,
Comoros,
Kuwait,
Lebanon,
Libya,
Mauritania,
Morocco,
UAE,
Oman,
Eritrea,
Saudi Arabia ,
Syria,
Somalia,
Sudan,
Tunisia,
Chad,
SADR
() ,
State of Palestine
(partially recognized state)
Somaliland
(unrecognized state).
Organizations:
UN,
African Union,
OIS,
LAG,
GCC,
Agadir Agreement
Regulatory organizations: Royal Moroccan Academy (Morocco), Academy of the Arabic Language (Egypt), Academy of the Arabic Language in Damascus (Syria), Jordan Academy of the Arabic Language (Jordan), Iraqi Scientific Academy in Baghdad (Iraq), Academy of the Arabic Language in Khurtum (Sudan), House of Wisdom Foundation (Tunisia), Academy of the Arabic Language in Jamahiriya (Libya), Israeli Academy of the Arabic Language (Israel).
from 260 to 323 million
The only official One of the official
Arabic (Arab. اللغة العربية , al-luġa al-ʿarabiyya listen)) belongs to the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic family of languages. The number of speakers of Arabic and its variants is approximately 240 million (mother tongue), and another 50 million use Arabic as a second language. Classical Arabic, the language of the Qur'an, is used to a limited extent for religious purposes by adherents of Islam around the world (total population of 1.57 billion people).
Dialects
Modern spoken Arabic falls into 5 groups of dialects, which are actually separate languages from a linguistic point of view:
- Maghreb dialect group
- Egyptian-Sudanese Arabic
- Syro-Mesopotamian Arabic
- Arabian group of dialects (="language")
- Central Asian group of dialects (="language")
The Maghreb language belongs to the Western group, the rest - to the Eastern group of Arabic languages and dialects. (See "language or dialect" problem); It is preferable to use the well-established term “dialect” in Arabic studies ( Arab. لهجة )
Literary language (in Western Arabic studies the term English is used. Modern Standard Arabic- modern standard Arabic ) - unified. Literary Arabic combines vocabulary for many things in modern world or science, but at the same time in some Arab countries it is quite rarely used in colloquial speech.
Place of Arabic in the Semitic language group
Classical Arabic differs little from Old Arabic. Many roots of Semitic languages are also found in Arabic. In Semitic studies, there has in the past been a tendency to regard Classical Arabic as the most archaic of the Semitic languages. However, over time, through comparison with other Afroasiatic languages, it was found that much in classical Arabic is not so original.
Story
Over the centuries, the language has constantly changed, which, however, has had little effect on writing, because short vowel sounds, except in the Koran, are not written in the text.
Classical (high) Arabic is not the native language of Arabs today. However, even today, with a modified vocabulary, it is used in almost all newspapers and books, with the exception of Tunisia, Morocco and partly Algeria, where Arabic shares the role of a literary language with French. In scientific and technical literature in other Arab countries, English is often used in places where the necessary vocabulary is lacking. The language is sometimes ironically called Modern High Arabic.
Vocabulary composition
The vocabulary of the modern Arabic literary language is characterized by the fact that its main part is originally Arabic. “The Arabs highly value the word-formation capabilities of their language, seeing the richness and clarity of word-formation paradigms as the key to adapting the Arabic literary language to current state society. Moreover, it should be noted that in modern nomination processes, the most active models are those with a high generalization index. Thus, recently the vocabulary of the Arabic literary language has been significantly replenished by derivative names formed by adding the suffix ية-, which forms a derivative series with the meaning of generalized abstract qualities and properties: استقلالية independence; حركية dynamism, dynamics; شمولية maximalism; totalitarianism; اشكلالية - problem, etc.” . Some part of the vocabulary is general Semitic and only a small part is foreign, such as the words: “TV” - تِلِيفِزْيُونْ [tilifizyon], دكتورة title of doctor, سكرتير secretary, فيلم film. The total number of borrowings from European languages is small and amounts to about one percent of the dictionary.
For the Arabic literary language, four large synchronous sections of vocabulary development are distinguished: the pre-Muslim vocabulary of the communal-tribal system (late 7th and early 8th centuries); expansion of the vocabulary associated with the origin, development and prosperity of the medieval Arabic-speaking civilization (until the 12th century); the period of stagnation and reduction in the range of use of the Arabic literary language (XIII-XVIII centuries) and the beginning of the modern period (from the middle of the 19th century).
Synonymy, polysemy of words and homonymy have become widely developed in the Arabic language. The main methods of word formation are: morphological - according to word-formation models and formulas, syntactic and semantic.
Despite the fact that the vocabulary is very rich, it is often not sufficiently standardized and is often overloaded with linguistic background. For example, there is no word that quite accurately corresponds to the word nation. The word used to denote this concept is (أمة, umma) meaning in the past, and in a religious context to this day, “a community of believers (Muslims)”; or, for example, “nationality” (جنسية , jinsiya) generally means “gender,” for example, sex life sounds like (حياة الجنسية , haya: t al-jinsiyya). The word "nationalism" (قومية , Qaumiyya), comes originally from vocabulary nomads kaum and means "tribe" in the sense of "nomadic tribe".
