of a cross and above it the words : “With this sign you will win.” He decided to go into battle under the sign of Christ, and won the battle, which served as a turning point in the history of Christianity.
His decree of approval (313 A.D.). This decree was issued and applied to “Christians and all others, to acquire complete freedom and follow religion in their own way.” own choice" The first decree of this kind in history. But he went further. He approved of Christians in all ways: he placed them at the head, exempted Christian elders from taxes and military service, encouraged and helped to build churches, established Christianity as the religion of his court, issued a general call to all (325 A.D.) to accept Christianity. Since the Roman aristocracy insisted on adherence to pagan religions, Constantine transferred his capital to Byzantium and called it Constantinople. “The Other Rome” is the capital of the new Christian empire.
Constantine and the Bible. He ordered 50 Bibles for the churches in Constantinople, prepared under the direction of Eusebius, on the thinnest parchment, by skilled artists. Constantine allocated two public carriages for rapid delivery to the emperor. The Sinaiticus and Vatican manuscripts are believed to be from that group.
Constantine and Sunday. He established a Christian day for the congregation - Sunday, a day of rest, and prohibited ordinary work; allowed Christian soldiers to attend church services. This one day of rest per week had great importance for slaves.
Houses for Worship. The first church building was built during the reign of Alexander Severus (222-235 AD). After Constantine's decree, churches began to be built everywhere.
Reforms. Slavery, gladiator fighting, the killing of unwanted children, and crucifixion as a form of execution were abolished with the advent of Christianity in the Roman Empire.
The influence of paganism on the Church
Emperor Constantine (306-337 AD), after accepting Christianity, issued a decree granting everyone the right to choose a religion at their own discretion.
Emperor Theodosius (378-398 AD) established Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire and made church membership compulsory. Forced conversion filled the churches with unregenerate members.
Not only that, but Theodosius undertook the violent suppression of all other religions and banned idolatry. Under the influence of his decrees, pagan temples were destroyed by crowds of Christians and there was great bloodshed there.
Jesus Christ taught to win through purely spiritual and moral means. Until now, conversion was voluntary, after a change in the heart and life of a person.
But now the military spirit of the Roman Empire has entered the Church. The Church defeated the Roman Empire, but in reality the Roman Empire defeated the Church by turning it into the image of the Roman Empire.
The Church changed, entering a period of apostasy, and became a political organization in the spirit and image of imperial Rome and fell sharply for a whole millennium into the abomination of the papacy.
The Imperial Church of the 4th and 5th centuries became a completely different institution compared to the persecuted Church of the first three centuries. In her desire to dominate, she lost and forgot the spirit of Christ.
The services, which at first were very simple, became elaborate, majestic, imposing ceremonies, having all the outward grandeur characteristic of pagan temples.
Pastors became priests. The title "priest" was not used until 200 AD. It was borrowed from the Jewish system and from the example of the pagan priesthood. Leo 1 (440-461) forbade priests to marry and celibacy of priests became the law of the Roman church.
Conversion of the barbarians. The Goths, Vandals and Huns, overthrew the Roman Empire and adopted Christianity; although their conversion was nominal, it further influenced the Church, which appropriated much from pagan rituals.
Conflicts with pagan philosophers. Just as each generation tries to explain Jesus Christ according to the opinions of the time, so Christianity gave rise to the mixture of Greek and Eastern philosophies. As a result of this, many sects arose: agnosticism, Manichaeism, Montaignanism, Monarchianism, Arianism, Appolinarianism, Nestorianism, Eutychianism, Monofistianism. From the second to the sixth century. The Church was split by disputes and discussions about these and similar teachings, and almost completely lost its significance.
Persecution
On Nero's persecution, see the notes in 2 Timothy, and the explanation of this letter, see page 632.
Domitian (95 A.D.). He instituted the persecution of Christians. It didn't last long, but it was very cruel. Many thousands of Christians were killed in Rome and Italy; among them Flavius Clemens, the emperor's cousin, and his wife Flavia Domitilla, who was exiled. The Apostle John was exiled by him to the island of Patmos.
Trajan (98-117 AD) One of the best emperors, but he had to support the laws of the empire. Christianity was "spread as an illegal religion because it refused to participate in the worship of the emperor, and the Church" was considered a secret society that was banned. Christians were not sought out, but if anyone was accused, he was punished. Among those who died during this period of reign were: Simeon, brother of Jesus, bishop of Jerusalem, crucified in 107 A.D., Ignatius, second bishop of Antioch, who was taken to Rome and thrown to wild beasts, 110 A.D. .X. Pliny, sent by the emperor to Asia Minor to punish Christians, wrote to the emperor: “They claimed that they met on a certain day, in the evening, and sang themselves in turn a hymn to Christ as God, and swore an oath not to malice, but that they would never steal, rob or commit adultery and that they will never break their oath. After these performances they dispersed and then gathered again to eat.” There were so many Christians there that the pagan temples were almost empty.
Hadrian (117-138) persecuted Christians, but not very cruelly. Telephorius, the leader of the Roman church, and many others died a martyr's death at this time. However, during the reign of Hadrian, Christianity increased in quantity and became rich, with many educated and influential people in society.
Anthony Pni (138-161) approved of Christianity, but felt that he had to support the law, and so there were many martyrs, among whom was Polycarp.
Marcus Aurelius (161-180). Like Hadrian, he viewed the maintenance of the state religion as a political necessity. However, he approved of the persecution of Christians, which was carried out cruelly and barbarously; most brutally since the time of Nero. Many thousands of Christians were beheaded or thrown to wild animals, among them was the Host Martyr. There was fierce persecution in southern Galin. The abuse of the victims was so cruel that it surpassed all understanding. The torture was carried out from morning to night, and Vlandina, the female slave, only exclaimed: “I am a Christian, none of us did any harm.”
Septimius Severus (193-211). His persecution of Christians was very cruel, but not universal. Egypt and North Africa suffered the most. In Alexandria, “many martyrs were burned, crucified and beheaded.” Among them, Leonidas, the father of Origen, died. In Carthage, Perpetua, a noble lady, and her faithful slave Philisites were torn to pieces by wild beasts.
Maximin (235-238). During his reign, prominent Christian leaders were killed. Origen disappeared and thus escaped.
Decius (249-251). He decided to completely destroy Christianity. His violent persecution of Christians took place on
throughout the existence of the empire. Many Christians died from cruel torture in Rome, North Africa, Egypt, and Asia Minor. Cyprian said: "The whole world is desolate."
Valerian (253-260). He was more cruel than Decius. He intended to completely destroy Christianity. Many Christian leaders were executed, among them was also Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage.
Diocletian (284-305). The last Caesarian persecution of Christians, and the most severe, did not cease during this reign. For ten years, Christians were caught in caves and forests. They were burned, thrown to wild animals, using various methods of execution that they could invent. This was a determined, deliberate, systematic attempt to destroy Christianity.
Catacombs of Rome
Vast underground galleries, mostly 2 1/2 to 3 meters wide and 1 1/4 to 1 3/4 meters high, stretched for hundreds of kilometers beneath the city. They were used by Christians for shelter, worship and burial of victims of persecution. There are between 2,000,000 and 7,000,000 Christian graves. More than 4,000 inscriptions from the period between the reigns of Tiberius and Constantine have been discovered.
Church Fathers
Polycarp (69-156 AD). Disciple of the Apostle John, bishop of the city of Smyrna. During the persecution, Polycarp, by order of the emperor, was arrested and presented to the governor. When he was offered freedom if he cursed the name of Jesus Christ, he replied: “For eighty-six years I served Jesus Christ, Who did only good things for me, how can I curse Him, my Lord and Savior?” He was burned alive.
Ignatius (67-110). Disciple of the Apostle John, Bishop of Antioch. While visiting Antioch, Emperor Trajan ordered the arrest of Ignatius. Presiding over the trial, he sentenced him to be thrown to wild beasts in Rome. On his way to Rome, Ignatius wrote a letter to the Roman Christians, begging them not to try to obtain forgiveness for him. He considered it an honor to die for his Lord, saying: “Let the wild beasts rush greedily at me, if they do not want, then I will force them. Come, you pack of wild beasts, come, tear into pieces, cut, destroy my bones and tear my limbs; go, cruel executions of the devil, just let me reach Christ.”
Papias (about 70-155 AD). Another disciple of the Apostle John, Bishop of Hieropolis, about 150 km from Ephesus. He may have known Philip, who is said to have died at Hieropolis. He wrote a book, Explaining the Lord's Teachings, in which he says that he did this for the purpose of the Church Fathers' investigation of the exact words and sayings of Jesus. Papias was martyred in Pergamum, around the time that Polycarp was executed. Ignatius and Lilius are the link between the time of the apostles and later times.
Justin Martyr (100-167). Born in Naples, ancient Shechem, around the time John died. Studied philosophy. In my youth I saw a lot of persecution of Christians. Was converted. He traveled dressed in a philosophical robe, calling people to "Christ. He wrote a petition to the emperor in defense of Christianity. He was one of the most talented people that time. He died a martyr's death in Rome. Showing the growth of Christianity, he said that even now, in his time, “there is not a single human race where prayer does not ascend to Christ.”
Here is a description of the order of Christian worship of Justin Martyr: “On Sunday, assemblies for all who live in cities and villages, part of the writings of the apostles or the writings of the prophets is read. When the reading is completed, the leader, by way of reasoning, gives instructions and makes an appeal for imitation of these noble things. After this, everyone gets up and begins common prayer. After the end of the prayer, as we described it before, there is bread and wine and thanksgiving for them, according to each person’s ability, and the members of the church answer “Amen.” Then the consecrated pieces are distributed to each participant and carried by the deacons to those families who were not present. The rich and willing give according to their good will. This collection of voluntary donations is given to the leader, who then helps orphans, widows, prisoners, strangers and everyone in need.”
Irina (130-200). Raised in Smyrna. Student of Bishops Polycarp and Papias. Traveled a lot. Became bishop of Lian, in Galin. He became known for his books against agnostics. He died a martyr's death. In his memoirs of Bishop Polycarp, he says: “I remember well the place where Saint Polycarp sat and spoke. I remember his reasoning with the people and the description of his attitude towards the Apostle John and others who were already with the Lord. How he recited from memory what Jesus said and the miracles He performed, how he received knowledge from witnesses who saw the Word of Life, agreeing with the Scriptures in everything.”
Origen (185-254). One of the most learned men of the ancient Church. A great traveler, a multi-volume writer who sometimes hired up to twelve copyists. Two-thirds of the New Testament is quoted in his writings. He later lived in Palestine, where he died as a result of imprisonment and torture during the reign of Decius.
Tertullian (160-220) from Carthage. "Father of Latin Christianity", Roman lawyer, pagan, but after conversion became a famous defender of Christianity.
Eusebius (264-340). "The Father of Church History." He was bishop of Caesarea at the time of Constantine's conversion. He had great influence on the emperor. He wrote “The History of the Church,” starting from Christ and up to the Council of Nicoya.
John Chrysostom (345-407). “Golden Mouth”, an incomparable speaker, a great preacher of that time, who knew how to explain. Born in Antioch, became Patriarch of Constantinople, preached to many people in the Church of St. Sophia, reformer. He did not please the king and was exiled, where he died.
Jerome (340-420). “One of the most learned Latin fathers,” educated in Rome, lived for many years in Bethlehem, translated the Bible into Latin, called the Vulgate.
Augustine (354-430/. Bishop of Hippo, North Africa. The great theologian of the early Church. More than anyone else, he shaped the teachings of the medieval Church.
The first atheists
Celsius (180 A.D.). The most famous critic of Christianity. Since then there have been no new arguments against Christianity. Many ideas that seem “modern” were in fact already expressed by Celsius himself.
Porfiry (233-300). He also had a strong influence on opponents of Christianity.
Ecumenical councils
Nicaea (325 A.D.). Condemned Arianism. Constantinople (381). Convened on the occasion of Apollinarianism. Ephesian (431). Called to pacify the Nestorian dispute. Chalcedonian (451). Called to pacify the Eutuchian dispute. Constantinople (553). Convened to resolve the Monophysite dispute. Constantinople (680) The doctrine of two wills in Christ. Nicene (758). Approval of icon veneration. Constantinople (869). The final split between East and West.
Roman (1123). Decision on the appointment of bishops by the pope. Roman (1139). An attempt to reconcile the Eastern and Western Churches.
Roman (1179). 0 introduction of church discipline. Roman (1215). Fulfill the command of Innocent III. Lyons (1245). 0 reconciliation between the pope and the emperor. Lyons (1274). A new attempt to try on the Eastern and Western Churches.
Konstantsky (1414-18). On the regulation of the papal dispute. Burning of Huss.
Basel (1431-49). Church reform. Roman (1512-18). Another attempt at reform. Trent (1545-63). 0 opposition to the reformation. Vatican (1869-70). Papal infallibility declared. Vatican (And October 1962). An attempt to unite all Christianity.
Monasticism
It began in Egypt with Anthony (250-350 AD), who went into the desert and lived alone. Many followed his example. This movement spread to Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor and Europe. In the east, each monk lived in his own cave, dugout or on a pillar. In Europe, they lived together in monasteries, spending time in work and in religious pursuits. They became very numerous and then many orders of monks and nuns arose during the Middle Ages. In Europe, monasteries did the good work of the church in the areas of Christian philanthropy, literature, education and Agriculture. But when they got rich, they became very immoral. During the Reformation period, monasteries quickly disappeared in Protestant countries, and are now dying out in Catholic countries as well.
Crusades
They were undertaken with the aim of clearing the Holy Land of Mohammedans. There were seven such trips:
First (1095-1099). Jerusalem was captured. Second (1147-1149). They delayed the fall of Jerusalem. Third (1189-1191). The army did not reach Jerusalem. Fourth (1201-1204). Constantinople was captured and plundered. Fifth (1228-1229). They took Jerusalem, but soon surrendered it. Sixth (1248-1254). Complete failure. Seventh (1270-1272). It didn't lead to anything.
The Crusades were undertaken to save Europe from the Turks and to establish relations between Europe and the East, paving the way for the revival of knowledge.
Mohammedanism
Mahomet. Born in Mecca A.D. 570, grandson of a governor. In his youth he visited Syria, met Christians and Jews, and was horrified by idolatry. In 610 he declared himself a prophet, but was rejected in Mecca. In 622 he went to Medina, where he was accepted, became a warrior and began to preach the faith through the sword. In 630, he returned to Mecca at the head of an army, destroyed 360 idols, and was filled with enthusiasm to destroy idolatry. Died in 632. His followers were called caliphs.
Rapid growth of Mohammedanism. In 634, Syria was defeated, in 637 - Jerusalem, in 638 - Egypt, in 640 - Persia, in 689 - North Africa, in 711 - Spain. Thus, in a short time, all of Western Asia and North Africa, the cradle of Christianity, became Mohammedan. Mohammed came at a time when the Church approached paganism with the worship of icons, relics of martyrs, Mary and saints. In one sense, the Mohammedans were against the idolatry of “Christendom,” and this, in a way, was a punishment for the corrupt and degenerate Christian church. Mohammedanism showed itself to be the worst religion for the peoples it conquered. This is a religion of hatred, it was spread by force, by the sword, encouraged slavery, polygamy and humiliated women.
The Battle of Tours, France (732 A.D.) proved to be the world's decisive battle. Charles Martell defeated the Mohammedan army and saved Europe from Mohammedanism, which then sought to conquer the world. If not for this victory, Christianity would cease to exist.
The Arabs dominated the Mohammedan world from 622 to 1058. The capital was moved to Damascus in 661 and then to Baghdad in 750, where it remained until 1258.
The Turks began to rule the Mohammedan world from 1058 to modern times. They were more cruel to Christians than the Arabs. Their barbaric attitude towards Christians in Palestine led to the Crusades.
Mongols, from central Asia, suspended the rule of the Turks under the leadership of Genghis Khan (1206-1227), who, at the head of a huge army, captured most of Asia. 50,000 cities and towns were burned, 5,000,000 people were killed. In Asia Minor, 630,000 Christians were hacked to death. Under the rule of Tamerlane (1336-1402), a similar hurricane of destruction was repeated. His path was marked everywhere by burned fields, destroyed villages and copious bloodshed. At the gates of each city he arranged heaps of thousands of heads, for example in Baghdad there were 90,000 heads.
The capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 led to the end of the Eastern Roman Empire and shocked Europe with the threat of a second Mohammedan invasion, which was later stopped by Dnie Sobieski in 1683, during the Battle of Vienna.
The papacy gradually developed. It first appeared as a worldwide power in the sixth century A.D. The papacy reached its greatest development and influence in the 13th century AD. Its fall began in the 13th century and continues to this day.
Original Mission of the Church
The Church was not founded as an institution of power for the purpose of imposing the name and teachings of Christ on people. Jesus Christ himself, and not the Church, is the transforming force in human life. But the Church, founded by the Roman Empire, gradually became the form of government of the political world in which it existed, becoming a broadly autocratic and despotic organization, ruling from above.
The original form of church government
At the end of the apostolic period, the churches became independent of one another, each governed by a group of elders. Chief Executive was called a bishop. Others were later called elders. Gradually, the bishop's sphere of authority began to include neighboring cities.
First Pope
The word "papa" means father. It was first applied to Western bishops. Around 500 A.D. it began to be used only for the Roman bishop. The list of Roman Catholic popes includes bishops of Rome dating back to the first century. But for 500 years the bishops of Rome were not popes. The idea that the Bishop of Rome should have authority over the universal Church grew slowly, was hotly contested at every turn, and was never universally accepted.
Apostle Peter
According to Roman Catholic history, the Apostle Peter was the first pope, which is a complete fabrication. There is no hint in the New Testament, nor is there any historical evidence, that the Apostle Peter was ever Bishop of Rome. The Apostle Peter never demanded for himself such power as the popes demand for themselves. Apparently, the apostle Peter had a prophetic foreknowledge that his “successor” would be more concerned with lording over “the inheritance of God than being an example to the flock” (1 Peter 5:3).
The first Roman bishops
Lines (67-79)? Cletius (79-91)?
Clement (91-100) - wrote a letter to the Corinthian church on behalf of the Catholic Church, but not on his own behalf, without any hint of papal authority, since the papacy came later. Euvaristy (100-109). Alexander 1(109-119). Status 1(119-128). Telesphorium (128-139). Hyginius (139-142). Stumps (142-154).
Beginning of Roman despotic politics
Anicetius, Bishop of Rome (154-168), tried to influence Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, to change the day of Easter, but Polycarp refused to yield.
Soter (168-176). Eleutherius (177-190).
Victor 1 (190-202) - threatened to exclude the Eastern churches from celebrating Easter on the 14th of Nissan. Polycrates, the Bishop of Ephesus, replied that he was not afraid of Victor's threats and had established an independent government. Irene of Lian, although a Western bishop who supports the Western point of view of celebrating Easter, i.e. day of the week instead of the day of the month - reprimanded Victor for attempting dictatorship in the Eastern churches.
Growing influence of Rome
Zepherinius (202-218). Calixtasius (218-223), was the first to claim the place of Matthew 16:18. Tertullian of Carthage called him a usurper because he spoke as a bishop from bishops.
Urban 1 (223-230). Pontianius (230-235). Antherium (235-236). Fabian (236-250). Cornelius (251-252). Lucius 1(252-253). Stephen 1 (253-257) - objected to certain baptismal rites in the North African Church. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, in North Africa, replied that each bishop was the head of his own diocese, and refused to yield to Stephen. However, there was growing agreement that Rome the capital should be the head of the church, even though it was the head of the empire.
Sixtius 2 (252-258). Dionysius (259-269). Felix (269-274). Eutychianius (275-283). Kayi (283-296). Marcellinius (296-304). Marcelius (308-309). Eusebius (309-310). Miltiadia (311-314).
Union of Church and State
Sylvester 1 (314-335) was Bishop of Rome when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire during the reign of Constantine. The Church immediately became an institution of great importance in world politics. Constantine considered himself the head of the Church. He convened the Council of Nicoya (325) and presided over the first worldwide council of the Church. This ecclesiastical council gave the bishops of Alexandria and Antioch full authority over their provinces with the same powers that the bishop of Rome had, without the slightest hint that they were subject to Rome.
Marcus (336-337)
Julius 1 (337-352). The Council of Sardis (343 A.D.), composed only of Western members of the church, not an ecumenical council, was the first council to recognize the authority of the bishop of Rome.
Five Patriarchs
At the end of the 4th century, the churches and bishops of Christianity were under the authority of five great centers: Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria, whose bishops came to be called patriarchs, all with equal power, each having complete control in their province. After the division of the empire (395) into eastern and western, the patriarchs of Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria gradually recognized the leadership of Constantinople, and from that time on the struggle for the leadership of Christianity began between Rome and Constantinople.
Liberius (325-366). Damascus (336-384).
Division of the Roman Empire
Siricius (385-398) - Bishop of Rome. Having a passionate desire for world power, he demanded world jurisdiction over the Church. But, unfortunately for him, at that time the empire was divided (395 A.D.) into separate empires - Eastern and Western, which became an obstacle for the Roman bishop to become recognized in the east. Anastasius (395-402).
"City of God" by Augustine
Innocent 1 (402-417) called himself "the ruler of God's Church" and demanded the right to decide the most important issues and disputes in the entire church.
Zosima (417-418). Boniface (418-412). Colistin (422-432). Sextus 3 (432-440). The Western Empire was now rapidly disappearing amid the turmoil of the barbarian invasion. And it was during this misfortune and anxiety of the time that Augustine wrote his monumental work, The City of God, in which he foresaw a worldwide Christian empire. This book had a great influence in shaping the recognition of the church hierarchy under the control of one person. This contributed to Rome's claim to leadership.
Thus. The Church was changing in its essence, transforming itself in the image of the Roman Empire.
Imperial recognition of the pope's claim
Leo 1 (440-461) is called by some historians the first pope. The misfortune of the empire favored him. The East was torn apart by disputes and disagreement. The West, under the rule of weak emperors, weakened due to attacks by barbarians. Leo 1 was one of the strong men of that time. He claimed that he was divinely appointed archbishop over all bishops, and in 445 A.D. he received imperial recognition of his claims from Emperor Valentin III.