Phonetics
Phonetically, literary Arabic is characterized by a widely developed system of consonant phonemes, especially glottal, emphatic and interdental.
"In the phonetic sections grammatical works either only the articulations of Arabic sounds were described, or also their combinatorial changes. The Indian system of sound classification, based on taking into account the place of articulation and other articulatory features, had a significant influence on the Arabs. The technique of comparing sounds in articulatory and functional terms was used. Avicenna introduced the concept of correlation to establish relationships between sounds. Cases of gemination were classified as the result of complete progressive or regressive contact assimilation. Partial and distant assimilation was described. Questions were studied about the interaction of consonants and vowels, about the replacement of consonants, about metathesis, about the loss of hamza, about elision, about the emergence of a connecting vowel, about palatalization, velarization, about sound symbolism.”
Pronunciation
In many Arab countries, efforts are currently being made to bring pronunciation closer to standard Arabic. The basis is the quotation norm (Ar. tilāwa تلاوة) of the Koran. This style of pronunciation is generally used only in religious contexts.
It is certain that the original pronunciation of High Arabic is not exactly known. For example, there is no consensus on the pronunciation of the ending un indefinite nouns ( kitabun etc. kitab). There are arguments in favor of two options, and since there were no vowel marks (vowel marks) in the ancient handwritten script, it is impossible to say with certainty how it was pronounced.
| List of Swadesh for Arabic | ||
| № | Arab | Russian |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | أنا | I |
| 2 | أنت | You |
| 3 | هو | He |
| 4 | نحن | We |
| 5 | أنت | You |
| 6 | هم | They |
| 7 | هذا | this, this, this |
| 8 | أن | that, that, that |
| 9 | هنا | here |
| 10 | هناك | there |
| 11 | الذي | Who |
| 12 | أن | What |
| 13 | حيث | Where |
| 14 | عندما | When |
| 15 | كما | How |
| 16 | ليس | Not |
| 17 | جميع | all, all, everything, everything |
| 18 | كثير | many |
| 19 | بعض | some |
| 20 | قليل | few |
| 21 | آخر | different, different |
| 22 | واحد | one |
| 23 | اثنان | two |
| 24 | ثلاثة | three |
| 25 | أربعة | four |
| 26 | خمسة | five |
| 27 | عظيم | big, great |
| 28 | طويل | long, long |
| 29 | واسع | wide |
| 30 | سميك | thick |
| 31 | ثقيل | heavy |
| 32 | صغير | small |
| 33 | قصير | short, brief |
| 34 | ضيق | narrow |
| 35 | رقيق | thin |
| 36 | امرأة | woman |
| 37 | رجل | man |
| 38 | رجل | Human |
| 39 | طفل | child, child |
| 40 | زوجة | wife |
| 41 | زوج | husband |
| 42 | والدة | mother |
| 43 | والد | father |
| 44 | حيوان | beast, animal |
| 45 | سمك | fish |
| 46 | طائر | bird, bird |
| 47 | كلب | dog, dog |
| 48 | قملة | louse |
| 49 | ثعبان | snake |
| 50 | دودة | worm |
| 51 | شجرة | tree |
| 52 | غابة | forest |
| 53 | عصا | stick, rod |
| 54 | فاكهة | fruit |
| 55 | بذرة | seed, seeds |
| 56 | يترك | sheet |
| 57 | جذر | root |
| 58 | قشرة | bark |
| 59 | زهرة | flower |
| 60 | عشب | grass |
| 61 | حبل | rope |
| 62 | جلد | leather |
| 63 | لحم | meat |
| 64 | دم | blood |
| 65 | عظم | bone |
| 66 | دهن | fat |
| 67 | بيضة | egg |
| 68 | قرن | horn |
| 69 | ذيل | tail |
| 70 | قلم | feather |
| 71 | شعر | hair |
| 72 | رئيس | head |
| 73 | الأذن | ear |
| 74 | عين | eye, eye |
| 75 | أنف | nose |
| 76 | فم | mouth |
| 77 | سن | tooth |
| 78 | لغة | tongue) |
| 79 | مسمار | nail |
| 80 | قدم | foot, leg |
| 81 | ساق | leg |
| 82 | ركبة | knee |
| 83 | يد | hand |
| 84 | جناح | wing |
| 85 | معدة | belly, belly |
| 86 | في الداخل | entrails, intestines |
| 87 | العنق | neck |
| 88 | ظهر | back |
| 89 | صدر | breast |
| 90 | قلب | heart |
| 91 | كبد | liver |
| 92 | شرب | drink |
| 93 | هناك | eat, eat |
| 94 | عض | bite |
| 95 | مص | suck |
| 96 | بصق | spit |
| 97 | تقيؤ | vomit, vomit |
| 98 | ضربة | blow |
| 99 | تنفس | breathe |
| 100 | ضحك | laugh |
Writing
Arabic is written from right to left. Moreover, in Arabic, unlike languages with Latin or Cyrillic graphics, there are no capital letters, so proper names are written like any other word, as well as the first word in a sentence.
Anthroponymy
Arabic names are traditionally written in literal order.
Grammar
“Arab scholars usually divided grammar into syntax, morphology and phonetics and paid considerable attention to issues of word formation, and in connection with it etymology, thanks to which in the 11th century. high level The root theory has been achieved. Syntax and morphology are the most original parts of Arabic grammar, having no sources in either Greek or Indian works and focused on the specifics of the Arabic language.
The task of syntax was the structural and semantic analysis of the sentence. It postulated subject-predicate relations between two names or between a name and a verb. There were small/elementary sentences and large ones forming a hierarchy; sentences are nominal, verbal and adverbial - depending on what word is at the beginning of the sentence, and accordingly there are different types of subjects and predicates. Secondary members of the sentence were identified and classified in detail (up to five types of additions, circumstances different types, "applications"). There were different cases of formal and virtual implementation of inflections. The concept of an implied term was introduced to explain the construction. The relationships of coordination, control and adjacency were also analyzed.
In morphology, parts of speech and features of their formation that are not determined syntactically were considered. These included issues such as parts of speech (noun, verb and particles of up to 27 types), root structure, names and their multidimensional classification according to for various reasons(explicit names - nouns, adjectives, hidden names - personal pronouns, common names - demonstrative and relative pronouns, etc.), verbs (with a detailed classification of their forms and meanings), two-case and three-case names, the formation of relative names, the formation of composites , the formation of forms of number and gender, the formation of deminitives, changes in the form of a word due to the presence of weak root consonants, pausal forms, etc. The issue of masdar was also discussed here.
Particularly great successes were achieved in phonetics (Khalil ibn Ahmad; Abu Ali ibn Sina - Avicenna, 980-1037; Sibavaihi).
Arabic characterized by highly developed inflectivity. (The inflectivity and similarity of the inflection of Semitic and Indo-European languages has been questioned by some researchers of languages. Inflection Indo-European languages is a different phenomenon from the inflection of Semitic languages, since it implies a stronger interaction of inflection with the root. The Arabic language is characterized by agglutination. Some scientists, in particular A. A. Reformatsky, believe that the fusion of Semitic languages is special shape agglutination, since the fusion of a Semitic word is a predictable process and follows relatively strict formulas, which Arabic authors like to present using the three-letter root فعل with the meaning do and the vowels themselves that form a fusion are, as a rule, independent of the root. A similar, but not analogous, phenomenon has been observed in a number of non-Semitic languages, in particular Germanic. These are, for example, pairs of words singular and plural in English, like foot - feet, tooth - teeth or changes in root vowels in irregular English verbs or so-called strong verbs in German, but in Germanic languages there is no regularity in the reproduction of so-called fusional formulas. Most words in Arabic can be traced back to the original form of the verb, which usually consists of three- or four- (rarely two- and five-) root consonants.
Although the root is indivisible for the speaker’s consciousness, some familiarity with parsing the root is useful for facilitating the memorization of such an extensive root vocabulary as the Arabic language is endowed with, and for the feasible interpretation of unfamiliar roots when reading without a dictionary.
Root of the word
The Arabic root is most often three-letter, less often two- or four-letter, and even less often five-letter; but already for a four-letter root there is a requirement that it contain at least one of the smooth consonants (vox memoriae (memory): مُرْ بِنَفْلٍ).
According to the famous domestic Arabist S. S. Maisel, the number of triconsonant roots in the modern Arabic literary language is 82% of the total number of Arabic roots.
Not just any consonants can participate in the composition of a root: some of them are compatible in the same root (more precisely, in the same cell; see below: b), others are incompatible.
Incompatible:
- Laryngeal: غ ع خ ح (if ع and ء are compatible)
- Non-laryngeal:
ب and فم
ت and ث
ث and س ص ض ط ظ
ج and ف ق ك
خ and ظقك
د and ذ
ذ and ص ض ط ظ
ر and ل
ز and ض ص ظ
س and ص ض
ش and ض ل
ص and ض ط ظ
ض and ط ظ
ط and ظك
ظ and غ ق
غ and ق ك
ق and كغ
ل and ن
This feature of the composition of the Arabic root makes the task somewhat easier for those reading the manuscript without dots; for example, the spelling of حعفر should be جَعْفَر
It should be noted that the translation of the cases الرَّفْعُ, الجَرُّ and النَّصْبُ is very conditional, since the genitive and accusative cases Arabic includes such names that, when translated, can appear in any of the remaining three cases of the Russian language:
Zeid cut the rope with a knife ( instrumental case)
We talked about studying ( prepositional)
قُلْ لِمُحَمَّدٍ - الجَرُّ Tell Muhammad (dative case)
قَاوَمَ اَلشَّعْبُ اَلْمُسْتَعْمِرِينَ - اَلنَّصْبُ The people fought against the colonialists (instrumental case)
The signs by which case is recognized are different and they depend on the morphological features of the name.
| Islamic studies
|
|
| Sections | |
|
|
Noun
A noun in Arabic is characterized by such morphological concepts as gender, number - singular, dual (very rarely used in dialects) and plural, case and state, as well as the categories of definiteness, uncertainty and neutral status.
Genus. There are only two genders in Arabic: masculine and feminine. For names with a characteristic ending [atun], the feminine gender is often characteristic. In general, whether a name belongs to one gender or another is associated with meaning, for example, with gender.