In 452, he convinced Atila to spare the city of Rome. He later convinced the vandal Ginserik in 445 to spare the city. This greatly raised his reputation.
He declared himself the ruler of the entire church and defended a unified world papacy. He said that resistance to his authority was a direct road to hell. He also introduced the death penalty to punish heretics.
However, the ecumenical council in Chalcedon, in 451, consisting of bishops from all over the world, despite the imperial decree and the claims of Pope Leo, gave the Patriarch of Constantinople equal rights with the Roman bishop.
Gilarius (461-468 AD). Continued the policy of his predecessor.
Fall of Rome
Siplicius (468-483) was pope at the end of the Western Roman Empire (476 AD). This freed the pope from civil authority. The various small barbarian kingdoms that now comprised the former Western Roman Empire presented the popes with the opportunity for an advantageous alliance, and in this way the pope gradually became the main power in the west.
Felix 3 (483-492). Gelasius 1(492-446). Anastasy 2 (496-498). Simachius (498-514). Hormizd (514-523). John 1(523-525). Felix 4 (526-530). Boniface 2 (530-532). John 2 (532-535). Agalite 1 (535-536). Silverius (536-540). Vitaly (540-554). Believe 1 (555-560) John 3 (560-573). Benedict 1 (574-578). Put 2 (578-590).
First real dad
Gregory 1 (590-604) is generally considered to be the first pope. He came at a time of political anarchy and general disorder in Europe. Italy, after the fall of Rome in 476, became a Gothic kingdom, later a Byzantine province, under the control of the Eastern emperor, and was now plundered by pawnbrokers. Gregory's influence over the various kings had a stabilizing effect. He established for himself complete control over the churches of Italy, Spain, Galina and England, the conversion of which to Christianity was a great event during the time of Pope Gregory. Gregory worked tirelessly to cleanse the church. He eliminated indifferent and unworthy bishops and firmly opposed the simony that was practiced at that time, the sale of church positions. He made every effort to influence the east, but made no claim to the jurisdiction of the eastern church. The Patriarch of Constantinople called himself the “world bishop.” This angered Pope Gregory, who rejected the title as evil and arrogant and refused to accept it for himself. However, practically he had all the power that belonged to this title. In his personal life, he was a good man, one of the most honest of all popes. He was tireless in the struggle for justice for the oppressed and was unlimited in helping the poor. If all popes were like him, then a different opinion would form in the world regarding the papacy.
Sabinianius (604-606). Boniface 3 (607). Boniface 4 (609-614). Diezdelite (615-618). Boniface 5 (619-625). Honorius 1 (625-638). Severinius (640). John 4 (640-642). Theodore 1(642-649). Martin 1 (649-653). Evgeniy 1(654-657). Vitalianius (657-672). Adeodatius (672-676). Doniy 1(676-678). Agatha (678-682).
Leo 2 (682-683), declared Honorius 1 a heretic. Benedict 2 (684-685). John 5 (685-686). Kona (686-687). Theodosius (687). Sergius 1 (687-701). John 6 (701-705). John 7 (705-707). Sisinnius (708). Konstantin (708-715). Gregory 2 (715-731). Gregory 3 (731-741).
Dad becomes an earthly king
Zachary (741-752) was instrumental in the appointment of Pepin, the father of Charlemagne, as king of the Franks, a Germanic people inhabiting West Germany and Northern France.
Stefan 2 (752-757). At his request, Pepin led his army into Italy, defeated Lombardy and gave the pope their lands and most of central Italy.
This was the beginning of the Papal State, or the secular rule of the popes. Civil control of Rome and Central Italy by the popes was established by Zechariah and Stephen and recognized by Pepin in 754, and was later confirmed by Carp the Great in 774. Thus. Central Italy, once led by the Roman Empire, then a Gothic kingdom, and now ruled by the head of the church. This secular reign of the church lasted for some years, until 1870, when, during the war between France and Germany, the Italian king Victor Immanuel took possession of Rome and annexed the papal state to the kingdom of Italy. Paul 1(757-767). Stefan 3 (768-772). Adrian 1(772-795).
Papal power encouraged by Charlemagne
Leo 3 (795-816), in gratitude for Carpus the Great's recognition of papal temporal authority over the papal state, granted Charlemagne the title of Roman Emperor in 800, thus uniting the Roman and Frankish kingdoms into the Holy Roman Empire.
Charlemagne (742-814), king of the Franks, grandson of Charles Martel, who saved Europe from Mohammedanism (see p. 760), was one of the great rulers in human history. He ruled for 46 years and led many wars and conquests of great importance. His kingdom included modern-day Germany, France, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, Belgium and parts of Spain and Italy. He helped dad, and dad helped him. He had great influence in establishing the papacy as a position of world power. Soon after his death, by the agreement of Verdun in 843, his empire was divided, laying the foundation of modern Germany, France and Italy, and since then, for centuries, there has been an incessant struggle for supreme power between the popes and the German and French kings .
"Holy Roman Empire"
Established by Carp the Great and Leo 3, it was in effect the restoration of the Western Roman Empire, led by German kings called "Kaisers" who were invested by the popes with power for the purpose of continuing the old Roman Empire under the joint control of the popes and the German emperors. Emperors controlled civil matters, while popes controlled spiritual matters. Because the church was a state institution, the scope of authority was not always easy to define, and the resolution of issues led to bitter struggles between emperors and popes.
The Holy Roman Empire was only "a name, not an established fact", existed for 1000 years and came to its end with Napoleon's rise to power in 1806. It served as a means of mixing the Roman and German civilizations, from which modern social life arose.
Stefan 4 (816-817). Pascal 1(817-824). Evgeniy 2 (824-827). Valentine (827). Gregory 4 (827-844). Sergius 2 (844-847). Lev 4 (847-855). Benedict 3 (855-858).
False Isidore's decrees helped the papacy
Nicholas 1(858-867). The first pope with a crown. To further his claims to world power, he made great use of the False Decrees of Isidore, a book that appeared in 857 and contained documents purporting to represent letters and decrees of bishops and councils of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, which were intended to enhance the power of the pope. These documents were deliberate forgeries and distortions of ancient historical documents, but their forgery was only discovered several centuries later. We do not know whether Nicholas 1 knew about the hook-up. But he lied, arguing that they had been in the archives of the Roman Church since ancient times. The false documents served their purpose to rubber-stamp the claims of the medieval priesthood with the authority of antiquity. The papacy, which had developed over several centuries, was now presented as perfect and unchangeable from the very beginning. This document was forged to give the appearance of historicity and antiquity to papal power. This is the most ambitious forgery in history.
It has, however, strengthened the papacy more than any other power, and forms, to some extent, the basis for the canonical law of the Roman Church.
The Great Schism of Christianity
Nicholas interfered in the affairs of the Eastern Church. He excommunicated Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, who in turn excommunicated him. The schism of Christianity followed in 869 and ended in 1054.
Although the empire had been divided since 395, and although there was a fierce struggle between the popes of Rome and the patriarchs of Constantinople for supremacy, the Church remained united. The cathedrals were attended by representatives of the Eastern and Western churches.
Until 869, ecumenical councils took place near or in Constantinople itself. The Greek language was used at the Councils. But the papal insistence on being the ruler of Christianity seemed unbearable, and the Eastern Church finally separated. The Council of Constantinople in 869 was the last ecumenical council. From that time on, the Greek Church had its Councils, and the Roman Church its own. The discrepancy grew over the centuries. Brutal treatment of Constantinople by the army of Innocent III during crusades hardened the Eastern Church even more. And the publication of the Dogma of the Infallibility of the Papacy in 1870 further exacerbated the divergence.
The darkest period of the papacy
Adrian 2 (867-872). John 8 (872-882). Marinius (882-884). With these popes began the darkest period of the papacy (870-1058). 200 years between Nicholas 1 and Gregory 7, historians call the midnight of the Middle Ages. Bribery, corruption, immorality and bloodshed constitute the darkest page in the history of the Church.
Adrian 3 (884-885). Stefan 6 (885-891). Formosius (891-896). Boniface 6 (896). Stefan 6 (896-897). Novel (897). Theodore 2 (898). John 9 (898-900). Venedikt 4 (900-903). Lev 5 (903). Christopher (903-904).
"Power of Harlots"
Sergius 3 (904-911). He had a mistress, Marozia. She, her mother Theodora and her sister "filled the papal throne with mistresses and illegitimate sons and turned the papal palace into a den of robbers." This time is called in history “the power of prostitutes” (904-963).
Anastasy 3 (911-913). Lando (913-914). John 10 (914-928) “was drawn by Theodora from Ravenna to Rome and appointed pope, for the more convenient satisfaction of her passions.” He was strangled by Marozia, who then, in order of succession to the throne, elevated Leo 6 (928-928), Stephen 7 (929-931) and John I (931-936), her own illegitimate son, to the papacy. Another of her sons appointed the next four popes: Leo 7 (936-939), Stephen 8 (939-942), Martin 3 (942-946) and Agalita (946-955). John 12 (955-963), the grandson of Morozia, was “guilty of almost every crime. He raped virgins and widows, lived with his father’s mistress, and turned the papal palace into a brothel. He was killed by his mistress's husband.
Immorality of dads
Lev 8 (963-965). John 12(965-972). Benedict 6 (972-974). Addition 2 (974). Benedict 7 (975-983). John 14 (983-984).
Boniface 7 (984-985) killed John 14 and “kept on the bloody papal throne thanks to the distribution of stolen money.” The Bishop of Orleans, speaking of John 12, Leo 8 and Boniface 7, called them “monsters of sin, reeking of blood and filth, the Antichrist sitting in the temple of God.”
John 15 (985-996). Gregory 5 (996-999). Sylvester 2 (999-1003). John 18 (1003-1008). Sergius 4 (1109-1012). Benedict 15 (1012-1024), bought the position of pope through open bribery. This was called simony, i.e. buying or selling a church position for money.
John 19 (1024-1033) bought himself the papacy. He passed through all the required clerical degrees in one day.
Benedict 9 (1033-1045) was appointed pope at the age of 12 with money from the influential families that ruled Rome. He surpassed John 12 in sinfulness; committed murders in broad daylight and was so immoral that he robbed pilgrims at the graves of martyrs. A terrible criminal. The people drove him out of Rome. Some call him the worst of all dads.
Gregory 6 (1045-1046) also bought himself the papal throne. Three rival popes: Benedict 9, Gregory 6, Sylvester 3. Rome was then swarming with hired killers and the dignity of pilgrims was desecrated.
Clement 2 (1046-1047) was appointed pope by Emperor Henry 3, of Germany, because they could not find a single Roman priest free from simony and fornication.
Damascus 2 (1048). He began loud protests against papal dishonor and called for reform, to which Hildebrand responded.
Golden period of papal power
Hildebrand was small in stature, ugly in appearance, with a weak voice, but great in his intelligence and fiery spirit. He was a determined and zealous defender of papal absolutism. He allied himself with the reform party and led the papacy into a golden age (1049-1294). He controlled five successive papal administrations, immediately after his own: Leo 9 (1059-1061), Victor 2 (1055-1057), Stephen 9 (1057-1058), Nicholas 2 (1059-1061), Alexander 2 (1061- 1073).
Hildebrand, Pope Gregory 7 (1073-1085). His great task was the reform of the priesthood. The two predominant sins of the priests were immorality and simony, i.e. purchasing a church position for money. The church owned a large part of all property and had rich income. In practice, bishops and priests bought their position because it gave them the opportunity to live luxuriously. Typically, kings sold ecclesiastical office to the highest bidder, regardless of the person's ability or character.
This brought Pope Gregory 7 into fierce competition with Henry 4, Emperor of Germany. He removed Gregory. Gregory, in turn, excommunicated and deposed Henry. The war has begun. And for four years Italy was devastated by warring armies. Gregory was eventually expelled from Rome and died in exile. But he, to some extent, made the papacy independent of imperial power. Very often Gregory called himself “Lord over kings and princes,” and he tried to fulfill his claims.
Victor 3 (1086-1087). Urban II (1088-1099) continued the war with the German emperor. Urban 2 became the leader of the crusades, which helped papal power.
Pascal II (1099-1118) continued the war with the German emperor.
Gelasius 2 (1118-1119). Calixtus 2 (1119-1124). Honorius 2 (1124-1130). Innocent 2 (1130-1143) sat on his throne with the help of an armed army against his opponent Pope Anasletius 2, who was elected by some families in Rome.
Celestian 2 (1143-1144). Lucius 2 (1144-1145). Evgeniy 3 (1145-1153). Anastasy 4 (1153-1154).
Adrian 4 (1154-1159). The only English dad. Gave Ireland to the King of England and gave him the power to rule over it. This permission was renewed by the next Pope Alexander 3 and continued until 1117.
Alexander 3. (1159-1181). Was at odds with four antipopes. He resumed the war with Germany for supreme power. Many battles took place between the Papal and German armies with terrible bloodshed. Finally, Alexander was expelled from Rome by the people and died in exile.
Lucius 3 (1181-1185) and Urban 3 (1185-1187). Gregory 8 (1187), Clementius 3 (1187-1191), Celestine 2 (1191-1198).
The Rise of Papal Power
Innocent 3 (1198-1216). The most powerful of all dads. Claimed to be “the Vicar of Christ,” “the Vicar of God,” and “the Highest Ruler of the Church and the World.” He claimed the right to remove kings and princes, since “everything on earth, in heaven and in hell belongs to the Vicar of Christ”
He brought the church under the supreme control of the state. The kings of Germany, France, England and almost all the monarchs of Europe obeyed his will. He even brought the Byzantine Empire under his control. Never in the entire history of mankind has one person wielded such power.
He organized two crusades. Established the doctrine of reincarnation and confirmed secret confession. He stated that the “Vicar of Peter” could never, under any circumstances, depart from the Catholic faith. Established papal infallibility. Condemned the Magna Carta. He forbade reading the Bible in his native language. He ordered the destruction of heretics. Established the Inquisition. He carried out the Albi massacre. Under the administration of himself and his immediate followers, more blood was shed than in any other historical period of church history, with the exception of the Papal attempt to suppress the Reformation in the 16th and 17th centuries. One would have thought that Nero the beast had come to life.
Papal power supported by the Inquisition
The Inquisition was called "The Holy Institution." It was founded by Pope Innocent 3, and improved by the second subsequent pope, Gregory 9. It was an ecclesiastical court for identifying and punishing heretics. According to this court, everyone was obliged to extradite heretics. Anyone who was suspected was tortured and not told the name of the informer. All this happened in secret. The inquisitor announced the court's decision and the victim was handed over to civil authorities for life imprisonment or burning. The property of the convicted person was confiscated. Power was divided between church and state.
Immediately after the time of Innocent 3, the Inquisition was directed against the Albigensians, and also caused many casualties in Spain, Italy, Germany and Holland. Later, the main goal of the Inquisition was to destroy the Reformation. For 30 years in the time period between 1540 and 1570. At least 900,000 Protestants were killed in the Pope's war against the Waldenses.
Imagine monks and priests dressed in holy robes and committing heartless abuses and inhuman atrocities, torturing and burning innocent men and women on the direct orders of the “Vicar of Christ.”
The Inquisition was the most shameful and diabolical event in human history. It was invented by the popes and was used by them for 500 years to maintain papal power. Despite their horrific past, none of the “saint” and “infallible” popes ever apologized for the atrocities of the Inquisition. (This was done only in the 20th century by Pope John Paul II - editor's note).
Long war with the German emperors
Honorius 3 (1216-1227), Gregory 9 (1227-1241), Innocent 4 (1241-1254) - approved the papal sanction to resort to torture to obtain the confession of a suspicious heretic. During the reign of these popes, the German Emperor Frederick brought his empire to its last great struggle with the papacy, After many wars, the papacy still won.
Alexander 4 (1254-1261), Urban 4 (1261-1264), Clement 4 (1265-1268), Gregory 10 (1271-1276), Innocent 5 (1276), John 21 (1276-1277), Nicholas 3 (1277 -1280), Martin 4 (1281-1285), Honorius (1285-1287), Nicholas 4 (1288-1292), Calestine 5 (1294).
The beginning of the papal fall.
Boniface 8 (1294-1303). His famous papal bull, Unam Sanctam, states: “We declare, establish, establish the meaning and proclaim that in general it is necessary for the salvation of the soul, that every being should be subject to the pope of Rome.” However, he himself was so corrupt that Dante, who visited Rome during his papacy, called the Vatican a “cesspool of immorality” and assigned it, along with Nicholas 3 and Clement 5, to the lowest part of hell.
The Papacy won the war against the German Empire for 200 years.
Boniface received the papacy in full bloom, but he met his equal opponent, Philip the Honest, king of France, before whom the papacy submitted to the lowest degree, and from then on the period of the decline of the papacy began.
French dominance over the papacy
Benedict 11 (1303-1304). During his papacy, Philip the Honest, King of France, became the most distinguished monarch of Europe.
As a consequence of the papal massacre of the French Albigenses in the last century (see p. 778), a sense of nationalism and a spirit of independence began to develop among the French people. And Philip the Honest, from whose time the history of modern France begins, began the fight against the papacy. His conflict began with Pope Boniface 8 regarding taxes on the French priesthood. The papacy was brought into complete subordination to the state. And after the death of Pope Benedict 11, the papal palace was transferred from Rome to Avignon, the southern border of France. And for 70 years the papacy was only an instrument of the French court.
"Babylonian Captivity" of the Papacy
For 70 years (1305-1377) the papacy was located in Avignon. Clementius 5 (1305-1314). John 22 (1316-1334) is the richest man in Europe. Benedict 12 (1334-1342). Clement 6 (1342-1352). Innocent 6 (1352-1362). Urban 5 (1362-1370). Gregory 11 (1370-1378).
The greed of the Avignon popes knew no bounds. Heavy taxes were introduced. Each church institution was sold for money. New institutions were created for profiteering, to fill the treasury of the popes and to maintain a luxurious and depraved court. Petrarch accused the papal court of rape, adultery and adultery. In many churches, men advised priests to have their own mistresses in order to thereby protect the families of church members. The "captivity of the popes" was a heavy blow to papal prestige.
Papacy split
For 40 years (1377-1417) there were two popes: one in Rome and the other in Avignon. Each claimed to be the “vicar of Christ,” cursing and berating each other.
Urban 6 (1378-1389). Restores the Papal Palace in Rome. Boniface 9 (1389-1404). Innocent 7 (1404-1406). Gregory 12 (1406-1409). Alexander 5 (1409-1410). " "
John 23 (1410-1415). Some call him the most depraved criminal who ever sat on the papal throne. He was guilty of almost every crime. During his post as cardinal in Bologna, 200 girls, nuns and married women fell victims to his love affairs. He also violated the virginity of nuns, lived in adultery with his brother's wife, and was guilty of pederasty and other debauchery. He bought the papal position, sold the position of cardinals to the children of rich families, and openly denied an afterlife.
Marin 5 (1417-1431). Heals the papal schism. This split in Europe was seen as a scandal. The papacy suffered from a loss of prestige. Eugene 4 (1431-1447).
Popes of the Renaissance
Nicholas 5 (1447-1455). Authorized the King of Portugal to wage war on the African people, allowed to take their property and turn people into slaves.
Calixtas 3 (1455-1458), Pope of Immaculate Life.
Pius 2 (1458-1464). Father of many illegitimate children. He spoke openly about methods of seducing women, encouraged young men to satisfy their desires, and even offered to give lectures on methods of satisfying their passions.
Paul 2 (1464-1471), “filled his house with mistresses.”
Sixtus 4 (1471-1484). Approved the Spanish Inquisition. He issued a decree that money frees the soul from purgatory. Was involved in a plot to kill Lorenzo de' Medici and others who opposed his policies. He used the papacy for his own profit and for his relatives. He made 8 of his nephews cardinals, some of them were still boys. In luxury and extravagance he exceeded the Caesars. In terms of wealth and pomp, he and his relatives surpassed the ancient Roman families.
Innocent 80484-1492). He had 16 children from various married women. He multiplied church institutions and sold them for big money. He sent an army against the Waldensians and ordered their destruction. He appointed the cruel Thomas of Torquemada as inquisitor-general of Spain, and ordered all rulers to bring all heretics to him. He allowed bullfighting in St. Peter's Square. Was the reason for Savonarola's criticism against papal corruption.
Alexander 6 (1492-1505). Called the most depraved of all the Popes of the Renaissance: greedy, depraved, bought the right of the Pope, appointed many cardinals for money. He had many illegitimate children, whom he openly recognized and appointed to high church positions back in childhood, and who, together with their father, killed cardinals and other persons who stood in their way. The cardinal's sister was his mistress. This Cardinal Pni 3 became the next pope in 1503.
Popes in Luther's time
Julius 2 (1503-1513). The richest of the cardinals, with enormous income from many dioceses and church estates, with which he bought himself the position of pope. As a cardinal, he laughed at celibacy. Julius 2 was in endless disputes over the possession of cities and principalities. He maintained and controlled large armies and was called the Warrior Pope. He published indulgences for money. Luther visited Rome during his papacy and was amazed by its deeds.
Lev 10 (1513-1521). He was pope when Martin Luther began the Protestant Reformation. He was appointed archbishop at the age of 8, and a cardinal at 13. He was appointed 27 times to various church positions, which brought him huge income, before he reached the age of 13. He was taught to regard religious institutions only as a source of income. Bargained for the papal throne. He sold his honor to the church. All religious institutions were sold, and new ones were created in their place. He appointed seven-year-old children as cardinals. Leo 10 was in endless treaties with kings and princes, neglecting no means to achieve temporal power, being completely indifferent to the spiritual welfare of the church. He maintained the most magnificent and immoral court in Europe. Its cardinals vied with kings and princes in the possession of beautiful and luxurious palaces and luxurious entertainments, served by a huge number of servants. And this voluptuousness is confirmed in Unam Sanctam, which states that every person must obey the Pope for the salvation of his soul. This pope issued indulgences at certain prices and declared that the burning of heretics was a divine act.
Adrian 6 (1522-1523). Clement 7 (1523-1534). Paul 3 (1534-1449) had many illegitimate children. He was a determined enemy of the Protestants. He offered an army to Charles 5 to exterminate them.