For example, the noun أُمٌّ ["ummun]-(mother), despite its ending is feminine. For many nouns denoting the name of a profession or type of activity, the feminine gender is formed simply by adding the ending [-atun] to the corresponding masculine noun. For example:
| طَالِبٌ [ student] | طَالِبَةٌ [ student] |
To convey the ending letter female used ﺓ [tā’ marbuta], a letter that is not in the alphabet. It is a graphic variant of the usual ت [t], which is called [tā’], or “stretched t”. By connecting the ends of the “stretched t” to each other, we get ﺓ [tā’ marbuta]. In Semitic languages [t] is one of the main indicators of gender. When agreeing with names, ت is used in verbs, and ﺓ in names. [tā’ marbuta] is written only at the end of a word and can have two styles: without a connection - ﺓ and with a connection on the right - ﺔ .
Verb
The verb is characterized by a great development of verb forms, called breeds: a unified conjugation system for all verbs; a developed system of tense forms (three simple and three complex tenses); two voices (active and passive); five moods (indicative, subjunctive, conditional, imperative and reinforced); a system of verbal names associated with breeds (the so-called “masdars”).
A verb denotes an action or state of a person or thing and acts as a predicate in a sentence. The most common type of Arabic verb is the three-consonant verb. Three consonants standing nearby and voweled by fatha (the neuter root can also be voweled by damma or kasra), represent a 3rd person masculine verb singular past tense. This verb form has the formula فَعَلَ. As the simplest, this form is taken as the initial one in the formation of derivative forms and is conventionally translated in dictionaries by the infinitive. When conjugating an Arabic verb, personal pronouns are omitted, since person, number and gender are quite fully expressed in personal endings.
Past tense of verb - The past tense of an Arabic verb serves to express an action that occurred before the moment of speech, and is formed by replacing the ending of the 3rd person singular masculine with the corresponding personal endings. The Arabic verb, unlike the Russian one, does not receive a clear aspectual meaning in the past tense form, and therefore, depending on the meaning of the sentence, it can be translated either by the perfect form or by the imperfect form of the Russian verb. For example:كَتَبَ “he wrote” or “he wrote.”
Present-future tense Arabic verb expresses an action that is incomplete in nature, occurring or beginning simultaneously with the moment of speech or with some other moment directly or indirectly indicated in this statement. The present-future form is formed from the past tense by adding the appropriate prefixes and endings; in this case, the first radical loses its vowel (a sukun appears above it), and the second receives fatha, damma or kasra, which is called a typical vowel and is indicated in dictionaries by the corresponding letter (a, i, y), placed in brackets after the verb.
Future verb tense is formed on the basis of the present tense form by adding the prefix سوف to it [saufa] or its abbreviated version س [sa]. Unlike س, which is written together with the verb form, سوف is written separately with it. Both prefixes have no independent meaning. The conjugation of the verb in this tense form is basically similar to the conjugation in the present-future tense.
In modern Arabic, especially in periodicals, the verb of the second type, formed from the prefix سوف, is actively used, as well as the masdar of this verb تسويف, in the meaning of “endless delay”, “constant postponement for an indefinite future” in relation to any plans, promises or obligations, for example, election ones, etc.].
|
|
|
Most common words
The three most common words are particles that are written together with the next word. These include الـ al (definite article), و va(conjunction “and”), and بـ bi(preposition “through”).
Eight Most Common Single Words
- في fi(V)
- من min(from, from)
- على " ala(on the)
- أن Anna(what (conjunction))
- إن Inna(truly)
- إلى silt(to, to, to)
- كان ka: on(be)
- هذا، هذه ha:a, ha:pihi(this[t], this)
Mentions of the peoples of the Arabian Desert, called “Arabs,” are found in Assyrian military chronicles of the 8th–7th centuries. BC, in biblical texts of the 9th century. BC, in epigraphic texts of the ancient states of South Arabia (1st millennium BC - mid-1st millennium AD), in ancient authors (for example, in Herodotus, 5th century BC .). Among the native speakers themselves, the name “Arabs” and “Arabic” for themselves and their language has been fixed since the emergence and spread of Islam. The first use of the name “Arabic language” in Arabic sources is noted in the Koran (mid-7th century AD).
Arabic is spoken in Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Yemen, Egypt, Sudan, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Mauritania, Western Sahara, Somalia, Djibouti, Republic of Chad . "Islets" Arabic dialects They are also found in the territories of neighboring African states, in Turkey, Cyprus, Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia (Uzbekistan).
Literary form of Arabic(LAYA) is the official language of all Arab countries, one of the official and working languages of the UN. The Maltese dialect of Arabic has a literary and written form distinct from LAYA and is the only Arabic dialect that is considered independent language; in Malta it has state status. The total Arabic-speaking population currently ranges, according to various sources, from 190 to 250 million people.
The first written monument of the common Arabic language is the Koran, written down in the mid-7th century. AD The sacred nature of the text of the Koran determined the safety of all of it. linguistic features without significant changes to date. In the 8th–9th centuries. AD Monuments of oral tribal poetry were also recorded. Literary form of the language during the 8th–10th centuries. AD improves in the written field in scientific and educated circles of society. In connection with the consolidation of Arab society, the formation of the Muslim community, the spread of Islam, the formation of the state, administration and army, a colloquial common Arabic language such as Koine was formed. However, over the centuries, the spoken form of the language gradually acquires territorial characteristics and breaks up into many different dialects.
Currently Arabic dialects are classified according to two main parameters – social and territorial. By social characteristics they are divided into nomadic and sedentary, and the latter, in turn, into urban and rural. The social division of dialects is superimposed by geographical division. Geographically modern Arabic dialects are divided into two large groups: eastern (Mashriq), consisting of four subgroups - Mesopotamian, Arabian, Central Arab and Egyptian-Sudanese - and western (Maghrebian, or North African). The eastern group also includes the “island” Arabic dialects of Central Asia.
The oral-conversational form (RAYA), represented in each case by the local dialect, serves everyday spheres of communication at all levels: family, production, trade, households and on the street; it has long been used verbally folk art(for example, the texts of the tales of 1001 nights, recorded in the 14th–16th centuries in Egypt, are characterized by signs of urban oral speech).
A similar relationship existed for several centuries between Church Slavonic and Russian in Rus' and exists in a number of other regions of the world.
The cultural and historical influence of the Arabic language can be traced in many languages of Asia and Africa. This was facilitated by the spread of Islam, as well as the high cultural status of LAYA, which has a developed system of general and special terminology for many areas of social, scientific and cultural life.
A considerable number of words of Arabic origin are also in the Russian language, where they came, as a rule, through intermediary languages: Latin, Western European, Persian, Turkish. In addition to exoticisms such as genie, jihad, vizier, qadi, etc., some names of stars and constellations are Arabic in origin (Aldebaran, Altair - from Arabic 'al=Dabaran, 'al=Ta'ir), a number of scientific terms (algebra, alcohol - through Spanish, number zero - through European, from Arabic 'zero'; algorithm - from the Latinized form of the name mathematics al-Khwarizmi).
In turn, already early monuments of the Arabic language testify to a wide layer of cultural borrowings from the neighboring Semitic languages of South Arabia, from the Aramaic languages of Syria and Mesopotamia, from Middle Persian, Greek and Latin. Later, borrowings from Persian and Turkish appeared. The modern period is characterized by the active penetration into the Arabic vocabulary of Western European technical terminology, new international scientific and technical terms, tracings of standard phrases and phrases of mass communication.
From all of the above it is clear that the work Arabists-translators is complicated by the fact that in addition to texts written in the common Arabic literary language, it is also necessary to translate nationally colored oral speech. When selecting a translator to fulfill a particular order, our translation agency Ramses tries to take into account Which Arabic dialect does the translator speak?.
Today, many translators study or improve the language in Arab countries, which gives them the opportunity to master not only literary Arabic, but also the spoken dialect characteristic of the region. It is this knowledge that helps the translator in the future to perform both written and oral translations quickly and efficiently.
I have been interested in the world of the East for quite a long time, but I only recently started learning Arabic. For now, I can provide brief information and a description of the features of the spoken and written language; if anyone is interested, I can post detailed lessons and study materials.
Best regards, Al-Hayat
So, Arabic belongs to the Afroasiatic language macrofamily and the Semitic group of languages. In addition to Arabic, this language family includes Old Aramaic, Amharic ( official language Ethiopia), a number of unwritten languages of South Arabia and Ethiopia, as well as extinct languages, which include Phoenician, Aramaic, Assyro-Babylonian or, in other words, Akkadian.
A peculiarity of Semitic languages is that in them the root of a word consists only of consonants: usually three, rarely two or four. Formation and word formation occurs by changing vowel sounds, as well as by adding prefixes and endings.
The Arabic language is widespread in the countries of the Near and Middle East, in the countries of the Arabian Peninsula and on the African continent. Here is the list of Arabic-speaking countries I have found:
Near East:
1. Syria
2. Lebanon
3. Iraq
4. Jordan
5. Palestinian territories (West Bank and Gaza Strip) and Israel
Arabian Peninsula:
6. Saudi Arabia
7. United Arab Emirates
8. Bahrain
9. Qatar
10. Yemen
11. Kuwait
12. Oman
African continent:
13. Egypt
14. Sudan
15. Libya
16. Algeria
17. Tunisia
18. Morocco
19. Mauritania
20. Djibouti
21. Somalia
22. Eritrea
23. Western Sahara
24. Chad
In addition, quite large colonies are formed by Arabic-speaking populations in Iran and Afghanistan, Turkey, Nigeria and Ethiopia, and Tanzania. Arabs live in Indonesia, in the Bukhara and Samarkand regions of Uzbekistan, and in the North Caucasus in Russia.
The official language for all the countries listed above is literary Arabic. However, due to the isolated nature historical development Each country has developed spoken languages - dialects, which differ from the literary language and from each other in a number of features - phonetic, lexical and grammatical. But at the same time, despite the presence of its own spoken language in each country, literary Arabic continues to be the language of science, fiction, the press, radio, and official speeches of government and political figures.
Arabic is one of the official and working languages of the UN.
Throughout the history of its existence, the Arabic literary language has undergone significant changes in grammatical terms, especially in the mid-twentieth century, when most Arab countries achieved independence and began to pay more attention to their native language.