Arrival of the Jesuits
The Roman response to the Protestant movement was the Inquisition, led by the Jesuits. The Jesuits were founded by Ignatius of Loyola, a Spaniard, on the principle of absolute and unconditional obedience to the pope, with the aim of regaining the territories that had been occupied by Protestants and Mohammedans, and also conquering the entire pagan world for the Roman Catholic Church. Their main goal was the destruction of heresy, i.e. everything that does not agree with the papal conclusion, and to achieve this all methods were justified: deception, immorality, vice and even murder. Their motto was: “All for the glory of God.” Their methods: schools for children from the ruling class, trying in all schools to achieve absolute power over the students. They called for confession, especially of kings, princes and civil leaders. The Jesuits called on those in power to commit various types of vices and crimes in order to win them over to their side, where they could use secular power to carry out the sentences of the Inquisition.
In France they were responsible for St. Bartholomew's Night, the persecution of the Huguenots, the revocation of the Edict of Nantes and the French Revolution. In Spain, Holland, Southern Germany, Bohemia, Austria, Poland and other countries they killed countless people. By these methods they stopped the Reformation in Southern Europe, and practically saved the papacy from ruin.
Julius 3 (1550-5). Marcellus 2 (1555). Paul 4 (1555-9). Stumps 4 (1559-65). Pius 5 (1556-72). Gregory 12 (1572-85). Celebrated the holy service with gratitude for the news of the St. Bartholomew massacre (see page 789). Sixtus 5 (1585-90). Urban 7 (1590). Gregory 14 (1590-1). Innocent 9 (1591).
Modern dads
Clement 8 (1592-1605). Lev 11 (1605). Paul 5 (1605-21). Gregory 15 (1621-3). Urban 8 (1623-44), with the help of the Jesuits, exterminated Protestants in Bohemia. Innocent 10 (1644-55). Alexander (1655-67). Clement 9 (1667-9). Clement 10 (1670-6). Innocent 11 (1676-89). Alexander 8 (1689-91). Innocent 12 (1691-1700). Clement 11 (1700-21), declared that kings could rule only with his approval, issued a decree against reading the Bible. Innocent 12 (1721-4). Benedict 12(1724-30). Clement 12 (1730-1740). Benedict 14 (1740-58). Clement 12 (1758-69). Clement 14 (1769-74). Stumps 6 (1775-99), banned the Jesuit society in Spain, France and Portugal. Stumps 7(1800-20), issued a decree against Bible societies. Restored the Jesuits. Here’s how it turns out: one “infallible” pope restored for all time what another “infallible” pope had prohibited before him.
Lev 12 (1821-9) condemned religious freedom, tolerance, Bible societies, Bible translations and declared that "he who separates himself from the Roman Catholic Church, notwithstanding his blameless character, has no part in eternal life."
Stumps 8 (1829-30). Condemned freedom of conscience. Bible Societies and Freemasonry. Gregory 16 (1831-46). A zealous defender of papal infallibility, he condemned Bible societies.
Stumps 9 (1846-78). Lost the papal state, declared papal infallibility, declared the right to suppress heresy by force, condemned the separation of church and state, ordered Catholics to be obedient to the head of the church and not to civil leaders, condemned freedom of conscience, freedom of worship, speech and press, decreed the Immaculate Conception and divinity Mary, condemned the Bible Societies, declared Protestantism as “an incorrect form of the Christian religion” and that “every dogma of the Roman Catholic Church is dictated by Christ Himself, through the “vicars on earth,” the popes.
Papal infallibility
The idea of papal infallibility had not been known in Christian literature for 600 years. It arose with the advent of false decrees (see p. 767) and appeared during the papal claims during the period of the crusades and the conflicts of popes with emperors.
Many popes, beginning with Innocent 3 (1198-1216), defended papal infallibility. But the councils of Pisa (1409), Constance (1414), and Basel (1431) clearly decreed that the popes were subject to the councils.
Pius 9 (1854). By his own supreme authority and without the consent of the Council, he “announced the doctrine of the immaculate conception of Mary, as if thereby testing the reaction of the Roman Catholic world. The acceptance of this encouraged him to convene the Vatican Council in 1870, with the aim of declaring himself infallible, which, under his skillful manipulation, was accepted. .The decree states that it is “divinely revealed” that the pope, when speaking “from the pulpit, has infallibility in the determination of doctrine, faith and morals, and that “such determinations are immutable.” —
Thus, the pope now has a claim to infallibility because the Vatican Council approved this proposal. The Eastern Church considers this a great papal blasphemy.
Loss of temporal power by the popes
Since 754, popes have been the secular rulers of a kingdom called the "papal state," which included most of Italy, with Rome as its capital. Many popes were more interested in expanding the borders, wealth and power of their kingdom than in the spiritual state of the church. And papal corruption was as pronounced in temporal power as in spiritual power. Papal mismanagement of Rome became emblematic of corrupt officials, frequent crime, dirty streets, extortion of city visitors, a rigged coinage system and lotteries.
Pius 14 ruled Rome with the help of 10,000 French soldiers. At the outbreak of the war between France and Germany in 1870, these troops were withdrawn. And then Victor Immanuel, king of Italy, occupied Rome and annexed the papal state to the kingdom of Italy. The voting of the people during the transfer of Rome from the pope to the Italian government showed the following result: for - 133,648, and against - 1,507.
Thus, the pope lost not only temporal power, but he himself became subordinate to another king, which was very humiliating for the pope, since he claimed to be the ruler over all the kings.
Papal power was restored to a minimal extent by Mussolini in 1929. Although the Vatican is located on only 40.47 hectares of land, the Pope is still the supreme ruler in his own small kingdom.
Popes of the present time
Leo 12 (1878-1903) claimed to be the appointed head of all rulers and to take the place of Almighty God on our earth. He insisted on papal infallibility. He declared Protestants “enemies of Christianity.” He declared that the only condition under which cooperation could be achieved was complete submission to the Pope. Condemned “Americanism and Freemasonry.”
Stumps 10 (1903-1914) condemned the leaders of the Reformation as “enemies of the cross of Christ.” Venedikt 15 (1914-1922).
Stumps 11 (1922-1939). In 1928, he confirmed that the Roman Catholic Church is the only Church of Christ and the unification of Christianity is impossible without submission to Rome.
Stumps 12 (1939-1958). John 22 (1958-1963). Pavel 6(1963-1978). John Paul 2 (1978-)
Summary
The papacy is an Italian institution. It arose from the ruins of the Roman Empire in the name of Christ, occupying the throne of Caesar. It was the revival of the political Roman Empire, inheriting its ideals and traditions - “the ghost of the Roman Empire came to life in the garb of Christianity.” The majority of popes were Italians.
Papal methods. The papacy came to power through the prestige of Rome and the name of Christ, through cunning political alliances, deceptions, military force. And with the help of armed forces and bloodshed, it maintained itself in power.
Papal income. For much of the history of the papacy, income was achieved through the sale of ecclesiastical titles and the shameless trade in indulgences. Thus, the popes received huge incomes, which ensured them the maintenance of a luxurious court, the best in Europe.
Personal character of dads. Some of them were decent people, and some of them were terribly bad people. Most of them were consumed by the pursuit of power.
Papal claims. Despite the general character of the papacy, their methods, their secular and bloody deeds, these "holy fathers" claimed to be "heirs of Christ", "infallible" and that they "occupy the place of Almighty God on this earth", and obedience to them is necessary for the salvation of souls .
The Papacy and the Bible. Hildebrand ordered the people of Bohemia not to read the Bible. Innocent 3 forbade people to read the Bible in their own language. Gregory 9 forbade people to have the Bible and did not allow translations of the Bible. Translations of the Bible among the Albigensians and Waldensians were burned and the people who had the Bible were also burned. Paul 4 forbade having the Bible and its translation without the permission of the Inquisition. The Jesuits convinced Clement 11 to condemn reading the Bible ordinary people. Lev 12, Stumps 8, Gregory 16 and Stumps 9 - condemned the Bible societies. In Catholic countries the Bible is an unknown book.
Papacy and State. Hildebrand called himself "the supreme lord of kings and princes." Innocent III called himself "the supreme monarch of the whole world." Stumps 9 condemned the separation of church and state and ordered all true Catholics to be obedient to the head of the church and not to secular authorities. Lev 13 claimed to be “the head of all rulers.” During the coronation of popes, the papal crown is placed on their heads with the words: “You are the father of princes and kings, the ruler of the world and the vicar of Christ.”
Papacy and Church. The papacy is not a church, but a political machine that has gained control over the church and arrogated to itself the exclusive right to be a mediator between God and God's people.
Papacy and tolerance. Pope Clement 8 declared that “freedom of conscience, granted to everyone, is the most damned thing in the world.” Innocent 10 and his followers condemned, rejected, annulled and protested the proclamation of toleration in 1648 during the Treaty of Westphalia, Leo 12 condemned religious freedom. Stumps 8 condemned freedom of conscience. Stumps 9 emphatically denounced religious tolerance and freedom. Lev 13 supported the decree of Stump 9. But despite the fact that many Catholic priests in America may stand for “tolerance”, yet the official law on “infallibility” - the system of the church to which they belong - is against it. Catholics only approve of tolerance in countries where they are in the minority. The Papacy has fought against religious freedom throughout its history.
Was the papacy predestined? It may have been that, in God's foreknowledge, the papacy served a purpose during the Middle Ages, saving Western Europe from chaos and uniting the Roman and Germanic civilizations. But let’s imagine that if the church had never become a state institution and had avoided the pursuit of power, but had limited itself exclusively to its original task of leading people to Christ and educating them in the spirit of the teachings of Christ, then in our history there would have been a thousand-year Kingdom instead of the Middle Ages.
This history of the papacy is written as a backdrop to the Reformation, with the purpose of making us familiar with why the Protestant movement arose and the historical basis of the Protestant faith. Some of the things written here are incredible and just hard to believe. And it seems incomprehensible to our minds that people could take the religion of Jesus Christ and develop it into an unscrupulous political machine through which to control world power. However, everything said here can be verified in any more complete history of the Church.
Harbingers of the Reformation
Albigensians. They appeared in southern France, northern Spain and northern Italy. The Albigensians preached against the immorality of the priesthood, pilgrimages, the worship of saints and icons, completely abandoned the clergy and their claims, condemned the state of the church, and opposed the Roman Church. The Albigensians made extensive use of the Holy Scriptures and lived modestly, strenuously striving for moral purity. By 1167 they may have attracted the majority of the population of southern France, and by 1200 large numbers of people in northern Italy were under their influence. In 1208, Pope Innocent 3 organized a crusade. The bloody war destroyed the Albigensians. There has hardly been such a great evil in history: city after city was put to the sword, their inhabitants killed without distinction of gender or age. In 1229, the Inquisition was established, and within a hundred years the Albigenses were completely destroyed.
Waldenses. Southern France and northern Italy. They are similar in their teaching to the Albigensians, but not identical. Waldo, a wealthy merchant from Pion, southern France, gave his property to the poor in 1176 and went to preach. He was against illegal seizures of the clergy, debauchery and extravagance, denied the exclusive right of the clergy to teach the Bible, rejected masses, prayers for the dead and purgatory, he taught that the Bible is the only norm of faith and life. The sermons of the Waldensians aroused a great desire among people to read the Bible. They were gradually suppressed by the Inquisition, except in the Alpine valley southwest of Tyurin, where they were still found. The only medieval sect that still exists as proof of heroic endurance of persecution. Now this sect is the main Protestant organization in Italy.
John Wycliffe (1324-1384). Teacher in Oxford, England. He preached against the spiritual power of the priesthood of popes, cardinals, patriarchs, and monks. He condemned transubstantiation and secret confession. Wycliffe defended the people's right to read the Bible. Translated the Bible into English. His followers were called Lollards.
Jan Hus (1369-1415). Rector of the University in Prague, Bohemia. He was a student of Wycliffe, whose books penetrated into Bohemia. He became a fearless preacher, criticized the vices of the priesthood and the corruption of the church, and ardently condemned the sale of indulgences. Hus denied purgatory, the worship of saints, and church service in a foreign language. He explained that the Scriptures are above the dogmas and decrees of the church. Hus was burned alive and his followers, most of the population of Bohemia, were almost completely exterminated by a crusade ordered by the pope.
Savonarola (1452-1498). Florence, Italy. He preached like a Jewish prophet to a large crowd that filled the cathedral against the immorality of the city and against the papal vice. The penitent city has changed. But Pope Alexander 6 was looking for ways to silence the just priest. He even tried to buy Savonarola the post of cardinal, but in vain. Savonarola was hanged and burned in the great piazza in Florence 19 years before Martin Luther announced his 95 Theses.
Anabaptists. They appeared during the Middle Ages in various European countries and under different names, independent groups and preaching different doctrines. But in general, they were strictly anti-clerical, rejecting infant baptism, committed to Scripture and in favor of the separation of church and state. There were many of them in Germany, Holland and Switzerland. During the Reformation, ideas that came from previous generations were spread. As a rule, they were calm and sincerely pious people, but they were severely persecuted, especially in the Netherlands.
Renaissance. The revival of knowledge of the past, thanks in part to the Crusades, helped the Reformation movement. During that period, a fascination with the ancient classics arose. Large amounts money was spent on collections and manuscripts and the creation of libraries. It was at this time that printing was invented, which led to an abundance of dictionaries, grammars, translations and commentaries. Then they began to study the Bible in their native language. A renewed knowledge of the sources of Christian doctrine revealed a great difference between the simple and universally understood language of the Bible and the spiritual fiction that claimed to be based on Scripture.
The Reformation was due to the direct contact of thought with Scripture and the result of this was the liberation of human thought from priestly and papal authority.
Erasmus (1469-1536). The greatest scientist of the Reformation period. His great intention was to free people from false ideas about religion. He taught that the best way to do this was to return to the Scriptures. Tireless critic of the Roman Catholic Church. He took pleasure in ridiculing her, saying, “Wicked people in religious organizations.” Erasmus helped the Reformation a lot, but did not join it himself.
Conditions. There was great dissatisfaction with the perversity of the church and clergy. People became restless from the cruelties of the Inquisition. The secular government was tired of papal interference in government affairs. And “at the sound of Martin Luther’s trumpet, Germany, England, Scotland and other countries awoke from their sleep.”
Reformation
Martin Luther (1483-1546). Apart from Jesus Christ and the Apostle Paul, Luther is the greatest man of all time. He led the world from hardship to freedom, from the most oppressive organization in history. Luther was born into a poor family in Eisleben in 1483. He entered the University of Erfurt in 1501 to study law. " Good student, eloquent and skillful debater, very sociable and musical." He received his degree in a very short time. In 1505, he unexpectedly decided to enter a monastery. An exemplary monk, very religious, he adhered to all forms of fasting and flagellation, and even invented new types of exhaustion of the flesh. For two years he endured “such mental anguish that no pen can describe.” One day, in 1508, while he was reading the Epistle to the Romans, enlightenment and peace of mind instantly dawned on him: “The just shall live by faith.” Finally he saw that salvation could be achieved by faith in God through Jesus Christ, and not through rituals, sacraments and forgiveness by the church. This changed his whole life and the entire course of history. In 1508 he became a teacher at the University of Wittenberg, a post he held until his death in 1546. In 1511 he visited Rome, and was surprised by the perversity and vices of the papal court. He returned to Wittenberg, where his preaching on the Bible began to attract students from all over Germany.
Indulgences. Tetzel's sale of indulgences was the reason for Luther's break with Rome. According to Catholic teaching, purgatory is almost the same as hell, only it does not last long and everyone must go through it. But the pope claimed to have the power to reduce, or forgive, or alleviate these sufferings. And this privilege belonged exclusively to the pope. It started with the popes: Pascal (817-24) and John 8 (872-82). Papal indulgences proved to be an extremely profitable business and soon spread for general use. They were offered as an incentive to take part in the crusades, or wars against heretics, or against some kings disobedient to the pope whom the pope wanted to punish, for inquisitors or for those who brought a bundle of brushwood to burn heretics, or simply indulgences were sold for money. Pope Sixtus IV (1476) was the first to administer indulgences for souls in purgatory. Indulgences were sold wholesale or retail. Thus, the “selling of the privilege of sinning” became one of the main sources of papal income. In 1517, Johann Tetzel came to Germany to sell certificates signed by the pope, offering forgiveness of sins to buyers and their friends without confession, repentance and communion, or absolution by a priest. He told people: “As soon as your coin rings in the chest, then the souls of your friends will leave purgatory and go to heaven.” This horrified Luther.
95 abstracts. On October 31, 1517, Luther posted 95 theses on the door of the church in Wittenberg. Almost all of them concerned indulgences, but which, in essence, undermined the power of the pope. This was a statement that he wished to have a discussion about this at the university. Printed copies of these theses were eagerly sought throughout Germany. This was proof that these theses were the “spark that lit the whole of Europe.” In 1520, Luther became the most popular man in Germany.
Luther's excommunication from the church. In 1520, the pope issued a decree excommunicating Luther and declared that if he did not repent within 60 days, he would receive “punishment according to heresy,” which meant death. When Luther received the decree, he burned it publicly on December 10, 1520. “On that day a new period in the history of mankind began.” (Nicola).
Cathedral in Worms. In 1521, Luther was ordered by Carp 5, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (comprising Germany, Spain, the Netherlands and Austria), to appear before the Council of Worms, before a gathering of eminent persons of the empire and the church, to recant his opinion. He answered that he could not refuse it, except what was not supported by Scripture or prudence: “On this I stand, I can do no more; May the Lord help me." He was condemned, but he had many friends among the German princes to save him from punishment by the church. Luther was hidden by his friends for about three years, and then he returned to Wittenberg to continue preaching and writing. He also translated the Bible into German, which "spiritualized Germany and shaped the German language."
The Pope's struggle with the Protestants of Germany
At that time, Germany was divided into many small principalities. Many princes and their principalities sided with Luther. In 1540, all of northern Germany accepted Lutheranism. Pope Paul 3 encouraged Emperor Charles 5 to go against them and offered him an army. The Pope declared the war as a crusade and offered indulgences to all who would take part in this war. The war lasted from 1546 to 1555. and ended with the peace of Avsburg, where the Lutherans won legal recognition of the religion.
The name is "Protestant". The Council of Spira in 1529, where Roman Catholics were in the majority, decided that Catholics could teach their religion in Catholic states, in Germany. The Lutheran princes made a formal protest against this, and from that time on they began to be called “Protestants.” .The name initially referred to Lutherans, but now to those who protest against formal Christian denominations that “deviate from the teachings of the Bible. All evangelical Christian organizations are now called Protestants.
Switzerland. A country of historical freedom. Here the reform began by Pastor Zwingli and continued by Calvin, and their united followers founded the “Reformed Church” in 1549. Their reforms were more widespread than the Lutheran ones.
Zwingli (1484-1531). The rulers of Zurich were convinced, around 1516, that the Bible was a means to purify the church. In 1525 Zurich officially accepted Zwingli's teachings. The churches gradually abolished indulgences, masses, celibacy, and icons, resorting to the Bible as the only source.
John Calvin (1509-64), French, accepted the teachings of the Reformation in 1533. Expelled from France in 1534, he went to Geneva in 1536. And there his academy became the main center of Protestantism, attracting scientists from many countries.
Netherlands. There the Reformation was accepted early, first by Lutheranism, and then by Calvinism. There were also many Anabaptists already there. Between 1513 and 1531 25 different translations of the Bible were published there: in Dutch, Flemish and French. The Netherlands was part of the territory that belonged to Charles 5. In 1522, the king established the Inquisition and ordered all Lutheran books to be burned. In 1525 he banned religious meetings where the Bible was read. In 1546, he banned the printing of the Bible and the possession of it by anyone. Latin, nor in translations. In 1535 he issued a decree “death by burning to the Anabaptists.” Philip 11 (1566-1598), successor of Charles 5, reissued his father's decree and, with the help of the Jesuits, continued the persecution of Protestants with even greater cruelty. In one sentence of the Inquisition the entire population was condemned to death and during the time of Charles 5 and Philip 2, more than 100,000 people were killed with incredible cruelty. Some were chained to posts near the fire, so that they slowly roasted to death; many were thrown into underground prisons, beaten with whips, and tortured before being burned. The women were buried alive, pressed into small coffins and trampled under the feet of the executioner. Protestants in the Netherlands, after unbearable suffering, chose their independence in 1609. Holland in the north became Protestant, Belgium in the south became Roman Catholic. Holland was the first country to introduce the maintenance of schools through taxes and legalize the principles of religious tolerance and freedom of the press.
Scandinavia. Where Lutheranism was introduced early and made the state religion: in Denmark in 1536, in Switzerland in 1539, in Norway in 1540. A hundred years later, Gustavus Adolf (1611-32), King of Sweden, offered significant assistance to defeat the papal attempt to suppress Protestant Germany.
France. In 1520, Luther's teachings penetrated into France. In 1559 there were about 400,000 Protestants there. They were called "Huguenots". Their serious piety and pure life were very different from the scandalous lifestyle of the Catholic priesthood. In 1557, Pope Pney encouraged the extermination of the Huguenots. The king issued a decree on the organization of the massacre and ordered his loyal subjects to help catch the Protestants.
St. Bartholomew's Night massacre. Catherine de' Medici, the king's mother, the pope's obedient instrument, gave the order, and on the night of August 24, 1572, 70 thousand Huguenots, including most of their leaders, were killed. There was great joy in Rome. The Pope and his college of cardinals went in a solemn procession to the Church of St. Mark, and as a sign of gratitude to God, they ordered the singing of “God, we praise Thee.” The pope issued a medal in memory of the massacre and sent the cardinal to Paris to present the king and queen mother with congratulations from the pope and cardinals.
War of the Huguenots. After the St. Bartholomew's Massacre, the Huguenots united and armed themselves to resist. And finally, in 1598, by the Decree of Nantes, they were granted freedom of conscience and religion. Pope Clement 8 called this decree of Nantes toleration a “curse.” But after years of underground work by the Jesuits, this decree was annulled in 1685 and 500,000 Huguenots fled to Protestant countries.
French revolution. One hundred years after these events, in 1789, was one of the terrible upheavals in history. People in a frenzy against tyranny ruling class(among which was the priesthood, which owned a third of the entire earth - the rich, the lazy, the depraved and heartless towards the poor), rebelled and, through terror and bloodshed, eliminated the government, closed the churches, confiscated property, suppressed Christianity and Sunday. Napoleon restored the church, but not the property. In 1802 he granted toleration to all and almost removed the political power of popes in all countries.