If in the 30s and 40s Western European languages, mainly English and French, predominated in Arab countries, then starting from the 60s, almost all Arab countries began to experience a tendency towards Arabization, which was explained by the desire of the Arab states to seek independence , to the revival of their culture and their language.
However, in the 80-90s, especially among the intelligentsia in many Arab countries, a kind of “rollback” from the policy of Arabism began to be observed.
The Arabic script is a system of 28 letters that represent only consonant phonemes. To represent the three long vowels, three consonant letters are used, called "alif", "waw" and "ya". To indicate short vowels, doubling of consonants, and absence of vowels, special superscript and subscript symbols are used, which are called “vowels.” The writing direction is from right to left. Depending on their position in a word or phrase, many letters have different styles: isolated, initial, middle and final. Some pairs of letters form so-called ligatures in writing - fused styles like & from Latin-French, or @ from English. at. The Arabic script has several varieties: Kufic script - ornamental and decorative, suls, ruk", nasta'liq, diwani, Maghribi and naskh. Naskh is used for typographic typesetting.
The cultural and historical influence of the Arabic language can be traced in many languages of Asia and Africa. This was facilitated by the spread of Islam, as well as the high cultural status of literary Arabic, which has a developed system of terminology for many areas of social, scientific and cultural life.
A considerable number of words of Arabic origin are also found in the Russian language, where they came, as a rule, through intermediary languages: Latin, Western European, Persian and Turkish. In addition to exoticisms such as genie, jihad, vizier, qadi, etc., the following are Arab in origin:
1. some names of stars and constellations: Aldebaran, Altair - from Arabic. "al-dabaran", "al-ta"ir",
2. a number of scientific terms: algebra, alcohol - through Spanish, number, zero - through European, from Arabic. "zero"; algorithm - from the Latinized form of the name of the mathematician al-Khorezmi,
3. the name of the military rank of admiral, which was borrowed into the Russian language from Dutch and goes back to the Arabic “amir l-bahri”, which means “emir of the sea”, and nothing remains from “sea” in the form of the word. But as a result of “folk etymology”, which connected this word with the Latin admiror (“to be amazed”) and its derivatives in Romance languages, the sound “d” appeared,
4. and other words quite varied in meaning.
Language is perhaps the most important function human body– it allows us to get food as a child, it allows us to get almost anything we want as adults, and it also gives us many hours of entertainment through literature, radio, music, and films. This list (in order from least common) summarizes the most important languages in use today.
10. French
Number of carriers: 129 million
Often called the most romantic language in the world, French is spoken in many countries, including Belgium, Canada, Rwanda, Cameroon and Haiti. Oh yes, in France too. We're actually very lucky that French is so popular, because without it, we'd be stuck with Dutch Toast, Dutch Fries and Dutch Kissing (ugh!).
To say “hello” in French, you say “Bonjour.”
9. Malay-Indonesian language
Number of carriers: 159 million
Malay-Indonesian is spoken - surprise - in Malaysia and Indonesia. In fact, we will deviate from the quantity because there are many Malay dialects, the most popular of which is Indonesian. But they are all largely based on the same root language, making it the ninth most spoken languages in the world.
Indonesia is a fascinating place; The nation is made up of more than 13,000 islands and is the sixth most populous country in the world. Malaysia borders two major regions of Indonesia (including the island of Borneo), and is mainly known for its capital, Kuala Lumpur.
To say “hello” in Indonesian, say “Selamat pagi” (se-LA-maht PA-gi).
8. Portuguese
Number of carriers: 191 million
Think of Portuguese as a small language. In the 12th century, Portugal gained independence from Spain and expanded throughout the world with the help of famous explorers such as Vasco da Gama and Prince Henry the Navigator. (Good thing Henry became a navigator... could you imagine if a guy named “Prince Henry the Navigator” became a florist?) Since Portugal got into this exploration game early enough, the language took hold around the world, especially in Brazil (where it is the national language), Macau, Angola, Venezuela, and Mozambique.
To say “hello” in Portuguese, say “Bom dia.”
7. Bengali language
Number of carriers: 211 million
In Bangladesh, a country of more than 120 million people, nearly everyone speaks Bengali. And because Bangladesh is virtually surrounded by India (where the population is growing so fast that it feels like breathing the air could get you pregnant), the number of Bengali speakers in the world is much higher than most people would expect.
To say “hello” in Bengali, say “Ei Je.”
6. Arabic
Number of carriers: 246 million
Arabic, one of the oldest languages in the world, is spoken in the Middle East, with speakers found in countries such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and Egypt. Moreover, because Arabic is the language of the Quran, millions of Muslims in other countries also speak Arabic. So many people have practical knowledge Arabic, in fact, made it the sixth official language of the United Nations in 1974.
To say “hello” in Arabic, say “Al salaam a’alaykum” (Al sa-LAM a a-LEY-kum).
5. Russian language
Number of carriers: 277 million
Mikhail Gorbachev, Boris Yeltsin, and Yakov Smirnov are among the millions of Russian speakers. Of course, we are used to thinking of them as our communist enemies. Now we think of them as our communist friends. One of the six languages of the UN, Russian is spoken not only in its homeland, but also in Belarus, Kazakhstan and the USA (we name a few places).
To say “hello” in Russian, you say “Zdravstvuyte” (Zdrav-stv-uite).
4. Spanish
Number of carriers: 392 million
Besides all those kids who study it in high school, Spanish spoken in approximately every South American and Central American country, not to mention Spain, Cuba and the USA. There is a special interest in the Spanish language in the USA, since many English words borrowed from their language, including: tornado, bonanza, patio, quesadilla, enchilada, and taco grande supreme.
To say “hello” in Spanish, say “Hola” (OH-LA).
3. Hindustani
Number of carriers: 497 million
Hindustani is the main language of populous India, and it includes a huge number of dialects (of which Hindi is the most common). While many predict that India's population will soon surpass China's, the recognition of English in India prevents Hindustani from being recognized as the world's most popular language. If you are interested in getting some Hindi, there is a very simple way: rent an Indian movie. The film industry in India is the most prosperous in the world, producing thousands of action films/romances/musicals every year.
To say “hello” in Hindustani, say “Namaste” (Na-MA-ste).
2. English
Number of carriers: 508 million
While English does not have a majority of speakers, it is the official language more countries than any other language. It is spoken all over the world, including New Zealand, USA, Australia, England, Zimbabwe, Caribbean, Hong Kong, South Africa and Canada. We would tell you more about English, but you probably already feel pretty comfortable in this language. Let us just talk further about the most popular languages in the world.
Today there is a huge number language schools, offering English courses in Moscow. The courses are taught using the latest educational methods. You study in English, without using Russian. All new words and concepts are explained by already familiar words, gestures, pictures - this makes the learning process much more interesting and interactive, but if learning is interesting, then the results will be better! After studying, all new constructions and words are immediately reinforced in practice, when working in pairs and mini groups. Thus, learning English in courses is not just about learning grammar and memorizing new words: you are learning to communicate.
1. Mandarin Chinese
Number of carriers: more than 1 billion.
Surprise, surprise, the most widely spoken language on the planet is found in the most populous country on the planet. Runner-up English language is in a 2 to 1 ratio in terms of the number of speakers, but this should not give you reason to think that Chinese easy to learn. Spoken Mandarin can be very rigid because each word can be spoken in four directions (or “tones”), and beginners are bound to have trouble distinguishing one tone from another. But if over a billion people could do it, you could too. Try saying hi!
To say “hello” in Chinese, say “Ni hao.” ("Hao" is pronounced as one syllable, but the tone requires your voice to drop halfway and then rise again at the end.)
MacawbskylanguagesTo (Arab. اللغة العربية, al-luġa al-ʿarabiyya) - Belongs to the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic family of languages. One of the most basic languages of religion and literature in the world. The language of the greatest book of the Islamic world, the QURAN and a monument of medieval Arabic literature, “Tales of the Thousand and One Nights” (الف ليلة وليلة alf laila wa-laila), united by the story of King Shahryar and his wife named Shahrazada (Scheherazade, Scheherazade). The numbers we are all familiar with from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are in Arabic. These figures originated in India (no later than the 5th century), and became known to Europe in the 10th-13th centuries. based on Arabic works (hence the name).
|
The number of speakers of Arabic and its variants is 420 million people (as of 2000). Official language all Arab countries - Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Western Sahara, Jordan, Iraq, Yemen, Qatar, Comoros, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, UAE, Oman, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Sudan, Tunisia. It also has official status in Djibouti, Chad, Eritrea, Mali, and Senegal. It is spoken by minorities in Israel, Iran and France. The Maltese dialect of Arabic has a literary and written form distinct from the Arabic literary language (see below) and is the only Arabic dialect that is considered an independent language and has the status of an official language. Arabic is the official and working language of several international organizations - the UN General Assembly and some other UN bodies, the League of Arab States, uniting more than 22 Arab and friendly non-Arab countries (created March 22 1945 and since then this day has been celebrated Arab Day), the African Union, which unites 53 African states. |
Arabic in the broadest sense of the word - the unification of a large number of different oral forms (dialects) formed over the past fifteen hundred years.
The first epigraphic (mainly on stone) monuments Arabic- These are messages about the movement of fellow tribesmen, shepherds with herds of camels, as well as gravestone and dedicatory inscriptions. IN pre-Islamic period such inscriptions used the Nabataean script (derived from Aramaic) or a variation of the South Arabian (Mabean) script. During this period on Arabian Peninsula there was an expressive poetic language transmitted only orally. Partially based on this poetic language Koran. And to this day, he conveyed to us a picture of what a text consisting of only consonants can look like, subsequently supplemented with vowels located above and below the text. In its final form, the Arabic script was based on the Nabataean script in mid 7th century AD. during the period of recordings of the Koran (the first written monument of the common Arabic language).
Period 8-12 centuries. in history Arabic characterized by its unification, standardization, development of literary and written genres and styles, development of classical poetry, artistic and scientific prose. Arabic is becoming international language literature and science of the Near and Middle East. The greatest scientists of the medieval East created their works on it: al-Farabi (870-950) from Tupkestan, Avicenna (Ibn Sina, 980-1037) originally from Bukhara, al-Biruni (973-c. 1050) from Khorezm, Averroes (Ibn Rushd, 1126-1198), native of Andalusia.