In Bohemia, in 1600, with a population of 4,000,000, 80% were Protestants. When the Habsburgs and the Jesuits did their job, only 800,000 Protestants remained and the rest of the population became Catholic.
In Austria and Hungary, half the population was Protestant, but during the Habsburgs and the Jesuits they were exterminated.
In Poland, by the end of the 16th century, it seemed that Catholicism was almost swept away, but here, too, the Jesuits strangled the Reformation with their persecution.
In Italy, the land of popes. The Reformation began to take hold, but the Inquisition was so successful there that it was eradicated. And now hardly any spirit of Protestantism remained in Italy.
In Spain, the Reformation was not able to spread because the Inquisition was constantly operating there. Any attempt to achieve freedom and independent thought was crushed by the ruthless hand of the church. Torquemada (1420-98), Dominican friar, head of the Inquisition, burned 10,200 people over 18 years and sentenced 97,000 to life imprisonment. The victims were usually burned publicly in the squares, and this was a kind of holiday. From 1481 to 1808 at least 100,000 martyrs died and 1,500,000 were expelled. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Inquisition stopped literary life in Spain, which then found itself almost outside the circle of European civilization. At the beginning of the Reformation, Spain was one of the powerful countries in the world.
Spanish Armada (1588). One of the features of the Jesuit strategy was to find a way to overthrow the Protestant countries. Pope Gregory 12 "did everything to force Philip 2, Emperor and King of Spain, to go to war against Protestant England." Sixtus 5, who became pope at that time, did this in the form of a crusade (offering indulgences to those who would take part in the campaign). During this period Spain had the strongest navy in the world. But the proud armada met its defeat in the English Channel. "The English victory was the final turning point in the struggle between Protestantism and Catholicism, which saved not only England and Scotland, but also Holland, northern Germany, Denmark, Sweden and Norway for Protestantism." (Allegedly).
England. Here, first there was a revolution, and then a reform. Since the time of William the Victorious (1066) there had been repeated protests against papal control in England by Henry 8 (1509-47), who believed, as his predecessors had believed, that the English Church should be independent of the pope. His divorce was not the reason, but the reason for his break with dad. Henry was no saint, but neither was Pope Paul III, who had many illegitimate children. In 1534, the Church in England finally renounced papal authority and accepted an independent life under the spiritual leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Thomas Cranmer was Archbishop of Cantenbury and under his leadership the reform began. Monasteries were abolished on the grounds of immorality. Churches in England received Bibles and prayer books in English and freed themselves from many Catholic traditions. The Puritans and Methodists came out of the English church.
Scotland. The story of the Scottish Reformation is the story of John Coxe (1515-72). He was a priest who began teaching the ideas of the Reformation in 1540. When Bloody Mary ascended the throne in 1553, he then went to Geneva, where he thoroughly studied the teachings of Calvin. In 1559 he was recalled to Scotland by the Parliament of the Scottish Lords to become leader of the National Reform movement. Political situation made church reform and national independence in one movement. Mary, Queen of Scots married Francis II, King of France, who was the son of Catherine de Medici (of Bartholomew's Massacre of Protestants fame). Scotland and France became allies and their thrones were united through marriage. France was inclined to destroy Protestantism. Philip II, King of Spain, and other Catholics planned the assassination of Queen Elizabeth in order to place Mary, Queen of Scots on the English throne. Pope Stumps 5 aided the plot by issuing a decree excommunicating Elizabeth and freeing her subjects from allegiance (which, according to Jesuit teaching, meant that the murderer would do the deed pleasing to God). Thus. The Scottish Church was unable to reform while it was under French control. John Knox believed that the future of Protestantism could only lie in a union between Protestant England and Protestant Scotland. He turned out to be a wonderful leader. The Protestant Church was founded in 1560. With the help of England, the French were expelled in 1567 and Catholicism suffered a more complete defeat here than in any other country. John Knox basically made Scotland what it is today.
Counter-Reformation. Over the course of 50 years, the Reformation covered all of Europe: most of Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, England, Scotland, Bohemia, Austria, Hungary, Poland, and it moved to France. This was a terrible blow to the Catholic Church, which in turn organized the Counter-Reformation. Thanks to the Council of Trust (held for 18 years, 1545-63), the Jesuits and the Inquisition, some of the social abuses of the papacy were eliminated. And at the end of this century, Rome was organized for an aggressive attack on Protestantism. Under the skillful and brutal leadership of the Jesuits, much lost territory for Catholicism was restored: southern Germany, Bohemia, Austria, Hungary, Poland, Belgium, and the Reformation in France was suppressed. Within a hundred years, by 1689, the Counter-Reformation had exhausted its strength. The main rulers who fought the papal wars were: Charles 5 (1519-56), Spain - against German Protestants; Philip 2, Spain - against Holland and England; Ferdinand 2 (1619-37), Austria - against Bohemia; Catherine de' Medici, the mother of three kings of France: Francis 2 (1559-60), Charles 9 (1560-74), Henry 3 (1574-89) - waged war against the French Huguenots.
Religious wars. The Reformation movement survived 100 years of religious wars: 1-war against German Protestants (1546-55); 2-war against Dutch Protestants (1566-1609); 3-war against the Huguenots in France (1618-48); 4-tries Philip 2 vs England (1588); 5-Thirty Years' War (1618-48). These wars involved political and national rivalries, as well as struggles over land, since the church in most countries owned between one-third and one-fifth of all land. But each of these wars was started by Roman Catholic kings, incited by the Pope and the Jesuits? to suppress Protestantism. They were the aggressors.
The Protestants only defended themselves. The Protestants of neither Denmark, nor Germany, nor France became political parties until that time, but only after many years of persecution.
Thirty Years' War (1618-48). In Bohemia and Hungary by 1580 Protestants were in the majority, including land-owning nobles. Emperor Ferdinand II, from the House of Habsburg, was raised by Jesuits, and with their help undertook the suppression of Protestantism. Then the Protestants united for protection. The first period of the war (1618-29) brought victory to the Catholics: they were successful in expelling Protestants from all Catholic countries. Then they set out to convert the Protestant kingdoms of Germany to Catholicism. Gustav Adolf, King of Sweden, realized that the fall of Protestant Germany would mean the fall of Sweden, and perhaps this would be the end of Protestantism. He entered the war and his army was victorious (1630-32). He saved Protestantism. After this the war (1632-48) was mainly a struggle between France and the House of Habsburg; it ended in victory for France, which thereafter became the leading power in Europe. The war ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which established the boundaries between the Catholic states.
Papal persecution. The number of martyrs of papal persecution exceeds the number of early Christian martyrs killed by pagan Rome. During the papal persecutions, hundreds of thousands of Albigensians, Waldensians and Protestants were tortured in Germany, the Netherlands, Bohemia and other countries. Many excuse the popes for these crimes, saying that it was “the spirit of the times.” What time? And who made him like this? Only dads. This was their world. For 1000 years they raised this world to be subservient to them. If the popes had not taken the Bible away from the people, they would have learned and understood more, and then there would have been no “spirit of the times.” It was not the Spirit of Jesus Christ, and the "heir of Christ" should know better. Persecution is the spirit of the devil who acted in the name of Christ.
Protestant persecution. Calvin agreed to the death of Servetus. 6 In Holland, Calvinists executed one Armenian. In Germany, Lutherans killed several Anabaptists. In England, Protestant Edward 6 executed two Catholics over the course of 6 years. While the Catholic Mary burned 282 Protestants over the next 5 years. And Elizabeth executed 187 Catholics over the course of 45 years, most of them for treason, not heresy. In Massachusetts in 1659, three Quakers were hanged by the Puritans, and in 1692, 20 were executed for witchcraft. Catholics tortured many millions. It should be noted that while the Reformation was fighting for religious freedom, Protestants were in no hurry to give to others what they did not want for themselves. In Protestant countries, persecution ended in 1700.
Protestantism and its religions, The Protestant movement was an attempt by the Western Church to free itself from the power of Rome and gain the right of every person to serve God according to his conscience. True, many Protestants, retreating from Catholicism and fighting for freedom, took different paths to this goal. Some groups even partially adopted the methods of Catholics. Now this movement, which has been going on for about 400 years, has grown and improved greatly.
There is now a spirit of unity and a clearer understanding of Christianity. The Protestant Church, although far from perfect and despite its various ramifications, yet today it, without any doubt, represents the purest form of Christianity in the world, and, apparently, the most pure church known in all periods of history since the first three centuries. In general, there are no nobler people in the whole world than Protestant preachers.
State churches, Everywhere where Protestantism won, state churches arose: Lutheran in Germany, Episcopalian in England, Presbyterian in Scotland, etc. Services are conducted in the native language of the country, as opposed to the general use of Latin in Catholic churches. Inevitably, where the church has received freedom from the pope, there begins a process of self-purification.
United States. They were colonized in 1607 by English Puritans - Virginia, in 1615 by Danish reformed colonists - New York, in 1620 by Puritans - Massachusetts, in 1634 by English Catholics - Baltimore, who received the right to settle this territory under the condition that they would give freedom to all religions, in 1639 by Baptists - Rhode Island, under the leadership of Roger Williams, who was the first to give unlimited freedom to all religions in the colony, in 1681 by Quakers - Pennsylvania, who moved to America in search of religious freedom. Thus, America began its existence on the principles of religious tolerance for all and complete separation of church and state. These are the principles that now apply to all governments around the world. In recent years, many countries, even Catholic ones, have issued decrees on the separation of church and state.
The future of the Protestant movement. It will depend on his relationship to the Bible, as well as on his relationship to the traditional form of Christianity that we have inherited with sacred text, a source of divine knowledge, uncorrupted, from which the church can now learn to distinguish early Christianity from all subsequent additions, and thus continue the work of preserving the church in purity until the complete completion of the work to which it is called.
Sunday School. It was founded by Robert Raikes, an editor from Gloucestershire, England, in 1780 to provide Christian education to poor and unschooled children. The Sunday School was founded as a missionary branch of the church, which has grown tremendously and has now become a part of the church ministries. She plays a large role in encouraging Bible study and in developing lay leadership in the church.
Modern World Missions , this is a very important movement in history. These missions do very important work in the world, and they do it with heroism and passion. Unfortunately, neither preachers nor Sunday school teachers pay enough attention to the lives of missionaries. Every church should hear again and again the life of Livingston, unequaled by any other hero, and also the lives of Carey, Morrison, Johnson, Moffat, Martin, Lathan and other missionaries who carried the message of Christ to other countries and founded systems of preaching the Gospel, Christian education and philanthropy that transformed the world. When history comes to its end and is seen on its wide scale, it will probably find that the world missionary movement of the last century and its influence on all nations is the most glorious page in the annals of mankind.
Orthodox Church
Christianity was first established in the east, or Greek part of the Roman Empire. For 200 years, Greek was the language of Christianity.
In 330 A.D. Constantine made Constantinople the capital of the Roman Empire. From that time on, rivalry with Rome began.
In 395, the Roman Empire was divided into eastern and western. Constantinople became the center of the Eastern Empire, and Rome - the Western.
In 632-638. three eastern centers of Christianity: Syria, Palestine and Egypt - succumbed to Mohammedanism. Constantinople was left alone.
At the Eighth Ecumenical Council in 869, the final split between the Greek and Latin churches occurred. From the very beginning, the East refused to recognize the primacy of Rome.
Sometimes there were attempts to unite the churches, but they were in vain because the East did not recognize the authority of the pope.
The Greek Church is now the church of southeastern Europe and Russia and represents one of the three great branches of Christianity; numbers 150,000,000, compared with 340,000,000 Roman Catholics and 210,000,000 Protestants, representing about one-fifth of Christendom.
The Greek Church in many of its rituals is similar to the Roman Catholic Church. The Orthodox do not require priests to be celibate. They also don't have dads.
Chronology of the Protestant movement in England and the United States
Edward 2 1307-1327
Edward 3 1327-1377 Wycliffe 1324-1384
Richard 2 1377-1399
Henry 4 1399-1413
Henry 5 1413-1422
Henry 6 1422-1461 Invention of printing 1450 Edward 4 1461-1483
Richard 3 1483-1485
Henry 7 1485-1509
Discovery of America 1492
Henry 8 1509-1547
Luther 1483-1546
Calvin 1509-1564
Edward 1547-1553 Knox 1515-1572
Maria 1553-1558
Elizabeth 1558-1603 Rise of Puritanism
James 1 1603-1625
Charles 1 1625-1649
Rogers William 1604-1684
Cromwell 1653-1658
Karl2 1660-1685
James 2 1685-1688
William and Mary 1689-1702
Anna 1702-1714
Gregory 1 1714-1724
Gregory 2 1727-1760 Wesley 1703-1791
American Revolution 1775
Gregory 3 1760-1820
French Revolution 1789
Gregory 4 1820-1830
William 4 1830-1837
Victoria 1837-1901
Edward 7 1901-1910
Gregory 5 1910-1936
Edward 8 1936 (Abdicated).
This textbook, History of the Christian Church, is based on the famous textbook by Archpriest Peter Smirnov, History of the Christian Church, 1903. Our textbook was written in 1989, for students of the “Russian Church Gymnasium at the Church of All Saints in the Russian Land Who Shined Away” in Burlingame, California.
The book can also be used by adults. For them it will be a summary of the History of the Christian Church. At the end of the book there is a bibliography section, as well as addresses from where these books can be ordered.
The program on the Law of God in Burlingame is the same as at the Russian Church Gymnasium of St. Cyril and Methodius at the Sorrow Cathedral in San Francisco and at the parish St. Intercession School" at the Church of the Intercession Holy Mother of God in Palo Alto. All three schools are in the San Francisco area. The program, with minor changes, is basically the same as it was in Russian schools before 1917, and abroad it has still been preserved:
Class School Age Anthem. Grade 8 1 ave.* 2 In all 3 grades: 9 2 ave.* 3 Prayers, Twelfth Feasts and 10 3 ave.* 4 Commandments of the Law of God 11 1 5 Old Testament 12 2 6 New Testament 13 3 7 Divine service 14 4 8 History of the Christian Church 15 5 9 History of the Russian Church 16 6 10 Catechism 17 7 11 Apologetics 18 8 12 Moral teaching (* ex. - Preparatory classes) Thus, the History of the Christian Church is taught in the 4th grade of the gymnasium; after the Old Testament, the New Testament and the Divine Service.
This program was compiled for Russian schools in Orthodox Russia, where the whole country prayed, went to church and fasted. True, recently, before 1917, there were retreats, but still, basically, it was an Orthodox country. Life in such a country created Russian people with Christian qualities of character, with an Orthodox worldview and Orthodox in spirit. The law of God that the children learned in school was only a theory of what the children already knew from their own personal experience and from your life.
Now everything is completely different. Russians abroad live in countries that are not Orthodox and in some cases not even Christian, and in which the Orthodox are in the minority. Life itself requires addition to this program. Therefore, in all classes, in parallel with the program, conversations are also held on the following topics: (1) The Church Year, (2) Lives of the Saints and (3) Modern life.
Conversations on the theme “Church Year” cover the most important holidays and fasts throughout the year. The way of life of Orthodox Christians and church year in which they all participate, they demand to explain to the children what is happening in the church and why.
Conversations on the topic “Lives of Saints” cover the lives and exploits of the most famous saints. Every student should know the life of his saint.
Conversations on the topic “Modern Life” talk about the everyday phenomena of life that our Orthodox children encounter and how they should relate to them.
In compiling this textbook, the following textbooks were used: (1) History of the Christian Church in the publication of the “Russian Church Gymnasium at the Sorrowful Cathedral in San Francisco” (1956), (2) History of the Church, Manual for the Parish School, Montreal (1968 g.) and (3) Archpriest Peter Smirnov History of the Christian Orthodox Church (1903). The first two textbooks are based on the textbook of Archpriest Peter Smirnov. In our textbook, in the title of each chapter, the number of the corresponding chapter from Smirnov’s book is given in copies.
Nativity
INTRODUCTION
Christianity has had a beneficial effect on the entire world. The pagan world - dominated by power, wealth, pride, cruelty, and moral depravity - gradually degenerated under the influence of Christianity. The main values were kindness, love, mercy, modesty, forgiveness, purity of morals. Christianity influenced a person’s entire life, all areas of his complex life and washed everything and everyone. Christian rules and norms for life have become the basis of the laws of all civilized countries. Christianity became the cradle of a new purified culture; a culture built on Christian values and principles (in the USSR they said “universal”).
The history of the Christian Church is not only the history of the Church, but it is also the history of the most important thing in every person and people; this is the story of the spiritual and moral development humanity. This whole subject and this topic is hushed up by so-called “impartial” historians. Current history textbooks are based on political events and economic development. It is impossible to obtain a complete picture of historical events if we do not know and understand the history of the Church. The Church is a school of spiritual and moral education and it is precisely because of this that it has enormous spiritual, moral, educational and cultural significance.
Knowing and understanding the History of the Christian Church is especially important now, when on the one hand there is a campaign against Christian principles in life, and on the other hand there is a spiritual revival and a craving for the spiritual, for morality and a craving for the Lord God.
The history of the Christian Church begins from the day of the Descent of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles, that is, from the Day of the Holy Trinity. On the fortieth day after the resurrection of Jesus Christ, the Ascension took place. Jesus Christ ascended to heaven in front of his disciples. Ten days, or fifty days after the Resurrection, the Holy Spirit, in the form of tongues of fire over each apostle, descended on them. The apostles, ordinary fishermen, were filled with the Holy Spirit, became brave, smart and began to speak in languages they did not know before. From that moment on, they went to preach, first to Jews, and then to other nations. Their letters (messages) breathe so much wisdom that they have become part of the Holy Scriptures (Bible). All this is described there, in the New Testament, in the book of Acts of the Apostles.
Then history describes the terrible persecution of Christians that lasted three centuries, the final victory of Christianity and its spread throughout the world, deviations from the Christian faith (heresies), schisms, Ecumenical Councils, the emergence of new Churches, and Western Christianity (the Roman Church and Protestants). The subject ends with an overview of Christian denominations in our time.
Our textbook contains the following sections:
- 1. The beginning of the church
2. The apostles and their works
3. Persecution of Christians
4. Heresies, schisms and councils
5. Holy Fathers, monasticism and church governance
6. Western Church
The following are available as attachments:
- Review of the history of the Christian Church and
Beneficial influence of Christianity
By studying the History of the Christian Church, we begin to understand that the Orthodox Church is not one of many Christian churches. The Orthodox Church is that Church which was founded by the apostles of Jesus Christ almost 2000 years ago and which is spoken of in the New Testament, in which there is apostolic succession, which possesses the truth, which possesses the fullness of Christian teaching and which is the only and true Church of Christ.
Other churches either lost contact with the historical Church, or never had one, and at their own discretion changed and distorted many of its teachings beyond recognition. If one could imagine the Orthodox faith as a Christmas tree, where everything on it is beautiful, deep, abundant and purposeful and has some deep spiritual and moral meaning and significance, then many other Christian faiths can be presented as more and more simple and empty Christmas tree and in some cases even just one bare artificial trunk.
THE BEGINNING OF THE CHURCH
1.1 The descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles(1)
(Acts 2:1-4)
Even before the beginning of the suffering on the cross, our Lord Jesus Christ told His disciples that the Holy Spirit would be sent to them. Just before his ascension into heaven, He commanded the apostles to remain in Jerusalem and await the descent of the Holy Spirit. According to the commandment of the Lord, the apostles were in Jerusalem, unanimously and in prayer. Among the twelve apostles, in place of Judas, Matthias, one of the 70 (seventy) disciples, was chosen by lot.
The Holy Spirit descended on the apostles on the tenth day after the Ascension of the Lord. It was one of the great Jewish holidays - the Feast of Pentecost - and at the same time a Sunday. From early morning the apostles gathered together and prayed. The Most Holy Mother of God was also here.
At the ninth hour (according to the Jewish account in the third hour) a noise was heard from the sky - as if from a strong wind - and filled the entire house where the apostles were. Following the noise, tongues of fire appeared and stopped, one on each of them. This was a sign of the coming of the Holy Spirit. Filled with the Holy Spirit, the apostles changed and became, as it were, different people. Some new light shone in their souls. They remembered and understood everything that the Lord taught more clearly and deeply than they had understood before. From simple fishermen and tax collectors, they became the most enlightened people in the world and began to speak different languages that they had never learned before. Along with this spiritual enlightenment, they felt cheerfulness and courage to preach the faith and became ready to lay down their lives for it.
The Holy Spirit, according to the promise of the Lord Savior, is in the Church through the holy sacraments and in other ways incomprehensible to us. He creates spiritual life in us and is therefore called life-giving.
The holiday of the Holy Trinity (Descent of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles or Pentecost) is celebrated for three days, starting from Sunday on the fiftieth day after the Resurrection of Christ.
Questions.(1) What did Jesus Christ say to the apostles even before the suffering on the cross began? (2) What did Jesus Christ command the apostles before ascending to heaven? (3) After the Lord’s ascension into heaven, where were the apostles and why and what did they do? (4) Who were among the apostles? (5) What happened on the tenth day after the Ascension of the Lord? (6) What appeared above each person present? (7) At what time did this happen? (8) What happened to the apostles? (9) What does it mean to speak different languages?
1.2 Preaching of the apostles in Jerusalem(2a)
(Acts 2:5-39)
After the descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles, they began to preach. At this time, on the occasion of the holiday, people gathered in Jerusalem different countries, many Jews and pagans accepted the Jewish faith (proselytes). Walking along the streets of the holy city, many of them heard the noise that was before the descent of the Holy Spirit and gathered near the house where the apostles were. They saw how simple Galileans left their houses and began to preach the high teaching to everyone in the language of their country. Everyone was amazed at the great miracle of God. Among the many people who heard the preaching of the apostles, there were those who laughed at them, saying that the apostles got drunk on sweet wine. Regarding this slander, the Apostle Peter preached a sermon, which made a great impression on the listeners. He reminded them of the prophecy of Joel (2:28) that in the days of the Messiah God would send the gifts of the Holy Spirit to the believers in abundance. The Messiah is the Lord Jesus Christ. After this, he began to talk about the Lord Jesus Christ. “You took Him and killed Him, but God raised Him up, to which we are all witnesses. He received from the Father the promised Holy Spirit and poured out on us what you now see and hear.” Many of those who heard this sermon accepted the words of the apostle and about three thousand people were baptized that day.