The next period in development and modernization Arabic became turn of the 18th-19th centuries., when economic contacts between the Arab East and the West intensified. The development of book printing, the emergence of the press and, accordingly, new genres of journalism, the emergence of new fiction, drama and poetry are becoming the most important factor development Arabic and its adaptation to new requirements of social, cultural and scientific life. The development of new media and communications in the 20th century contributes to further modernization Arabic.
Modern period characterized by the active penetration of Western European technical terminology into the Arabic vocabulary. Despite the purist activities of Arabic language academies in many countries, in modern Arabic New international scientific and technical terms penetrate, tracings of standard phrases and phrases characteristic of the press and mass media are formed.
Modern colloquial Arabic falls into 5 groups of dialects, which are actually separate languages from a linguistic point of view:
Maghreb group of dialects (these are the countries located to the west of Egypt: from west to east: Mauritania, Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya. Translated from Arabic, Al-Maghrib means “the country where the sun sets” or “The West” .
Egyptian-Sudanese group of dialects;
Syro-Mesopotamian group of dialects;
Arabian group of dialects;
Central Asian group of dialects;
The first one belongs to the Western group, the rest - to the Eastern group of Arabic languages/dialects.
But the concept spoken Arabic" (PARADY) does not exist, but they use the concept of "Arabic literary language» ( ALYA). ALYA is a language of communication and writing; radio and television broadcasts are conducted in it, newspapers are published, books are printed (in Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria, along with French), it is the language of the intelligentsia. Without it it is impossible to imagine the life of a civilized Arab society. Often Arabs from different countries when talking among themselves, they switch to ALA to avoid misunderstandings. ALA grammar is based on formulas. With some effort, Arabic writing can be learned, and ASL grammar is simpler and more logical than many Western languages, especially the Finno-Ugric family of languages: Finnish, Hungarian). For students you should know that the main advantage ALYA is that it is understandable in any Arab country. No matter what Arab country you are in, you will always be able to explain yourself. A person who speaks ALA or any dialect of Arabic commands great respect from native speakers.
ALA in its ideal form is practically not used in speech at home or in the family, between friends or in informal situations; this area is almost exclusively assigned to the local dialect. ALA remains predominantly a written language, in oral speech its variant can be considered Spoken Standard Arabic(RAYA) (one of the Arabic names عامية المثقفين ʻāmmiyat al-"muthaqqafīn lit. "speak of the educated"). The term itself has not yet been established in Arabic studies. This variety is a grammatically simplified version of ALA with some elements of local dialects. Colloquial standard more common in the countries of the Persian Gulf and the Levant (the dialects of the Levant are themselves very close to AL), but sometimes the speech of educated Egyptians and residents of the Maghreb is also called this way. Some special radio programs, television, cinematography, considering the audience, refer to PARADISE.
Cultural and historical influence Arabic can be traced in many languages of Asia and Africa. This was facilitated by the spread of Islam and the high cultural status of ALYA.
The question is which option ( ALA or dialect) is more preferable for study by foreigners does not have a clear answer. Depending on the specific needs and applied purpose of training, everyone decides this issue individually. In Russia, teaching Arabic mainly begins with the literary language.
P.S. Classical By by and large not very different from Old Arabic. When comparing the roots of Semitic languages, it is clear that they are all the same as classical Arabic. Therefore, Arabic occupies a central place among all Semitic languages. For a long time Many Semitic scholars viewed Classical Arabic as the original Semitic language. Only over time, through comparison with other Afroasiatic languages, it was established that much in classical Arabic is not as original as was thought.
About the features of writing. Based on the Arabic alphabet. Arabic is written from right to left. Moreover, in Arabic, unlike languages with Latin and Cyrillic graphics, there are no capital letters - therefore proper names are written with a small letter, as well as the first word in a sentence. Punctuation marks are written upside down, that is, from left to right. Instead underlining, italics or détente Arabs usually use underlining. Fractional word wrapping to another line is not allowed; empty space in a line is eliminated by stretching the letter. In cursive writing, an unwritten word ends with an upward turn. The Arabic alphabet is derived from the Phoenician alphabet, incorporating all its letters and adding letters that reflect specifically Arabic sounds. These letters are sa, ha, zal, dad, for, gain.
Interesting Facts. There are a considerable number of Arabic words in the Russian language, where they came through intermediary languages: Latin, Western European, Persian, Turkish. In addition to exoticisms like genie, jihad, vizier, qadi, some names are Arabic in origin stars and constellations: Aldebaran, Altair; a number of scientific terms: algebra and alcohol via Spanish, number and zero(sifr, Arabic - zero) through European, algorithm from the Latinized form of the name of the mathematician al-Khwarizmi, the name of a military rank admiral from Dutch and going back to Arabic emir of the sea (amiriI=bahri), and from seas nothing remained in the form of words, but sound appeared d as a result of "folk etymology" linking the word to Latin admirer(to be amazed).
Most of us love coffee. One of the ways to prepare it is Turkish coffee. They cook it in cezve, other name Turk. Word cezve Arabic origin: tour. Cezve from Arabic جذوة . Traditionally made from hammered copper.
P.S. We apologize to specialists in the field of language for a simplified presentation of some issues of the origin of language, its development and characteristics. It is written for a “non-linguistic” audience with an interest in foreign languages.