Questions.(1) Who was in Jerusalem at the time of the descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles and why? (2) What did the apostles begin to do after the Holy Spirit descended on them? (3) What did the listeners do? (4) Who gave the first sermon and what did he talk about? (5) What did those listening to the sermon do?
1.3 Life of the first Christians (3)
(Acts 4:32-37; 5:12-16)
The first Christians gathered every day in the temple and listened to the sermon of the apostles. On Sundays, they gathered in their homes to celebrate the Divine Eucharist (liturgy) and receive the Holy Sacraments. They all lived like one big happy family, loved each other with all their hearts and helped each other in everything. Many sold their estates and gave the money received to the apostles to distribute to the needy.
The apostles performed many wondrous miracles and even the shadow of the Apostle Peter healed the sick. Because of this, people carried the sick out into the street so that the shadow of the passing Apostle Peter would fall on them and heal them. All these sick and demoniacs were healed by the Lord God through the holy apostles. The abundance of miracles delighted Christians and further strengthened their faith. They tried in their family and social relationships to fulfill the teachings of Jesus Christ, if possible, in all its breadth. Thus, the first Christians left a wonderful example of true Christian life for all times. The high virtues of the first Christians aroused great respect from the people, and the number of believers grew every day.
Questions.(1) How often did the early Christians meet and why? (2) How did the first Christians live? (3) What did Christians do with their property? (4) Could the apostles perform miracles? (5) How were the lives of the early Christians different? (6) How did the people treat the first Christians?
1.4 Election of Deacons (4)
(Acts 6:1-7)
Among the first Christians were Jews from Palestine and Jews from other countries (Hellenists). Hellenistic Jews complained that their widows received fewer benefits than the widows of Palestinian Jews. Because of this, the apostles invited the believers to choose seven pious men to be in charge of distributing offerings to those in need. Seven men were chosen and the apostles prayerfully laid hands on them and thus transmitted the grace of the Holy Spirit.
The main responsibility of the deacons was to manage the distribution of benefits to the poor. In addition, they also helped the apostles in preaching and performing the sacraments.
Thus, the sacred degree of deacons (deacon means minister) appeared and apostolic succession was established in the priesthood. Apostolic succession means that Jesus Christ chose the apostles to preach and serve in the Church. These apostles ordained deacons and other ministers of the Church, and those new ministers, and so on to this day. Thus, in the Orthodox Church the grace of the Holy Spirit is found on every clergyman. Apostolic succession was preserved only among Orthodox Christians and the Roman Catholic Church. Protestant churches do not have it. From the point of view of the Orthodox Church, churches that do not have apostolic succession are not churches, but only Christian societies.
Words
Pious - One who reveres God and lives by God's Law.
Grace - Help sent from above to fulfill the Will of God.
Questions.(1) What was the reason for choosing deacons? (2) What were the qualities of deacons? (3) How did the holy degree of deacons come into being? (4) What were the duties of deacons? (5) What is apostolic succession? (6) Has the apostolic succession continued to this day? (7) From the point of view of the Orthodox Church, what are churches that do not have apostolic succession?
1.5 Persecution from the Sanhedrin(5a)
(Acts 4:1-22; 5:17-22)
As soon as the Church began to spread, it had enemies in the form of Jews who did not believe in Jesus Christ. The Jewish leaders were hostile to the Lord. They saw the success of the Christian faith and therefore began to take measures against its spread.
One day, after preaching on the occasion of a healing, the Jewish leaders took the apostles Peter and John from the temple and wanted to kill them. This was stopped by the respected teacher of the law Gamaliel. Therefore, the leaders did not kill the apostles, but only beat them and forbade them to preach about Jesus Christ. The apostles endured this suffering and continued their preaching.
Questions.(1) Who were the first Christians? (2) Who were the first enemies of Christians? (3) Who and whom did they want to kill? (4) How did this murder attempt end?
1.6 Holy First Martyr Stephen(5 B)
(Acts 6:8-7:60)
The first deacon, Saint Stephen, was distinguished by the special gifts of the Holy Spirit and performed many miracles. Once he preached in one of the Jerusalem synagogues. Some Jews argued with him, but could not prove anything, since the power of the Holy Spirit acted through the words of Saint Stephen. Then they falsely accused Saint Stephen of allegedly cursing Moses and even God Himself. Then they found false witnesses and summoned him to trial.
At the trial, everyone paid attention to the face of Saint Stephen; it shone like the face of an Angel. In his speech, Saint Stephen said that he revered the righteous from the Old Testament and, through the words of the prophets themselves, proved that the Old Testament must give way to the more perfect New Testament. At the end of his speech, he said that just as the prophets were killed before, now they killed Jesus Christ, about whom the prophets predicted.
This made the court members terribly angry. In these difficult moments, the Lord strengthened Saint Stephen with a joyful vision. He exclaimed that he saw the sky opening and that he saw Jesus Christ standing on the right side of the Lord God. This outraged the Jews even more and they grabbed and took Saint Stephen out of the city and there they threw stones at him. Saint Stephen prayed for his tormentors and died with these words: “Lord Jesus, receive my spirit.” Just before his death, he loudly shouted: “Lord, do not judge them for this sin,” and after that he died.
Saint Stephen is called the holy protomartyr because he was the first of many Christian martyrs to give his life for the faith. The murder of Saint Stephen and many other Christians did not weaken the spread of the Christian faith. Just the opposite, the persecution of Christians helped the spread of the Christian faith.
The memory of the holy first martyr and archdeacon Stephen is celebrated on the day of his repose on December 27/January 9 and on the day of the transfer of his relics on August 2/15.
Questions.(1) Who was Saint Stephen? (2) What did Saint Stephen do and where? (3) What did the Jews accuse Saint Stephen of? (4) Where was Saint Stephen taken? (5) What did Saint Stephen say at the trial? (6) What did they do with Saint Stephen after the trial? (7) What did Saint Stephen do when he was killed? (8) What does first martyr mean? What words does this word consist of? (9) Who are martyrs? (10) What impact did the martyrs have on the spread of Christianity? History of the Christian Church
THE APOSTLES AND THEIR WORKS
2.1 Baptism of the Samaritans(6a)
(Acts 8:4-8)
Jews who did not accept Christianity wanted to stop the spread of the Church and therefore began persecuting Christians. But it turned out opposite to their expectations. Due to persecution, Christians began to move to other places and spread their faith there.
Philip, one of the seven deacons, began preaching in Samaria. Hearing Philip's words and seeing his miracles, many of the Samaritans believed and were baptized. When Jerusalem learned about this, they sent the apostles Peter and John. They conveyed the gifts of the Holy Spirit to the newly baptized Samaritans through the laying on of hands (that is, they performed the sacrament over them, which is now performed through anointing with myrrh).
Questions.(1) Where is the baptism of the Samaritans described? (2) What did the Jews who did not accept Christianity do? (3) What did Christians do? (4) What happened to Christianity? (5) Who was Philip? (6) What did Philip do? (7) Why were the apostles Peter and John sent from Jerusalem?
2.2 Foundation of the Church in Antioch (8.1)(Acts 11:19-26)
The apostles learned that Christians, former pagans, had appeared in Antioch (Syria). To organize the church, the apostles sent Barnabas there, and he invited Saul. Saul, along with Barnabas, whole year worked in Antioch and founded the great and glorious Antiochian Church in this city. Here the followers of the Lord Jesus Christ began to be called Christians for the first time.
Questions.(1) Where is the founding of the church at Antioch described? (2) Who were the Christians in Antioch before the adoption of Christianity? (3) Who did the apostles send to Antioch to organize the church? (4) By whom and who else was invited for this matter? (5) What church was organized here? (6) What is another name for this church? (7) Does this church still exist today? (8) Does this church exist in America? (9) Where is the nearest parish of this church? (10) Who are the parishioners of this church? (11) What language do they serve there?
2.3 Apostolic Council (10)(Acts 15:1-29)
In Antioch, where the church was organized, there was disagreement among Christians. Christians who were former Jews began to teach Christians who were formerly pagans that they should observe the rite of Moses. To resolve this dispute, the Antiochian Christians turned to the apostles in Jerusalem. The apostles, according to the commandment of Jesus Christ (Matthew 18:17), gathered together and invited the elders of the Jerusalem church to this first Christian council. The apostles Peter, Paul, Barnabas and others spoke at the council. The last speaker was the holy Apostle James, whose words expressed the final decision of the council.
The Apostolic Council freed Christians from observing the ritual law of Moses and inspired them to fulfill the moral law. The essence of this law is expressed in the following words: “Do not do to others what you yourself do not want” (Acts 15:29). The decision of the council was recorded and sealed with these significant words: “It was pleasing to the Holy Spirit and to us” (Acts 15:28).
The Apostle James, bishop of the Church of Jerusalem, apparently belonged to the first place (presidency) at the council. Although he was not one of the 12, but one of the 70 apostles. Here we see the beginning of the third, highest sacred degree of bishop. The apostolic ministry continues in the church, especially through bishops. They have the right to ordain to sacred degrees, teach and judge in the church.
The Apostolic Council took place in 1951 and served as an example of how general church affairs should be resolved in the future. Following the example of this council, seven Ecumenical Councils were later convened.
Questions.(1) Where is the Apostolic Council described? (2) What happened in Antioch among the Christians? (3) Where did the Antioch Christians turn? (4) What did Jesus Christ command to do in such cases? (5) What did the apostles do? (6) What was the resolution of the council? (7) What significant words were sealed in the resolution of the council? (8) What do these words mean? (9) Who presided over the council? (10) The beginning of what sacred degree do we see here? (11) In what year did the Apostolic Council take place? (12) The Apostolic Council served as an example for what other councils?
2.4 Holy Apostle Paul (7,9,11-13)At a time when the Christian faith was spreading among the Jews and Samaritans, the Lord called a great teacher, who was distinguished by great learning, to preach to the pagans. It was the holy Apostle Paul.
The Apostle Paul was first called Saul. His parents were Jews. They had Roman citizenship, which was very important at that time, since Roman citizens had all sorts of privileges. The Apostle Paul was born in the city of Tarsus, in Asia Minor. There he received his primary education, and received his final education in Jerusalem.
Saul was a pure and very gifted young man, but a Pharisee by birth. All the Pharisees hated Christians, so Saul hated them too. He believed that he was fulfilling the will of the Lord God when he persecuted Christians. Saul took part in the murder of the holy protomartyr Stephen. He approved of this act and guarded the clothes of the killers. After this, Saul did not stop persecuting Christians.
When Saul heard that there were Christians in Damascus, he went there to deliver them to Jerusalem. On the way, he was blinded by a strong light, from which he became blind. Saul also heard a voice: “Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting Me?” “Who are you, Lord,” asked Saul. “I am Jesus of Nazareth, whom you persecute.” Saul stood up and, since he could not see anything, his companions led him to Damascus. In Damascus, the Lord appeared in a dream to Ananias (one of the 70 disciples) and told him to find Paul and baptize him. Ananias found him and laid his hands on the Apostle Paul, after which he received his sight. After this, the Apostle Paul was baptized and began his sermon.
The Apostle Paul made three great preaching journeys through the pagan countries of Asia Minor and the Balkans, and also participated in the Apostolic Council. Before the journey, at the command of the Holy Spirit, the apostles ordained (consecrated) Saul as bishop (Acts 13). During his travels, the Apostle Paul took with him the Apostle Barnabas and Silas from the 70 to help him. The Apostle Paul had great success in preaching. He founded many church communities and ordained priests (presbyters). Then, he wrote messages to these communities. Fourteen of these messages became part of the Holy Scriptures, the New Testament. So, the holy Apostle Paul wrote the following letters:
- (1) Romans
(2) Epistle to the Cyrinthians (2)
(3) Galatians
(4) Ephesians
(5) Philippians
(6) Colossians
(7) Epistle to Thessalonians (2) (or Thessalonians)
(8) Timothy (2)
(9) Epistle to Titus
(10) Letter to Philemon
(11) Epistle to the Hebrews.
During his three journeys, the Apostle Paul was subjected to severe persecution and trials (2 Corinthians 23ff.). Through the prayers of the Apostle Paul, the Lord worked great miracles, as well as on Paul himself, and preserved him.
The Apostle Paul suffered during the persecution of Emperor Nero. He, as a Roman citizen, was assigned the execution of nobles - beheading. It was June 29, 1967. He was executed along with the Apostle Peter, who was crucified, but upside down according to his will.
The memory of the Holy Apostle Paul is celebrated, together with the Apostle Peter, on the day of their repose: the Holy Supreme Apostles Peter and Paul, June 29/July 12.
Questions.(1) What was the other name of Saint Apostle Paul? (2) Among whom did the Apostle Paul preach? (3) What was Paul like as a young man? (4) Why did he persecute Christians? (5) Why did Paul go to Damascus? (6) What happened to Paul on the road to Damascus? (7) What did Paul do in Damascus? (8) How many preaching journeys did Paul make? (9) What did he do during his travels? (10) What did the Apostle Paul write? (11) How did the holy Apostle Paul die?
2.5 Holy Apostle Peter (14)The Holy Apostle Peter preached in Palestine. He, like the Apostle Paul, also participated in the Apostolic Council. After the council, he preached in Syrian Antioch, in the cities of Asia Minor, in Alexandria and Rome. Most of all he preached to the Jews, and the Apostle Paul to the pagans.
In Egypt, he ordained his colleague Mark as bishop of the Alexandrian Church. According to the words of the Apostle Peter, the Evangelist Mark wrote a gospel, which in ancient times was also called the Gospel of Peter.
The Apostle Peter wrote two conciliar letters that became part of the Holy Scriptures, the New Testament. They're called:
- 1. First Epistle of Peter
2. Second Epistle of Peter
These epistles are called conciliar epistles because they were not sent to individual churches or individuals, but were written for all Christians.
In these letters, the Apostle Peter teaches to endure temptations with courage, to lead a strict, holy and temperate life and to shun all false teachings.
The Apostle Peter was executed during the persecution of Christians by Emperor Nero, along with the Apostle Paul, on June 29, 67. Since he considered himself unworthy of the same death as Christ, he was crucified upside down of his own free will.
The memory of the Holy Apostle Peter is celebrated, together with the Apostle Paul, on the day of their repose: the Holy Supreme Apostles Peter and Paul, June 29/July 12.
Questions.(1) Where did the Apostle Peter preach? (2) What meeting did the apostle Peter attend? (3) Who and what was written according to the words of the Apostle Peter? (4) What did the apostle Peter write? (5) How did the Apostle Peter die?
2.6 Holy Apostle James the Righteous (15)The Holy Apostle James was a relative of the Lord (either the son of Joseph from his first wife, or the son of Mary, sister of the Mother of God). He alone of all the apostles did not travel, but was the first bishop of Jerusalem. As Bishop of Jerusalem, he presided over the Apostolic Council. This fact is important, since Catholics are trying to prove that the Apostle Peter was considered the first.
The Holy Apostle James wrote the first liturgy and one epistle. In this letter, he consoles Christians in suffering and teaches that it is impossible to be saved by faith alone without good works.
The Apostle James led a strict ascetic life, for which he was considered a righteous man. With his teaching and life, he converted many to Christianity. The Apostle James was killed by hostile Jewish leaders.
Questions.(1) Whose relative was the apostle James? (2) What did the apostle James do? (3) What fact from the life of the Apostle James refutes Catholic claims? (4) What did the Apostle James write? (5) What kind of life did Saint James lead? (6) How did Saint James die?
2.7 Holy Evangelists Matthew, Mark and Luke (17)The New Testament scripture is divided into two parts; to “Four Gospels” or simply “Gospel” and “Apostle”.(See Table 2.7.1). The word “gospel” in Greek means good or good news, and the word “apostle” means “messenger.”
The first part of the Holy Scripture of the New Testament, “The Gospel,” consists of four books describing the life and teaching of the Lord Jesus Christ. All these books are also called gospels and were written by the holy apostles and evangelists Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. All four of these Gospels describe the same events; but each is a little different. This especially applies to the first three. The Fourth Gospel, in most cases, describes those events that are not in the first three.
Saint Matthew (of the 12 apostles) preached for a long time in Judea and wrote the first Gospel for them. Saint Mark (of the 70 apostles) was a colleague of the Apostle Peter and was ordained bishop of the Church of Alexandria by him. Saint Luke (of the 70 apostles) was a doctor and artist. According to legend, he painted icons of the Mother of God and the apostles Peter and Paul. All three suffered martyrdom while preaching the faith of Christ.
The second part of the Holy Scriptures of the New Testament, “The Apostle,” consists of 23 books describing the works of some of the apostles and their teaching.
The Holy Apostle Luke, in addition to the Gospel, also wrote “The Acts of the Holy Apostles” (the first book in “The Apostle”). Here the apostle described the descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles, the spread of Christianity and the preaching of the apostles Peter and Paul. From “Acts” we also learn about the invocation of the Holy Spirit on those baptized, about the ordination of bishops, presbyters and deacons, about the prayer and fasting of the apostles on important occasions, about genuflections, etc.
The memory of the Holy Apostles and Evangelists Matthew, Mark and Luke is celebrated on November 16/29, April 25/May 8 and October 18/31.
Questions.(1) How is the New Testament Scripture divided? (2) What do these words mean? (3) What does the first part describe? (4) Who wrote the first part? (5) How did the writers of the first part die? (6) What does the second part describe? (7) Who wrote the second part? (8) What do we know about the holy Apostle and Evangelist Matthew? (9) What do we know about the holy Apostle and Evangelist Mark? (10) What do we know about the holy Apostle and Evangelist Luke?
2.8 Holy Apostle John the Theologian (16)The Holy Apostle John the Theologian wrote the Gospel (fourth), three epistles and the Apocalypse (Revelation).
One day, to Saint John, bishops and priests showed three Gospels written by the holy apostles and evangelists Matthew, Mark and Luke. John confirmed them as the exact truth. Then they began to ask him to write down conversations of Jesus Christ that are not in these three Gospels. This is how the fourth Gospel was written. In his epistles, Saint John writes instructions about Christian love. The Apocalypse contains prophecies about the church and the world.
The Apostle John the Theologian, according to the will of the Lord Jesus Christ, took care of His Most Pure Mother. Saint John preached in Palestine, and after Her Dormition in the cities of Asia Minor, where there were pagans. All the other apostles had already ended their lives, but John continued to work for the benefit of the Church. He survived the persecution of the Church from Nero, the fall of Jerusalem and the second persecution from Domitian.
In the last years of his life, Saint John spoke only one instruction: “children, love one another.” When his disciples asked why he always repeats this, he said “this is the most necessary commandment; if you fulfill it, then you will fulfill the whole law of Christ.”
Saint John the Theologian, one of the 12 disciples, died a peaceful death at the one hundred and fifth (105) year of his life.
The memory of the holy Apostle and Evangelist John the Theologian is celebrated on May 8/21, as well as on the day of his repose on September 26/October 9.
Questions.(1) What did the holy Apostle John the Theologian write? (2) Describe the works of St. John. (3) Who did St. John care about? (4) Where did St. John preach? (5) What advice did St. John give at the end of his life? (6) How old was Saint John when he died? (7) By what death did Saint John die?
2.9 Holy Apostle Andrew the First-Called (17.6)The Holy Apostle Andrew is called the First-Called, because he was the first of the apostles who followed Jesus Christ. He was the brother of the Apostle Peter. Saint Andrew preached along the shores of the Black Sea and walked along the Dnieper River. On the Kyiv mountains, the holy apostle erected a cross and predicted the future enlightenment of Russia by the faith of Christ.
The Apostle Andrew suffered martyrdom in Asia Minor. He was crucified on a specially shaped cross, which is therefore called St. Andrew's.
The memory of the Holy Apostle Andrew the First-Called is celebrated on the day of his repose, November 30/December 13.
Questions.(1) Why is the holy Apostle Andrew called the First-Called? (2) Who was his brother? (3) Where did he preach? (4) What did he do on the Kyiv mountains? (5) What did he predict? (6) By what death did the Apostle Andrew die?
| GOSPEL (4 books) |
|
|---|---|
| Matthew: | 1st Gospel (from 12 apostles) |
| Mark: | 2nd Gospel (from 70 ap.) |
| Luke: | 3rd Gospel (from 70 ap.) |
| John: | 4th Gospel |
| APOSTLE (23 books) |
|
| Luke: | Acts |
| Jacob: | Message (brother of the Lord) |
| Peter: | Epistles (2) (brother of St. Andrew) |
| John: | Messages (3) |
| Judas: | Message |
| Paul: | 1. Romans |
| 2. Corinthians (2) | |
| 3. Galatians | |
| 4. Epistle to the Ephesians | |
| 5. Philippians | |
| 6. Colossians | |
| 7. Epistle to Thessalonians (2) | |
| (or Thessalonians) | |
| 8. Epistle to Timothy (2) | |
| 9. Epistle to Titus | |
| 10. Letter to Philemon | |
| 11. Hebrews | |
| John: | Revelation (Apocalypse) |
PERSECUTION OF CHRISTIANS
3.1 Persecution by the Jews
As soon as the Church began to spread, it had enemies in the form of Jews who did not believe in Jesus Christ. The first Christians were Jews who followed Jesus Christ. The Jewish leaders were hostile to the Lord. At the very beginning, the Lord Jesus Christ was crucified. Then, when the preaching of the apostles began to spread, persecution of the apostles and other Christians began.
The Jews could not come to terms with the power of the Romans and therefore did not like the Romans. The Roman procurators treated the Jews very cruelly, oppressed them with taxes and insulted their religious feelings.
In the year 67, the Jewish uprising against the Romans began. They were able to liberate Jerusalem from the Romans, but only temporarily. Most of the Christians took advantage of the freedom to leave and went to the city of Pella. In 70, the Romans brought new troops, which very brutally crushed the rebels.
After 65 years, the Jews rebelled against the Romans again. This time Jerusalem was completely destroyed and it was ordered to walk through the streets with a plow as a sign that this was no longer a city, but a field. The Jews who survived fled to other countries. Later, on the ruins of Jerusalem, the small city of Elia Capitolina grew up.
The fall of the Jews and Jerusalem means that the great persecution of Christians by the Jews ceased.
Questions.(1) Who were the first Christians? (2) How did Jews who did not follow Jesus Christ treat Christians? (3) Who lived and ruled Jerusalem? (4) What was the attitude of the Jews towards the Romans and why? (5) What happened from 67 to 70 in Jerusalem? (6) What happened after 65 years and why? (7) What does the fall of Jerusalem mean for the Church?
3.2 Persecution from the Gentiles (19)When the persecution of the Church by the Jews ended, terrible persecution began from the pagans in the Roman Empire. These persecutions continued for two and a half centuries.
The main and more general reason for the persecution of Christians by pagans is the complete opposition of Christian teaching to the customs, morals and views of paganism. The pagans tolerated any faith, as long as it did not interfere with their lives as before. The Christian faith changed the entire way of life in everything:
1. Instead of selfishness, she preached love,
2. Put humility in place of pride;
3. Instead of luxury, which reached terrible proportions in the Roman Empire, she taught abstinence and fasting,
4. eradicated polygamy,
5. increased the importance of slaves,
6. called on the rich to show mercy and charity.
The history of persecution of Christians in the first three centuries can be divided into three periods:
1. The Roman government throughout the first century did not pay special attention for the spread of Christianity. If Christians are persecuted, it is because of personal motives on the part of the emperors, and not because of laws.
2. At the beginning of the second century, persecution of Christians began for government reasons. These persecutions have long been random in nature and depend on the arbitrariness of the rulers, on the views and character of the rulers.
3. From the middle of the third century, persecution took on a more intense and fierce character. Christianity is being persecuted as a sect hostile to the empire, with the goal of completely eradicating it.
1. The first period of persecution. The first period of persecution was under the emperor Nero and Domitian. Nero blamed Christians for burning Rome. The years 64 to 68 were terrible for Christians: they were crucified on crosses, given to be eaten by wild animals, sewn into bags, which were doused with resin and lit during public festivities.
2. Second period of persecution. In the second period, the most severe persecutions came from the emperors Trajan, Marcus Aurelius and Seprimius Severus.
Emperor Trajan (98-117) strictly prohibited the existence of secret societies, which had their own laws, in addition to the general state ones. In his time, Christians were not wanted, but if anyone was accused by the judiciary of being a Christian, he was executed.
Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180) hated Christians. Under him, they began to look for Christians; A system of torture and torture was introduced to force them to renounce their faith. Christians were expelled from their homes, scourged, stoned, rolled on the ground, thrown into prison, and deprived of burial. Never during previous persecutions were there so many martyrs as at this time. It happened that the bodies of tortured Christians lay in masses on the streets of the city.
3. Third period of persecution. In the third period of persecution, there was especially fierce persecution from the emperors Decius and Diocletian.
Emperor Decius (249-251) was rude and cruel and decided to destroy Christianity. Fortunately, this terrible persecution lasted only a short time. Emperor Diocletian (284-305) issued four edicts against Christians, each more severe than the other, with the goal of destroying Christianity.
1st edict:
o Liturgical gatherings of Christians are prohibited;
o Christian churches are being destroyed;
o Copies of the Holy Scriptures are taken away and burned;
o Christians are deprived of their property and civil rights;
O Christians, slaves forever lose the possibility of liberation;
o During the trial, Christians can be tortured and no complaints from them are accepted.
2nd edict:
o All clergy are imprisoned as political criminals.
3 edict:
o Demand that all Christians imprisoned make sacrifices to idols;
o Whoever brings it will be released from prison, and whoever refuses will be tormented brutal torture.
4th edict:
o All Christians, absolutely all, are condemned to torture and torment in order to force them to renounce Christianity.
All kinds of torture and executions were allowed in, and no cruelty was thought of. A deadline was set for the existence of Christianity (the pagan holiday of Terminalia on February 23, 303). At the very dawn of this day, a detachment of soldiers surrounded the Nicomedia temple: the doors of the temple were broken down, the sacred books were burned, the jewelry was looted, and the entire temple was destroyed to the ground. After this, horrors began that are impossible to depict. The ferocity of the torturers reached such an extent that the mutilated were treated only to be tortured again; Sometimes they tortured from ten to a hundred people a day, without distinction of gender and age.
Questions.(1) When did the persecution of Christians by pagans begin? (2) How long did this persecution last? (3) What was the main reason for the persecution of Christians by the pagans? (4) How long did this persecution last? (5) When and during which emperor did these persecutions begin? (6) When and during which emperor did these persecutions end? (7) What did Emperor Diocletian publish and why?
3.3 Holy Martyrs (20)Righteous These are those holy people who led a righteous life pleasing to the Lord God, who were family people and who lived in the world.
Reverends these are those holy, righteous people who retired from worldly life in society and pleased the Lord God, remaining in virginity (not marrying), fasting and prayer, living in deserts and monasteries.
Saints These are those holy bishops and bishops who pleased the Lord God with their righteous Life.
Confessors These are those holy Christians who suffered torment during their lives, but died peacefully.
Martyrs These are those holy Christians who accepted cruel torment and even death for their faith. Holy martyrs are depicted on icons with a cross in their hands.
Hieromartyrs These are saints who suffered torment for Christ.
The names of the holy martyrs, as well as other saints, are recorded in Orthodox calendars. Orthodox Christians remember their saints, study their lives, take their names for themselves and their children, glorify the days dedicated to them, are inspired by their examples and try in every possible way to imitate them, and also pray to them so that they pray to the Lord God for them.
The persecution of the Church not only did not destroy it, but on the contrary helped its spread. This happened for several reasons:
1. Since the holy martyrs and martyrs endured suffering with great firmness. New confessors took the place of the victims.
2. Fleeing Christians brought their faith with them and planted it in their new place of residence.
3. Persecution kept believers guarding their faith and the Church. They were in strong faith, cheerfulness and mutual love. In this way, the Church was cleansed of people who were weak and unworthy to be its members.
From large number Christian martyrs in ancient church, especially remarkable: Saint Ignatius the God-Bearer, Bishop of Antioch, Saint Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna and Saint Justin the Philosopher.
3.3.1 St. Ignatius the God-Bearer, Bishop of Antioch (20.1)Saint Ignatius was a disciple of Saint John the Theologian. He was called a God-bearer because Jesus Christ Himself held him in His hands when He said the famous words: “If you do not turn and become like children, you will not enter the Kingdom of Heaven.” (Matthew 18:3). In addition, Saint Ignatius was like a vessel who always bore the name of God within himself. Around the year 70, he was ordained bishop of the Antiochian Church, which he ruled for more than 30 years.
In the year 107, Christians and their bishop refused to take part in the revelry and drunkenness that was organized on the occasion of the arrival of Emperor Trajan. For this, the emperor sent the bishop to Rome for execution with the words “Ignatius should be chained to the soldiers and sent to Rome to be devoured by wild beasts for the amusement of the people.” Saint Ignatius was sent to Rome. Antiochian Christians accompanied their bishop to the place of torment. Along the way, many churches sent their representatives to greet and encourage him and show him their attention and respect in every possible way. Along the way, Saint Ignatius wrote seven epistles to local churches. In these messages, the bishop urged to preserve the right faith and obey the divinely established hierarchy.
Saint Ignatius joyfully went to the amphitheater, repeating the name of Christ all the time. With a prayer to the Lord, he entered the arena. Then they released wild animals and they furiously tore the saint to pieces, leaving only a few bones of him. The Antiochian Christians, who accompanied their bishop to the place of torment, collected these bones with reverence, wrapped them as precious treasure and took them to their city.
The memory of the holy martyr Ignatius the God-Bearer is celebrated on the day of his repose, December 20/January 2.
3.3.2 St. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna (20.2)Saint Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, together with Saint Ignatius the God-Bearer, was a disciple of the Apostle John the Theologian. The Apostle ordained him Bishop of Smyrna. He held this position for more than forty years and experienced many persecutions. He wrote many letters to Christians of neighboring Churches to strengthen them in the pure and right faith.
The holy martyr Polycarp lived to old age and was martyred during the persecution of the emperor Marcus Aurelius (second period of persecution, 161-187). He was burned at the stake on February 23, 167.
The memory of the holy hieromartyr Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna is celebrated on the day of his presentation, February 23/March 8.
3.3.3 Justin the Philosopher (20.3)Saint Justin, a Greek by origin, became interested in philosophy in his youth, listened to all the then known philosophical schools and did not find satisfaction in any of them. Having become acquainted with Christian teaching, he became convinced of its divine origin.
Having become a Christian, he defended Christians from the accusations and attacks of pagans. There are two well-known apologies written in defense of Christians, and several works that prove the superiority of Christianity over Judaism and paganism.
One of his opponents, who could not overcome him in disputes, denounced him to the Roman government, and he fearlessly and joyfully met his martyrdom on June 1, 166.
The memory of the holy martyr Justin, the Philosopher is celebrated on the day of his presentation, June 1/14.
Questions.(1) Who are martyrs? (2) How are martyrs depicted on icons? (3) Who are confessors? (4) Who are the saints? (5) Who are the holy martyrs? (6) Who are the reverends? (7) Who are the righteous? (8) How do Orthodox Christians treat their saints? (9) What impact did the martyrs have on the Church? (10) Who was Saint Ignatius the God-Bearer? (11) Who was Saint Polycarp? (12) Who was Saint Justin the Philosopher?
3.4 Holy martyrs (21)Along with the martyrs in the Church of Christ there are many women, holy martyrs who suffered for the faith of Christ. Of the large number of Christian martyrs in the ancient church, the most remarkable are: Saints Faith, Hope, Love and their mother Sophia, Great Martyr Catherine, Queen Augusta and Great Martyr Barbara.
3.4.1 St. Martyrs Faith, Hope, Love and their mother Sophia (21.1)The holy martyrs Faith, Hope, Love and their mother Sophia lived in Rome in the 2nd century. Sophia was a Christian widow and raised her children in the spirit of the holy faith. Her three daughters were named after the three cardinal Christian virtues (1 Corinthians 13:13). The oldest was only 12 years old.
They were reported to Emperor Hadrian, who continued the persecution of Christians. They were called and beheaded in front of their mother. This was around 137. The mother was not executed and she was even able to bury her children. After three days, due to the shock she experienced, Saint Sophia died.
The memory of the holy martyrs Faith, Hope, Love and their mother Sophia is celebrated on September 17/30.
3.4.2 Great Martyr Catherine and Queen Augusta (21.4)The Holy Great Martyr Catherine was born in Alexandria, came from a noble family and was distinguished by wisdom and beauty.
Saint Catherine wanted to marry only her equal. And then one old man told her about a young man who was better than her in everything. Having learned about Christ and Christian teaching, Saint Catherine accepted baptism.
At that time, Maximin, a representative of Emperor Diocletian (284-305), known for his cruel persecution of Christians, arrived in Alexandria. When Maximin called everyone to a pagan holiday, Saint Catherine fearlessly reproached him for worshiping pagan gods. Maximin imprisoned her for disrespect for the gods. After that, he gathered scientists to dissuade her. The scientists were unable to do this and admitted defeat.
Queen Augusta, the wife of Maximin, heard a lot about the beauty and wisdom of Catherine, wanted to see her, and after the meeting she herself also accepted Christianity. After this, she began to protect Saint Catherine. For everything, it was King Maximin who killed his wife Augusta.
Saint Catherine was first tortured with a wheel with sharp teeth, and then her head was cut off on November 24, 310.
The memory of the Holy Great Martyr Catherine is celebrated on the day of her repose, November 24/December 7.
3.4.3 St. Great Martyr Barbara (21.5)The Holy Great Martyr Barbara was born in Iliopolis, Phoenician. She was distinguished by her extraordinary intelligence and beauty. At her father's request, she lived in a tower specially built for her, away from her family and friends, with one teacher and several slaves.
One day, looking at the beautiful view from the tower and after much thought, she came to the idea of a single Creator of the world. Later, when her father was away, she met Christians and converted to Christianity.
When her father found out about this, he gave her over to cruel torture. The torment had no effect on Varvara and she did not renounce her faith. Then the holy great martyr Barbara was sentenced to death and her head was cut off.
The memory of the Holy Great Martyr Barbara is celebrated on the day of her repose, December 4/December 17.
Questions.(1) Who were the saints Faith, Hope, Love and their mother Sophia? (2) Who were the saints Great Martyr Catherine and Queen Augusta? (3) Who was the holy great martyr Barbara?
3.5 Constantine the Great (22)Emperor Constantine was the son of Constantius Chlorus, governor western part Roman Empire, and Saint Helen Equal to the Apostles. In 306, Constantine was proclaimed emperor.
In 312, war broke out. Before one decisive battle, after noon, when the sun was already in the west, Constantine saw the sign of the cross in the sky with the words “By this, conquer.” At night, in a dream, the Lord appeared to him with the same sign and said that with this sign he would defeat the enemy. Constantine won and triumphantly entered Rome.
After this victory, Constantine, together with his son-in-law, issues the first manifesto in which everyone, without any exceptions, is allowed to accept Christianity. The second manifesto was published in 313. In it, all the places where they held their services, which had been taken away from them, were returned to Christians. Christians were also given back all their property that had been taken away during the persecution.
Emperor Constantine devoted his entire life to the good of the Church and did so much good to it that he earned the title of Equal-to-the-Apostles. Since his time, government institutions, laws and military service conduct their business according to Christian teaching.
Here we can cite some measures that Emperor Constantine carried out in favor of Christians:
1. Stopped pagan games,
2. Freed the clergy from civil positions and church lands from general duties,
3. Canceled death penalty through the crucifixion
4. He issued a strict law against the Jews who rebelled against the Church,
5. Allowed the freeing of slaves in churches,
6. Forbade private individuals to make sacrifices to idols and resort to divination at home, leaving this right only to societies,
7. He commanded that Sunday be celebrated throughout the empire,
8. Abolished the laws against celibacy that the Romans had (to protect Christian virgins and virgins),
9. Granted the Church the right to receive property under wills,
10. Allowed Christians to occupy the highest government positions,
11. He began to build Christian churches and forbade the introduction of imperial statues and images into them, according to the custom that existed in pagan temples.
The greatest resistance to Emperor Constantine was in Rome, where there was a strong pagan party. In the end, the emperor decided to leave Rome and move the capital to Constantinople. Constantinople became the Christian center and capital of the Roman Empire. From the time of Constantine, Jerusalem again began to be called by this name, instead of the name Aelia Capitolinus, given to it under Hadrian.
Constantine's mother, Saint Queen Helena, on his instructions, went to Palestine. Here she found the cross of the Lord and built temples on Golgotha, on the Mount of Olives and in Bethlehem.
During the time of Constantine, schism, disputes and unrest appeared in the Church. This was the wrong teaching (heresy) of Arius. To stop this turmoil, Emperor Constantine, following the example of the Apostolic Council, convened the first Ecumenical Council. This is one of his great merits.
Devoted with all his soul to the Church, Constantine died peacefully, amid prayer, on May 21, 337. History gave him the name of the Great; Constantine the Great. The Church, for his great merits, calls him Equal to the Apostles; Saint Equal-to-the-Apostles Constantine. Equal to the Apostles means that he is equal, in his merits, to the apostles.
The memory of the holy Equal-to-the-Apostles kings Constantine the Great and his mother Helen is celebrated on the day of the repose of Saint Constantine, May 21/June 3.
Questions.(1) Who were the parents of Emperor Constantine? (2) What happened to Constantine during one battle? (3) How did Emperor Constantine distinguish himself? (4) What difficulties did Emperor Constantine have in Rome? (5) Where and where did Emperor Constantine move the capital of the Roman Empire? (6) What did his mother, Queen Helena, do? (7) What difficulties were occurring in the Church at that time? (8) What did Emperor Constantine do to stop these difficulties? (9) What do historians call Constantine and the Church, and why?
3.6 Last persecution from the Gentiles (23)The last struggle between paganism and Christianity was during the time of Emperor Julian. Emperor Julian was the nephew of Constantine the Great and was distinguished by his hatred of Christians.
Despite not all the measures taken by Emperor Constantine, paganism was still strong in the Roman Empire. Emperor Julian at first simply oppressed Christians and encouraged paganism. Then he gradually turned to open violence. Christians awaited with horror the return of the times of Nero, Decius and Diocletian. However, Julian was unable to restore paganism. He was killed in a battle with the Persians and after his death the persecution of Christians ceased.
Julian's successors continued to take care of the establishment of Christianity throughout the Roman Empire. New Christian churches were built, and pagan ones were destroyed. Idolatry became a criminal offense.
Questions.(1) Who was Emperor Julian and how was he different? (2) What happened during the time of Emperor Julian? (3) What happened after the death of Emperor Julian?
HERESIES, SCHIMS AND CATHEDRALS
4.1 Heresies and schisms (24)
Heresy This is a teaching that disagrees with the Orthodox faith. Heresy is also called false teaching; that is, false teaching or incorrect teaching.
At the very beginning of the Church, when Christian teaching was not yet established, there were disputes, false teachings (false teachings) and splits. Christian teachings were distorted by various other teachings. Some of the heresies were: Judaizers, Gnostics, Montanists, Anti-Trinitarians and Manichaeists.
- 1. Judaizers distorted Christian teachings under the influence of Judaism. They denied the deity of Jesus Christ, They recognized Him only as a great prophet and observed the law of Moses.
2. Gnostics or pagans were under the influence of paganism. They recognized two world principles - God and matter, taught about the eternal struggle between them, about the lower deities dominating between heaven and the world - zones and about blind fate.
3. Montanists were infected pride. Montan applied to himself the prophecy of the Savior about the sending of the Comforter (John 15:26, 16:12-13) and declared that it was he who was sent by God to renew the Church. They appeared in the second century. Montanists differed great excitement of feelings and self-exaltation, the desire to allegedly restore the discipline and life of the first Christians in the Church and the mortification of the flesh. The Montanists considered only themselves to be spiritual Christians, and considered everyone else to be spiritual and carnal.
4. Antitrinitarians rejected the dogma of the Holy Trinity and they recognized only one God the Father. They appeared in the second century. According to their teaching, this God the Father in Christ became a man, was crucified, suffered and died.
5. Manichaeists wanted to replace Christianity and restore the ancient pagan Zoroaster's religion. They taught that two kingdoms exist independently: the kingdom of light and the kingdom of darkness, and that they are in constant struggle with each other.
this is when a group separates from the Church but retains Orthodox teachings. Along with heresies, schisms appeared in the Church. Of the schisms in the ancient church, the Novocian and Donatist schisms are especially well known.
Questions.(1) What is heresy? (2) What happened at the beginning of the Church and why? (3) Who are the Judaizers? (4) Who are Gnostics? (5) Who are the Montanists? (6) Who are the Antitrinitarians? (7) Who are the Manichaeists? (8) What is schism?
4.2 Ecumenical Councils (25)Over time, various questions began to arise regarding the organization of churches and faith; false teachings (heresies) appeared. It became necessary to gather and develop church rules, and it was also necessary to more accurately define Christian teaching. For this purpose, Ecumenical Councils began to be convened. All councils affirmed the wrongness of various heresies. All of them either decreased or increased the deity of the Lord Jesus Christ. There were seven cathedrals.
Ecumenical Councils were convened following the example of the Apostolic Council, which took place in Jerusalem in the year 51 (Acts 15:1-35). The apostles and other priests gathered when they had disagreements. Representatives of different churches were present at these councils. Many of them were known for their spirituality, holiness and learning. All churches were equal and after prayers and debates, various issues were resolved according to the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. This can be seen from the resolution of the Apostolic Council, where it was said: “It was pleasing to us and to the Holy Spirit” (Acts 15:28).
There were seven Ecumenical Councils in total. Not all councils are recognized by the Church as legitimate Ecumenical Councils. For example, the Roman Church, after separating from other churches, began to convene its so-called Ecumenical Councils.
The memory of the first 6 Ecumenical Councils is celebrated on Sunday, October 16/29: or on the nearest Sunday: Memory of the Holy Fathers of the 6 Ecumenical Councils.
First Ecumenical Council. The First Ecumenical Council was convened by Saint Constantine Equal to the Apostles in the city of Nicaea in 325 to resolve the disagreements that arose regarding the heresy of Arius. Arius taught that the Lord Jesus Christ was not God. 318 bishops were present at the council. At it, the false teaching of Arius was rejected and 8 members of the Creed were developed. The Creed briefly states what Christians believe. At this council, the Orthodox Easter was also established; rules for determining the holiday of Easter. (On the first Sunday after the spring full moon and after the Jewish Passover).
The memory of the 1st Ecumenical Council is celebrated on the 7th Sunday after Easter: Holy Father of the 1st Ecumenical Council, as well as on May 29/June 11.
Second Ecumenical Council. The Second Ecumenical Council was convened by Emperor Theodosius the 1st and took place in Constantinople in the year 381. The council was assembled against the Macedonian Doukhobor. Macedonius was a bishop in Constantinople. He denied the divine nature of the Holy Spirit and called Him a creature or a force, but he recognized this force as equally subordinate to both the Father and the Son. The Council rejected the false teaching of Macedonius and completed the creed, which was called the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed. This creed is a guide for the Church for all times. The unchanged symbol of faith remained only among Orthodox Christians. (The Roman Church and all Protestants after it changed the 8th term).
Third Ecumenical Council. The Third Ecumenical Council took place in Ephesus in the year 431 and was assembled against Nestorius the man-worshipper. Nestorius argued that Jesus Christ was a man in whom God dwelt, as in a temple. Therefore, he called Jesus Christ the God-bearer and not the God-man, and the Most Holy Virgin Mary the Christ-bearer, and not the Mother of God. This council rejected the teachings of Nestorius.
The memory of the 3rd Ecumenical Council is celebrated on September 9/22.
Fourth Ecumenical Council. The Fourth Ecumenical Council took place in Chalcedon in the year 451 and was assembled against the Monophysites Eutyches and Dioscorus. Monophysites argued that in the Lord Jesus Christ there is only divine nature. The Council affirmed that the Lord Jesus Christ is true God and true man. In addition, the council drew up 30 church rules and developed the rights and indicated the districts of the five primate bishops (patriarchs).
The memory of the 4th Ecumenical Council is celebrated on July 16/29(see Bibliography section: Seven Ecumenical Councils).
Fifth Ecumenical Council. The Fifth Ecumenical Council took place in Constantinople in the year 553 and was assembled against three teachers of the Syrian Church. These three teachers wrote heretical works. The Council condemned one of them as a heretic, and the other two only their writings which were heretical.
The memory of the 5th Ecumenical Council is celebrated on June 25/July 8(see Bibliography section: Seven Ecumenical Councils).
Sixth Ecumenical Council. The Sixth Ecumenical Council took place in Constantinople in the year 680 and was assembled against the Monothelites. Monothelites argued that the Lord Jesus Christ has two natures, but one action and one will. At this council, the teaching of the Monothelites was condemned and it was determined to recognize in Jesus Christ two natures - Divine and human, and according to these two natures there are two wills.
Fifth-Sixth (Trula) Ecumenical Council. The Fifth-Sixth (Trula) Ecumenical Council took place eleven years later. The Council supplemented the Fifth and Sixth Ecumenical Councils and is therefore called the Fifth-Sixth. The Council adopted eighty-five apostolic canons, the canons of six Ecumenical and seven Local Councils, and some of the holy fathers as guidelines for the Church. Then to these rules the rules of the Seventh Ecumenical Council and two more local ones were added. These rules lie at the basis of church governance and are found in a book called “Kormchaya” in Russian, and “Nomocanon” in Greek.
As mentioned above, the Memory of the Holy 6 Ecumenical Councils is celebrated on Sunday October 16/29: or the next Sunday.
Seventh Ecumenical Council. The Seventh Ecumenical Council took place in Nicaea in the year 787 and was assembled against the iconoclasts. This was the last Ecumenical Council. The iconoclastic heresy appeared 60 years before the council, under Emperor Leo the Isaurian. Since he wanted to attract the Mohammedans - who did not have icons - to Christianity, he gradually began to persecute icons and icon worshipers. At this council the iconoclastic heresy was rejected.
The memory of the Holy Fathers of the 7th Ecumenical Council is celebrated on Sunday October 11/24 or the next Sunday.
After the Seventh Ecumenical Council, iconoclasm arose again and continued to agitate the church for about 25 years. The veneration of icons was finally established and approved at the Local Council of Constantinople in 842. At this Council, in honor of this statement, the holiday of the Triumph of Orthodoxy was established.
The holiday of the Triumph of Orthodoxy is celebrated on the first Sunday of Great Lent.
Questions.(1) What is an Ecumenical Council? (2) Why were Ecumenical Councils convened? (3) By what example were the Ecumenical Councils convened? (4) How many Ecumenical Councils were there? (5) What was developed at the First and Second Ecumenical Councils? (6) What was decided on the Seventh? (7) What else was developed at all the Ecumenical Councils?
4.3 Separated Eastern Churches (25.1)Some Eastern churches, due to various difficult circumstances, during the Ecumenical Councils, separated from the union with the Orthodox Church.
Armenian-Gregorian Church. In the half of the 5th century, the Armenians suffered disasters from the Persians, and the Catholicos (primary bishop) himself was martyred in captivity in 451. Because of this, they could not be at the 4th Ecumenical Council. (At this council, the heresy of the Monophysites was rejected, who argued that in Jesus Christ there is only divine nature).
In addition, false rumors began to reach the Armenians that the heretic Nestorius was acquitted at this council. (Nestorius argued that Jesus Christ was a man in whom God dwelt, as in a temple. This heresy was rejected by the 3rd Ecumenical Council).
Perplexities intensified over time and finally, at the end of the 5th century, at one Armenian council (491), only the definitions of the first three Ecumenical Councils were recognized as mandatory and were deliberately kept silent about the 4th. And in the 8th century (726), the Armenian bishops already directly rejected the 4th Ecumenical Council.
The Armenian-Gregorian Church is of one mind with the Orthodox Church in the main dogmas of faith, but has some differences, among which are the following:
1. To the trisagion song, which they refer only to Jesus Christ, are added the words “crucified for us,”
2. For the sacrament of Communion, unleavened bread is used instead of leavened bread, and wine not combined with water,
3. In Confirmation, so-called sesame oil is used and
4. The Feast of the Nativity of Christ is celebrated on January 6, on the same day as the Feast of the Epiphany.
Nestorian Society. Members of the Nestorian society are also called Chaldean Christians. They live in the Tigris and Euphrates valleys and partly in Syria. At first, when they fell away from the Church, they were distinguished by their learning, but then their enlightenment began to decline. They borrowed from the Jews: rituals of purification after touching the dead, celebrating Sunday just as Jews celebrate Saturday. The Nestorians do not have icons.
Jacobites. The Jacobites live in Syria, Mesopotamia and other countries of the East. They adhere to the Monophysite heresy. (Monophysites claim that in Jesus Christ there is only divine nature. This heresy was rejected by the 4th Ecumenical Council). The Jacobites got their name from Jacob Baradeus who lived in the 6th century. At the head of this society is the patriarch, who is also called Antioch. He always bears the name Ignatius, as the successor of Saint Ignatius the God-Bearer. In worship and church rituals they are closer to Orthodoxy than the Nestorians.
Coptic church community. Copts are the indigenous people of Egypt. They adhere to the Monophysite heresy. In the 7th century, out of hatred for the Greek emperors who patronized Orthodoxy, the Copts changed. By this they contributed to the rapid conquest of Egypt by the Mohammedans.
Abyssinian church community. The Abyssinians, like the Copts, adhere to the Monophysite heresy and in customs have many similarities with them. But they, even more than the Copts, moved away from Orthodoxy. The Abyssinians adhere to Jewish food laws and celebrate Saturday as well as Sunday. During worship they perform sacred dances.
Maronites. The Maronites live on the slopes and valleys of the mountains of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. This is the only sect in the east that adheres to Monothelite errors. (Monofelts claim that Jesus Christ has two natures, but one action and one will. This heresy was rejected by the 6th Ecumenical Council). The Maronites retained worship in their own language, received communion under both forms, and had married priests.
Questions.(1) What is the Armenian Gregorian Church? (2) What is the Nestorian Society? (3) Who are the Jacobites? (4) What is the Coptic Church Community? (5) What is the Abyssinian Church Community? (6) Who are the Maronites?
HOLY FATHERS, APOLOGETIES, MONASKING AND CHURCH GOVERNANCE
5.1 Holy Fathers and teachers of the Church (26)
From apostolic times to the present time, there has been a continuous series of holy fathers and teachers of the Church. The Fathers of the Church are those church writers who became famous for the holiness of their lives. Church writers who are not recognized as saints are called teachers of the Church. All of them were distinguished by their learning, mental abilities and piety.
The fathers and teachers of the Church preserved the apostolic traditions in their writings and explained faith and piety. In difficult times, they defended Christianity from heretics and false teachers. They were role models in their lives. Our Christian faith is the Apostolic faith, as stated in the Creed, since it was received from the apostles themselves. But in addition, our faith is also Fatherly, since it is interpreted and explained by the Holy Fathers. They are also the legitimate, grace-filled successors of the Holy Apostles.
St. Athanasius the Great (297-373). He was the first and great fighter against Arianism, participated in the First Ecumenical Council and was Archbishop of Alexandria. During his almost half-century of ministry, St. Athanasius was expelled from Alexandria five times and spent about twenty years in exile and imprisonment. Until the last minute of his life he fought against heretics and worked for the establishment of peace and unanimity in the Church. Despite all his works and exploits, he wrote many works in which he defended and explained Christianity.
Memory of St. Athanasius the Great, Archbishop of Alexandria. celebrated on January 18/31.
St. Basil the Great (329-379). St. Basil the Great was the archbishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. He wrote a lot on various subjects of faith and morality, wrote the rite of the apostolic liturgy, known under his name, and composed many prayers. He defended the Church from the Arians and established many shelters for the sick and poor. His work “Conversations for Six Days” is especially famous.
Memory of St. St. Basil the Great is celebrated on January 1/14, as well as together with other saints: the Council of Three Hierarchs: St. Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian and John Chrysostom, January 30/February 11.
St. Gregory the Theologian (326-389). He was a bishop, defended the Church from the Arians, participated in the Second Ecumenical Council, led a holy lifestyle and wrote many essays on Christianity. For his creations St. Gregory received the title of theologian and universal teacher.
Holy memory Gregory the Theologian, Archbishop of Constantinople is celebrated on January 25/February 7, and also, as mentioned above, together with other saints: The Council of Three Hierarchs: Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian and John Chrysostom, January 30/February 11.
St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, Archbishop of Myra-Lycia (+343). He took part in the First Ecumenical Council, fought against Arianism, was distinguished by meekness, humility and gentleness, and loved to give alms secretly. Relics of St. Nicholas were transferred to Italy, to the city of Bari, where they are now.
The memory of St. Nicholas, Archbishop of Myra of Lycia, wonderworker, is celebrated on December 6/19, as well as on the day of the transfer of his relics to Bari on May 9/22.
St. John Chrysostom (347-407). He was Archbishop of Constantinople. One of the most famous writers and preachers of the Christian faith. He wrote up to 800 interpretations and conversations. He wrote many interpretations on various books from the Holy Scriptures. Considered the best expounder of the Holy Scriptures. St. John wrote the order of the liturgy, which we still serve today. He died in exile and his last words were "Thank God for everything".
The memory of Saint John Chrysostom, Archbishop of Constantinople, is celebrated on the day of the transfer of his relics, January 27/February 9, and also, as mentioned above, together with other saints: Council of Three Hierarchs: Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian and John Chrysostom, January 30/11 February.
St. Augustine (+340 g). He was the Bishop of Ippon. I sinned in my youth, but then I corrected myself. The greatest preacher and church writer. He fought against heretics. His famous works “On the City of God” and “Confession”. In the first essay he proves the superiority of Christianity over paganism. The second book is his autobiography, in which he humbly and frankly writes about his sins, up to his conversion to Christianity.
Blessed Augustine is considered a Doctor of the Church, but not a saint. (The Roman Church considers him a saint).
St. John of Damascus (+ about 780). He was a minister for the Damascus caliph, and then retired to a monastery. He defended the Church from iconoclasts, was a church writer, and was known as a theologian and hymn writer. Compiled canons for Holy Easter, Christmas and other major holidays. Wrote the first systematic exposition of the Orthodox faith.
Questions(1) Who are the Holy Fathers? (2) Who are the teachers of the Church? (3) Who was St. Athanasius the Great and how did he distinguish himself? (4) Who was St. Basil the Great and how did he distinguish himself? (5) Who was St. Gregory the Theologian and how did he distinguish himself? (6) Who was St. Nicholas the Wonderworker and how did he distinguish himself? (7) Who was St. John Chrysostom and how did he distinguish himself? (8) Who was St. Augustine and how did he distinguish himself? (9) Who was John of Damascus and how did he distinguish himself?
5.2 Apologists(21a)The persecution of Christians contributed to the emergence of apologists in the church, that is, defenders of the Christian faith. Apologists wrote works of apology in which they defended the faith from all attacks. The most famous of the apologists are the following:
- 1. Codratus, Bishop of Athens,
2. Philosopher Aristides,
3. Saint Justin the Philosopher,
4. Melito, Bishop of Sardia,
5. Athenagoras,
6. Tertullian, Presbyter of Carthage,
7. Minucius Felix,
8. Philosopher Hermias,
9. Clement, teacher of the Alexandria school and
10. Origen, teacher of the Alexandrian school.
Origen became especially famous for his extraordinary talents and colossal works. At the age of eighteen, he was already the head of the Alexandrian school and the leader of the struggle that this school waged with the learned representatives of paganism. Up to 6,000 works are attributed to him and he was given the name “adamant”, that is, diamond. His work in explaining the Holy Scriptures is especially respected. Origen's fame is somewhat obscured by the fact that he went to some extremes in his writings.
Questions.(1) Who are apologists? (2) Why did they appear? (3) Name a few apologists. (4) Who was the most famous apologist? (5) Has the Church accepted everything he wrote?
5.3 Monasticism (27)The origin of monasticism. From the very beginning of the Christian Church, many believers have strived to achieve the highest spiritual and moral perfection. Some voluntarily renounced their property and distributed it to the poor, others, imitating the Ever-Virgin Mary, Saint John the Baptist, the Apostles Paul, John and James, took a vow of virginity and spent time in unceasing prayer, fasting and abstinence. Such ascetics were called ascetics.
Christian ascetics believed that it was easier for them to fulfill their vows away from the world. Therefore, they leave cities and villages and live in mountains and deserts. They were called anchorites (Greek for hermit), and heremites (Greek for hermit).
During the persecution of Christians, Christians had to flee and hide in every possible way. This of course contributed to monasticism. When the persecution ended, many pagans began to convert to Christianity, without much faith. The purity of Christian life began to weaken and this also contributed to monasticism, since in order to achieve the Christian life, believers began to go to monasteries.
St. Reverend Anthony the Great. Monasticism first appeared in the east, in Egypt. Anthony the Great is considered the father of monasticism. Anthony was born around 250 from noble and wealthy parents who raised him in piety,
Saint Anthony first secluded himself in the desert. After twenty years, he gradually began to have students. Calm, reserved, equally friendly to everyone, the elder soon became a mentor to many. St. Anthony died at a very old age (106 years old, in 356) and for his services received the title of the Great.
Hermits. The Monk Anthony founded hermit monasticism. Several hermits, under the guidance of one mentor (abbas - father, in Hebrew), lived separately from each other in huts and caves (monasteries). There they prayed, fasted and did some kind of work and helped the poor. Several monasteries, under the leadership of one abba, were called Lavra.
Community monasticism. Even during the life of Anthony the Great, another type of monasticism appeared: cenobitic monasticism. The founder of this family is considered to be the Monk Pachomius the Great. The monks gathered into one community, worked for the common benefit and obeyed the same rules. Such communities were called cenovia or monasteries. The abbas of these communities were called archimandrites.
The meaning of monasticism. Despite the fact that monks retired from the world to achieve moral and spiritual perfection, monasticism had a great beneficial effect on the entire society. Just one look at the life of the monks lets people know where their true fatherland is. The fame of the life and deeds of the holy ascetics attracted many people to them, who were looking for guidance and consolation. Visitors not only learned their piety themselves, but also told others about them and wrote down their deeds (life) and words. Collections of the deeds and sayings of holy ascetics became a textbook and moral guide for all Christians.
Monasteries helped the spiritual and moral good of their neighbors. They were the center and example of piety, spiritual enlightenment, education and were the center of pure and undamaged faith. But main merit monks for society is constant prayer for the Church, the fatherland, the living and the dead.
Monasteries also helped the physical well-being of their neighbors. The monks obtained their own food and shared it with the poor. At the monasteries there were hospices (hotels for wanderers), where the monks received and fed wanderers. Alms were sent from the monasteries to the poor and those imprisoned.
By helping the spiritual, moral and physical well-being of believers, monasticism helped spread the faith of Christ and the final fall of paganism. The high life of the monks surprised the pagans and for them was proof of the holiness of the Christian religion.
Seeing the high piety of the monks, the archpastors began to elevate them to the degree of priesthood. Later, the custom arose of conferring the highest degree of episcopacy only on monks.
Questions.(1) Why did believers begin to go to monasteries? (2) Who do monks imitate? (3) Who is considered the founder of monasticism? (4) What type of monasticism did he found? (5) What is laurel? (6) What other type of monasticism is there? (7) Who founded this family? (8) How did monasteries affect other believers?
5.4 Church administration (28)The Christian Orthodox Church consists of a group of Orthodox churches independent from each other. All these churches have equal rights, but are not administratively connected with each other. There is no central government in the Orthodox Church, but all churches recognize each other and have a common teaching.
When it was necessary to have a decision from the entire Orthodox Church (that is, all Orthodox churches), then ecumenical councils were convened at which representatives of all Orthodox churches were present. This “conciliarity” is one of the most basic qualities of the Church. Conciliarity is also spoken of in the Creed: “I believe in one holy, catholic and apostolic Church.” (In English this is translated as “I believe in One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church”).
The church hierarchy (hierarchy) in the Church was established by Jesus Christ himself. He chose twelve apostles and gave them the authority to teach the people, perform the sacraments and govern the Church. For all this, He sent down the Holy Spirit on the apostles, Who gave them special gifts for their preaching and other works.
Over time, the apostles, according to the will of God and the needs of the Church, ordained first deacons, then presbyters, and finally bishops. The deacons distributed offerings and assisted the presbyters and bishops during the services. The elders taught and performed divine services. Bishops taught, officiated, and governed the Church.
Already in the apostolic age, the power of metropolitans or regional bishops, that is, the first of the bishops, began to rise. Bishops were subordinate to the metropolitans, and the metropolitans made all important decisions together with the other bishops. Local councils were convened for such meetings. Later, the leading bishops began to be called archbishops, and then patriarchs. The patriarchs stood at the head of the local Church.
From the very beginning, the external structure of the Church corresponded to the external structure of the state, and in in this case Roman Empire. Centers of church administration began to form in the main centers of the state. Then these centers began to be called patriarchates, since the patriarch was located in them; that is, the head of the local Church. In this way five ancient patriarchates or churches were formed:
- 1. Jerusalem Church
2. Antiochian Church
3. Alexandria Church
4. Roman Church
5. Church of Constantinople.
The first church that was founded was the Jerusalem Church, and the last one was Constantinople. Antioch is now called Syria, and Constantinople is now Istanbul in Turkey.
The head of each church was a patriarch, and in the Roman Church the patriarch was called the pope. In ancient times, all bishops were called popes just like “papa” in Greek is father. All churches had equal rights. (The Roman Church believes that power over all churches belonged to the Pope).
Later, new patriarchates, that is, Orthodox churches, were formed:
- 1. Russian Church
2. Serbian Church
3. Bulgarian Church
4. Romanian Church.
Due to different and complex historical circumstances, there are now several independent Orthodox churches, but without a patriarch:
- 1. Greek Church
2. Church on the island of Cyprus
3. Sinai Church
4. Albanian Church.
Over time, various local historical events occurred, according to which the areas of the patriarchs either decreased or increased. Great events were taking place in the world, such as the invasion of Europe by new peoples, the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the emergence and rapid spread of Mohammedanism. All this changed the situation of many countries and peoples and had a different impact on the structure of local churches.
The area of the popes extended from Western Europe to Africa. The region of the Patriarchs of Constantinople was also large, but they were in every possible way constrained by the Emperors of Constantinople. The regions of the Jerusalem, Alexandria and Antioch Patriarchs were very small and were under the rule of hostile Mohammedans.
Questions.(1) Who is the head of the entire Orthodox Church? (2) How many ancient churches were there? (3) What persons make up the church hierarchy? (4) Who is the head of each Orthodox Church? (5) What do churches do when some important issue needs to be resolved? (6) What other Orthodox churches exist? (7) Do they all have patriarchs at their head? (8) Over time, what happened to the different churches?
WESTERN CHURCH
6.1 The popes' quest for primacy (29)
The desire of the Popes for primacy in the Church can be seen from the very beginning of Christianity. The reason for this was the glory of Rome and the Roman Empire, and with it the spread of the Roman Church.
When the capital of the Roman Empire was moved to Constantinople, this further exaggerated the importance of the pope. He became the first person in Rome. To enhance ecclesiastical significance In the Roman Church, the popes began to teach that the Lord Jesus Christ supposedly appointed the Apostle Peter to be the head of the apostles and the prince of the Church. This primacy, after the death of the Apostle Peter, passed to the pope.
Popes have always taken every opportunity to exalt their importance and show their power in the Church. Such cases presented themselves when difficulties arose in the Eastern churches and when they fraternally turned to the pope for advice and help.
On the other hand, the emperors of Constantinople tried in every possible way to elevate the importance of their closest patriarch. For example, they gave him the name “Ecumenical Patriarch”.
Over the centuries, with the constant desire of the popes to be the head of the Church, a number of errors arose in the Roman Church. For example:
1. Celibacy was introduced for the priesthood.
2. It was allowed to consume milk and eggs during fasting.
3. They established a fast on Saturday.
4. The 8th member of the Creed was changed.
The lust for power of the Roman popes and the deviations from Orthodoxy allowed in the Roman Church were the reasons for the separation of the Roman Church from the Orthodox Church.
Questions.(1) Who is the head of the entire Church? (2) How many ancient Christian churches were there? (3) Who led each church? (4) When did the popes' aspirations for primacy begin? (5) What was the reason for these aspirations? (6) What did the popes preach to justify their aspirations? (7) What opportunities did popes take advantage of to elevate themselves? (8) What errors appeared in the Roman Church?
6.2 Separation of the Western Church (30)At the beginning of the 9th century, a gradual separation of the Western Church (Roman Church) from the Orthodox Church began. The final break occurred in 1054.
Three separate circumstances contributed to the separation of the Roman Church.
- In the 9th century in Constantinople, Patriarch Ignatius was removed from the patriarchal throne. Great unrest and controversy began, and because of this, a local council was convened (861) at which Photius was approved. The Pope did not agree with this and thus placed his authority above the council's decision.
- At the same time, disputes arose between the Roman and Constantinople Sees over the Bulgarian Church. Despite the fact that the Bulgarians were converted to the Christian faith by Greek preachers, the popes made demands on the Bulgarian Church to submit to their authority. A council was convened to discuss the matter (867), which rejected the papal demands and condemned the apostasy of the Roman Church.
- The final separation of the Roman Church occurred at the beginning of the 11th century. There were disputes between Pope Leo 9th and Patriarch Michael Cerullarius of Constantinople about an innovation in the Roman Church, that is, the use of unleavened bread instead of leavened bread in proskomedia. Disputes began. The pope's envoys (legates), hoping for success in the disputes, wrote an act of excommunication against the patriarch and the entire Eastern Church and, during the service, placed him on the throne of the St. Sophia Church (1054). The Patriarch convened a council in Constantinople, at which the legates were excommunicated from the Church. Since then, all Eastern churches have stopped commemorating the pope during services.
The Roman Church presents all these events differently. Since she believes that the pope is the head of the entire Church, it turns out that the eastern churches separated from the western. It's written in their textbooks and taught in schools. Eastern churches are called “eastern schismatics” and very little is said about them. This opinion is found in almost all Catholic, Protestant and secular sources. Thus, Western man, even having received higher education, in most cases does not know the truth about the Orthodox Church.
Retreats of the Roman Church. The Roman Church has been outside the union with the Orthodox Church for almost 1000 years. During this time, she largely retreated from Orthodox teaching. All these deviations can be divided into several groups: deviations in the dogmas of faith, in rituals, in church administration and deviations in customs.
- Deviations in the articles of faith:(1) The 8th article of the Creed was changed. (2) The doctrine of the primacy of the pope. (3) The doctrine of indulgences and supererogatory works. (4) The doctrine of purgatory. (5) The doctrine of the non-participation of the Mother of God in original sin. (6) The doctrine of papal infallibility in matters of faith.
- Deviations in rituals:(1) Baptism by pouring instead of immersion. (2) Confirmation is performed only by bishops and on elders. (3) In communion at the proskomedia, unleavened bread is used instead of leavened bread. (4) Communion to the laity under one kind of bread. (5) Fasting on Saturday. (6) Allowance for milk and eggs on fasting days.
- Derogations in church government:(1) Celibacy for the priesthood. (2) Establishment of the order of cardinals. (3) Prohibiting the laity from reading the Bible.
- Deviations in customs:(1) Use of organs in worship. (2) Church seating. (3) Open altars. (4) Simultaneous celebration of masses (dinners) on different altars. (5) Worship in Latin only. (6) Calls during services. Some of these deviations seem insignificant at first glance, but behind them all sorts of complications are hidden. All of them, and many other deviations, led to the development of pride, lust for power, the usurpation of power by the popes, the Inquisition, the Reformation and ultimately a retreat from the true Christian spirit, not only in the Church, but also in society as a whole.
Questions(1) When did the separation of the Roman Church begin and when did it become final? (2) What three circumstances contributed to the final break between the Roman and Eastern churches? (3) How did the final separation occur? (4) How do they view this incident in the West and why? (5) How many years has the Roman Church been outside the union with the rest of the Orthodox Churches? (6) What happened in the Roman Church during this time? (7) What deviations have occurred in the tenets of faith? (8) What deviations occurred in the rituals? (9) What apostasies occurred in church government? (10) What deviations in customs occurred?
6.3 Origins of the Reformation (31)From the middle of the 11th century, after the Roman Church separated from the Orthodox East, papal power became more and more elevated. At the end of the 11th century the Crusades began. They were undertaken with the aim of liberating holy places and Eastern Christians from Muslim rule. But the power-hungry popes also directed them to increase their power.
With the enlightenment in the West, the retreat of the popes and the Western Church from the Christian spirit became clearer. The popes began to resort to brutal measures to pacify their opponents (the Inquisition). But this irritated the dissatisfied even more. Finally, bold opponents of papal power began to appear.
In the half of the 15th century, a movement began in the West towards the study of the classical languages and literature of ancient peoples. At the same time, they were forbidden to read the Bible. This led to the fact that Western Christians were unable to distinguish the behavior of the popes from the eternal truths of the Christian faith that were preserved by the Church. As a result of this, their irritation and dissatisfaction with the popes was transferred to the entire Church. Disbelief began to spread in literature and society.
In the 16th century, several individuals, in different places, made attempts to reform the Western Church. These were Luther in Germany and Zwingli and Calvin in Switzerland (Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin). These were people with good intentions who wanted to save faith from spreading unbelief. But they took on an impossible task. Moreover, for all their theological scholarship, Western reformers knew very little about the Orthodox Church in the East. In this church they could see an example of the true apostolic Church. Because of this, attempts at reform suffered from contradictions and inconsistency. At first they were free-thinking, but in the end they themselves began to use cruel measures.
Ultimately, the reformers tore away a significant part of the Western Church (90 million) from the popes. These Christians not only did not return to Orthodoxy, but on the contrary, they moved even further away from it.
Questions.(1) What happened to the power of the popes after the Western Church separated from the East? (2) What led to the discontent in the Roman Church? (3) What started to happen in the 16th century? (4) What were the names of the reformers and where did they appear? (5) What were the qualities of the reformers? (6) What did the reformers lack? (7) How many people left the Western Church to join the reformers?
6.4 Lutherans or Protestants (32)During Pope Leo the 10th the sale of indulgences was announced. The German monk Martin Luther rebelled against this. He began to preach against such blasphemy and put forward 95 provisions against the abuses of the papacy (1520). Thanks to favorable conditions The Lutheran religion began to spread quickly.
The Lutheran confession restrained some deviations from Orthodoxy that the Roman Church allowed. Such as:
- Changing the 8th Article of the Creed.
- Baptism by pouring instead of immersion.
- During communion at the proskomedia, unleavened bread is used instead of leavened bread.
- Use of organs during worship.
- Seating areas in the church.
- Open altars.
Luther rejected the following:
- The need for those established by the Lord through grace: the Church, hierarchy, sacraments, as well as prayer to saints, veneration of icons and relics.
- Church customs that were established to train a person in virtue: fasting, monasticism, holidays other than the Lord's, traveling to holy places, etc.
Having rejected the sacred hierarchy and the very sacrament of the Priesthood, the Lutherans broke ties with the Apostolic Church and became a society of the laity, and not the Church. A Lutheran pastor is simply a layman chosen by society to preach.
In many places, Luther stopped his reform halfway. For example:
- The sacrament of Baptism and Communion is maintained. But since the sacrament of the Priesthood is rejected, these sacraments also lose their power.
- In the Sacrament of Communion, the transubstantiation of the Holy Gifts is rejected and it is taught that in bread, with bread and under bread, the believer receives the true body of Christ.
- Prayers to saints are rejected, but churches are still dedicated to them.
- The veneration of icons is prohibited, but Lutheran churches are decorated with sacred images.
Zwingliy. Almost at the same time as Luther (1519), and also regarding the sale of indulgences, a cathedral preacher in Switzerland, in the city of Zurich, named Ulrich Zwingli, acted as a reformer of the Church. In Switzerland, the reform process proceeded even faster than in Germany and immediately assumed greater proportions.
Zwinglius not only accepted everything that was rejected by Luther in the Catholic Church, but went further than that. He taught that the sacraments are only signs by which a person shows his faith to the Church. The Eucharist is only a symbolic remembrance of the suffering of Jesus Christ and a sign of the communion of believers.
The society of followers of Zwinglius separated from the Lutherans and united with the followers of Calvin.
Calvin. Calvin was born in France and there he first began his Reformed activity, then continued it in Switzerland, in Geneva.
In the doctrine of justification, Calvin went further than Luther. He taught that since a person is justified only by faith, and faith is a gift of God, then the believer is already God’s chosen one, predestined to the kingdom of heaven. God, foreseeing the fall of man, had already decided which of the people would be saved.
Reformed worship is the extreme opposite of the Catholic Church. Catholic churches are rich in rituals, while reformer churches are simply prayer halls without any images or decorations. An ordinary table is set up for communion.
Questions.(1) What did Zwinglius rebel against? (2) Who was Zwinglius and what did he do? (3) What did Zwingliy teach? (4) What happened to the followers of Zwinglius? (5) Who was Calvin and what did he do? (6) What did Calvin teach? (7) What is Reformed worship?
6.6 Anglicans or Episcopalians (34)At the time when the Reformation began, Henry the 8th reigned in England (1509-1547). At first (1522) he opposed Luther as a defender of the faith.
Ten years later, Henry broke the alliance with the pope because he did not allow him to divorce his wife Catherine and marry the queen's maid of honor, Anne Boleyn. A year later, in 1533, by order of the king, the English parliament passed a law on the independence of England from the pope in church affairs. In 1534, Henry declared himself head of the English Church. The marriage with his wife was dissolved by parliament and the king marries Anna. He elevated the priest Thomas Cranmer, who advised him to do this, to the rank of Archbishop of Canterbury (the highest ecclesiastical post in England).
The Anglican religion is essentially Reformed. In some points it approaches Lutheran (in the doctrine of the Eucharist). It kept the episcopal system and some liturgical rites away from Catholicism. But Anglican bishops do not have grace, since they do not have apostolic succession. Besides, they are married.
Due to the uncertainty of the doctrine, divisions appeared in the Anlican Church. Over time, three parties emerged: the high church (closer to Catholicism), the low church (closer to Reformation) and the broad church, which aimed to reconcile the two parties named above.
Puritans or Presbyterians. The Puritans (purus - pure) separated from the Anglicans, who wanted to be pure reformers without the admixture of Catholicism. Since they rebelled against the episcopal system and gave the government of their society to the elders, they are also called Presbyterians.
Questions.(1) How did the Anglican faith begin? (2) Who is the head of the Church of England? (3) What is the highest ecclesiastical office in the Church of England? (4) What is the essence of the Anglican faith? (5) How do Anglican bishops differ from Orthodox ones? (6) How is the Church of England divided? (7) Who were the Puritans or Presbyterians?
6.7 Christian societies and sects (34.1)Having rejected Western Christians from the Roman Church, the Reformation did not satisfy their religious needs. Therefore, immediately after the beginning of Protestantism, many sects appeared from its midst. They all express dissatisfaction with the reform and try to correct it. Far from the Orthodox Church and not knowing it, they fall into more and more contradictions and are divided into more and more new groups. One part of these sects tries to satisfy the demands of reason, and the other the demands of religious feeling.
Anabaptists (also Mennonites) or rebaptists. Anabaptists (also Mennonites) or re-baptists deny the baptism of children and believe that it is necessary to be baptized in adulthood. They consider themselves to be the only church of chosen holy men. They are prohibited from entering military or civil service and taking an oath.
Quakers. During the struggle between Catholics and Reformed people, the founder of the Quaker sect, George Fox, decided that there is no truth in any faith and that a person must draw the truth in his heart, by the direct revelation of the Holy Spirit. William Penn organized and distributed it. The state of Pennsylvania got its name from him, since Penn's followers, due to religious persecution, left England for the USA.
Therefore, Quakers have no churches, but simple halls and no pastors. At a prayer meeting, they sit in the pews and read the Bible and wait for inspiration to strike someone. If someone finds inspiration, he begins to either pray or preach, and if not, then after a certain time they disperse.
Questions.(1) Who are the Anabaptists? (2) What is another name for Anabaptists? (3) Who are Quakers? (4) Who founded the Quaker sect and who spread it? (5) How are Quaker prayer meetings held and where?
6.8 Old Catholics (35)At the Vatican Council, convened by Pope Pius IX in Rome in 1870, the dogma of papal infallibility in matters of faith was proclaimed. This new dogma left many Catholics confused. In 1871, a congress of those dissatisfied with this dogma took place in Munich. The formation of independent communities began on the principles of the ancient Catholic Church, as it was before its separation from the Orthodox Church.
There have been attempts to unite the Old Catholic community with the Orthodox Church, but their teaching has not yet been sufficiently clarified.
Question. Who are the Old Catholics?
Notes
1. In the Catholic Church, Divine services take place in a Latin language that is incomprehensible to believers. Therefore, the sermon about Christian love, modesty and philanthropy does not reach believers. All this contributes to pride and many other vices that come from it.2. Protestants do not have confession, saints, communion, holy fathers, icons, beauty, joy in church.
3. Protestants consider themselves saints and saved, so pride is almost a normal phenomenon.
4. Father Archpriest Peter Smirnov wrote this book more than 100 years ago. Since that time, deviations of the Western Church from Orthodox teaching have gradually undermined not only the Church itself, but also the entire Western society and led them into a moral, cultural and economic impasse.
THE BENEFICIAL INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY
Christianity has had a beneficial effect on the whole world. The pagan world - dominated by power, wealth, pride, cruelty, and moral depravity - gradually degenerated under the influence of Christianity. The main values were kindness, love, mercy, modesty, forgiveness, purity of morals. Christianity influenced a person’s entire life, all areas of his complex life and washed everything and everyone. Christian rules and norms for life have become the basis of the laws of all civilized countries. Christian teaching became the cradle of a new purified Christian culture. Recently, in many countries there has been a gradual move away from Christian principles and values in life.
Content: Preface; (1) Paganism; (2) Christianity;
After the crucifixion of Jesus, the Jewish holy council - the Sanhedrin - began
cruel reprisal against the followers of Christ.
From the Bible we know about a Pharisee named Saul, who was cruel to them
persecutor. Later he believed in Christ and gave his life for his faith in Him.
Saul changed his name and became known as the Apostle Paul. Persecuted
Christians went further and further from Judea, preaching their faith
pagans, until finally Christianity was spread throughout
Roman Empire.
The first Roman emperor to begin massacres of Christians was
Nero. 
A cunning and cruel man, he dreamed of building Rome in his own way
project to glorify his name. To do this it was necessary to destroy
old residential buildings in the center of Rome. By his secret order in 64 there was
a fire was started. Due to oversight, almost half of Rome burned down. Outraged
the crowd began to demand that the emperor investigate and punish the criminals.
Nero quickly found the “culprits”. They turned out to be representatives of the new
unknown religion - Christians. Christians were crucified on crosses, burned,
thrown to be devoured by wild animals.
After Nero, many emperors carried out executions for the Christian faith.
Christians hid in the catacombs, held their meetings in secret
places, and obediently went to execution when discovered. But despite
persecution, Christianity grew and strengthened.
When Emperor Constantine came to power 
he, in 313, published Milan
Edict, which equalized the rights of all religions. Christians came out of the catacombs, they
granted many rights, and returned their property taken from them
the previous emperor, Diocletian. Later Konstantin became increasingly
lean towards the Christian religion, having built several Christian
cathedrals
Fifty years later, Emperor Theodosius 
declared catholic*
(*the term “Catholic Church”, or Orthodox, which means: true,
used in relation to the Christianity of Rome from the beginning of the 2nd century, and to
Christianity of Constantinople - from the end of the 4th century) Christianity
state religion and banned pagan worship, transforming
all pagan temples into Christian ones. To help the pagans move into
Christianity, pagan holidays were declared Christian,
pagan icons and statues were given biblical names, many pagan
the rituals became the rituals of the Christian church. Thus the Church of Rome lost
the purity of Christian teaching, distorting many provisions of the Bible
(worship of Mary, saints, statues, pagan holidays, prayers for
dead, infant baptism, etc.).
After the death of Theodosius, the Roman Empire was divided between his two
sons to the Western part with the center in Rome and the Eastern part - with the center in
Constantinople.In 476, the emperor of the western part of the empire, Romulus Augustus
was forced to abdicate the throne, and all power was concentrated in the hands of
eastern part of the empire (Constantinople).Western part of the empire
was left without state support and the army, and was often conquered
neighboring barbarian tribes. The occupiers imposed unbearable taxes on the people
and taxes and the only authority to which the people could turn for
help was the church. The Church conducted diplomatic negotiations with
invaders, promising them God's intercession for their cooperation and help.
From the time Theodosius founded the church in Constantinople,
she was constantly in conflict with the Church of Rome due to differences in
rituals and dogmas, property disputes, worship in different languages
(Latin - in the west, and Greek - in the east) and the struggle of the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople for primacy among Christians
patriarchs. The emperors supported the Eastern Church, while the Western
insisted on its primacy, as it was allegedly founded by the Apostle Peter.
In 606, Rome managed to obtain from Emperor Phocasdecree by which
legitimized that "The Diocese of the Blessed Apostle Peter should be
head of all Churches." The decree guaranteed that the title "Ecumenical Bishop"
may belong exclusively to the Bishop of Rome, also he
received the title "Vicar of Jesus on Earth" and "Papa", which means: "Father".
Having felt the power, already in716 Pope Gregory II excommunicated
Emperor Leo III , who tried to ban the worship of icons
(iconoclasm) in Italy by imperial decree, without the consent of the pope. A
in 741, Pope Zachary did not even appeal to the Byzantine emperor so that
confirm his election as pope (although this was a formality, but for
created the appearance among the people that the pope was subordinate to the emperor).
When the Lombards began to oppress the population of the Western part of the empire, the pope
turned to the king of the Franks, Pepin the Short, for help. Dad promised
support his Carlovingian dynasty, and for this King Pepin cleared
the western part of the empire from the barbarians and gave the church an extensive Papal
region, and the pope has the privileges of spiritual mentor of all governments. In 756
The pope crowned Pepin's son, Charles, to the throne of the Roman Empire.
The Byzantine emperor no longer claimed power over the Western part.
Only the Western part, the Byzantine part, was now considered the Roman Empire
Only the Eastern half remained an empire.
Since then, the papacy received absolute power, and could approve or
reject any candidate for the throne of the empire. Without dad's approval
the emperor could not make any important decision while under threat
excommunication from the church.
In 1054, the Church of Constantinople categorically refused to be
under the control of Rome. Both churches anathematized each other. This is what happened
Schism: the Church of Rome became Catholic, the Church of Constantinople -
Orthodox.
The Russian Church was subordinate to the Constantinople
patriarchy. In Kievan Rus, the Orthodox faith became the state faith
religion around 990, after the baptism of Rus' by Prince Vladimir.
Around the end of the 16th century, Russian Orthodox Church received
independence from Constantinople.
After the schism, from 1096 to the end of the 13th century, the Catholic Church
organizes a series of crusades to liberate the Holy Land from
Muslim Turks who captured it.
At the beginning of the 13th century (1215), to combat heresy, the Catholic Church established
special judicial body "Holy Inquisition".
Armies of executioners and spies from the church, false witnesses, waiting, as it were,
to snatch from the property of the executed “heretic”, the streets of the towns were flooded.
The Church, which has grown fat on the blood of innocent people, is now, like the sword of Damocles,
hung over everyone. No one had protection from her, not even kings. Almost nothing
There is no trace of Christ's teaching left in the church. The people were subject to huge
taxes, but the church did not pay for anything. All services were held at
Latin, and people could only rely on
for explanations from priests.
When the pope issued a bull on the forgiveness of sins by the church and the sale of indulgences,
young German theologian Martin Luther
wrote and announced 95 theses, in
which he pointed out to the extra-biblical, anti-Christian dogmas of the church.
There had been protests against the papacy before (Czech preacher Jan Hus and
his followers were executed by the church for this), but so boldly, openly and
justifiably, no one spoke like Luther. He called on the entire German nation
Tofight against papal dominance. For this he was excommunicated from the church and sentenced to
execution (died a natural death before the scheduled execution). He translated the Bible into
German. Around the same time, the New Testament was colloquially
English translatesWilliam Tyndale. For this he was burned by the church, and
most copies of the translation were confiscated and burned as well. However
many have managed to read and understand that the church is not a saint, but a sinner,
and a great one. Another reformer John Calvin with his followers
complete the translation of the New Testament into French.
From this time begins the period called the Reformation. If
Luther's supporters (Lutherans) tried to remove from the church everything that
contradicts the Bible, then the followers of Calvin (Calvinists; the same
Huguenots in France) tried to remove from the church everything that was not mentioned in the Bible
mentioned.
Calvinists introduced the practice of interpreting any passage of the Bible not from the standpoint
any human authority, but solely with the help
the authority of God - i.e. other places in the Bible. They liquidated
church rituals, recognized the inspiration of only the Sacred
Scripture, and therefore the fallibility of any church councils. Calvinists
abandoned monasticism because God created men and women for
creating a family and having children. They rejected the need for help
clergy in saving people, believing that salvation comes only by faith
in Christ, and works of faith are not necessary for salvation, but are determined by them,
whether your belief is true or not. There are works, which means there is faith.The Calvinists succeeded
achieve complete freedom from the papacy. Geneva became the center of the reformation.
In England the situation was more tense. The Reformation did not take place
"from below" and "from above". King Henry VIII, a cruel and unpredictable personality
(had 6 wives, beheaded two of them), wanted to achieve independence from Rome.
Part of England still remained Catholic, part Calvinist. Using
religious conflict, Henry tried to implement his political
plans for an absolute monarchy, and dictated its terms to the church. Unrest
did not subside. There were many conflicts around church property.
After his death, Henry's daughter Mary, a Catholic, came to power. She
restored the power of Rome over the Church of England, the laws of heresy again entered
into force, and the Inquisition against Protestants began. After Mary's death,
received the nickname “Bloody Mary” from the people, her sister ascended the throne -
Elizabeth. She managed to achieve some balance by infringing on the rights of Catholics
and giving some rights to Protestants. However, the conflict intensified.
Catholic priests were under the authority of Rome and refused
recognize the queen's authority. Elizabeth ordered the execution
Catholic priests.
Somewhere during these troubled times, Puritanism was born. The Puritans wanted to achieve
greater purity of the dogmas of the church and complete independence from the Catholic
influence. When King James came to power, they hoped for reform
churches of England. However, Yakov rejected their offer because he was afraid
that the Puritans' denial of the king's absolute power over the faithful could
lead to a riot. At this time, in 1620, many Puritans left England and
moved to America in the hope of establishing a state with a single religion,
cleansed of all extraneous things, based only on the Word of God and free
from all Catholic inventions.
This is how Protestantism was born in America.
At a time when the Puritans were exploring America and studying the Bible, in Russia
(reform of Patriarch Nikon 1650-1660) they argued about whether there were two or three
make the sign of the cross with your fingers, how many bows to give, whether to bow to the ground, or
waist-high, what kind of stamp to make on prosphora, how many times to say “Hallelujah”,
in which direction should the religious procession go? For this, the “Old Believers”, i.e. those who
They wanted to cross themselves with two fingers, but the church executed them.
The translation of the Bible into Russian was carried out only at the end of the 19th century, and
appeared in narrow circulation decades later. Subsequent wars
revolutions Soviet authority, and the general shortage of books - all this was thrown away
The Orthodox Church is far back in the study of the science of theology (theology).
If all English-speaking countries exchanged their achievements for centuries
knowledge and experience given by the Holy Spirit not only to priests, but also
to the flock of God, publishing a lot of bibles and literature for Bible study,
accessible to anyone, the Orthodox Church was “cooked in
own juice”, rereading again and again the works of medieval elders
and occasionally publishing some theological work that has been available for decades
for reading only to a limited circle of monks.
Today, having become a state church again, it is trying to
authority to suppress among the people any desire to get acquainted with the accumulated
theological experience of their English-speaking fellow believers, declaring
Protestant churches into sects and throwing mud at them.
SUMMA SUMMARUM : The facts speak for themselves.
