1. The Nogai Horde as a state was formed by the 1440s.
2. Located on the territory of the left bank of the Lower Volga, Southern Urals, Western and Central Kazakhstan. The state occupied steppe and forest-steppe plains alternating with plateaus. The Nogai wandered from the left bank of the Yaik to the West Siberian Lowland, from the Kazan Khanate to the northern Caspian region and the Aral region. The capital is Saraichik.
3. The Nogai Horde was inhabited by the Turkic-speaking tribes of the Mangyts, as well as the Uighurs, Keneges, Naimans, Kipchaks, Mins, Toguchans, Kolaches and others.
4. The ancestor of the ruling dynasty in the Nogai Horde is considered to be the outstanding figure of the Golden Horde, Edigei. The leadership of the peoples who formed the Nogai Horde was taken by the Mangyt tribes. The bey (khan) was recognized as the head of the Horde. He possessed the highest state power.
The state was divided into uluses, ruled by the khan's governors - the Murzas. The bey's junior co-ruler was Nuradin, whose duties included protecting the uluses from attacks. In wartime, batyrs were appointed - leaders of detachments. They became recognized brave men. There were also ministers in the Nogai Horde - Karachi, responsible for their areas.
5. The main occupation of the population was nomadic cattle breeding. They raised horses, sheep, cattle and camels. They were also engaged in transit trade.
The army was professional and consisted of 30 thousand people. The basis of the army is cavalry, ready for long campaigns. The Nogai Horde acted as a united front with Moscow and Crimea against the Great Horde. In 1502, in the lower reaches of the Volga, the Great Horde was defeated by the joint forces of Moscow, Kazan and Crimea. As a result of this, the Astrakhan Khanate became completely dependent on the Nogai Horde.
Crafts and construction were not developed, since the Nogais led a nomadic lifestyle. Ammunition and utensils were purchased from neighboring states. They spoke the Tatar language in the Hogai Horde, and used Arabic script for correspondence.
7. By the middle of the 16th century. The Nogai Horde remained the last of the “heirs” of the Golden Horde, a state whose population led a nomadic lifestyle. The close proximity allowed the Nogai to influence the internal situation of the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian khanates and to place their proteges on the thrones. According to some sources, these states were obliged to make certain payments to the rulers of the Nogai Horde. In 1556, the Nogai Horde was overtaken by famine, which greatly undermined its strength. As the Nogai Horde weakened, Moscow developed its lands, building fortresses.
Glossary of terms
Nuradin - chief of the army, junior co-ruler of the khan.
Ulus is an administrative unit, a form of clan from nomads.
Murza is the governor of the khan in the Nogai Horde.
The Nogais - the inhabitants of the Nogai Horde - are known by this name in most sources, in particular Russian, although there is information that the Nogais called themselves Mangkyts, and their state - the Mangkyt Yurt. The earliest mentions of the Nogais and the Nogai Horde are found in Russian sources - chronicles and ambassadorial books - under 1479, 1481 and 1486, in Western Europe - on the map of Martin Waldseemüller in 1516 and in a letter from the Polish king Sigismund I to the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey in 1514 ., in the eastern - in the letters of the Crimean khans and dignitaries to the sovereigns of Poland and Rus' in 1500, 1510 and 1516.
The Nogai Horde, located on the territory of the left bank of the Lower Volga, Southern Urals, Western and Central Kazakhstan, at the end of the 15th–16th centuries. was one of the leading political forces in Eurasia. The ancestor of the ruling dynasty in the Nogai Horde is considered to be the outstanding figure of the Golden Horde, Edigei, who was the de facto ruler of the Jochi ulus at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries.
After the death of Edigei in 1420, his son Gaziy, declared bek, became the successor to rule in the Mangkyt yurt, according to his will. Gaziy Bey was a cruel man. Unable to withstand his tyranny, in 1428 the emirs killed him and then began to leave the Horde with their people.
With the departure of most of the emirs and tribal leaders to Siberia, the Mangkyt yurt fell into decay for a time. Edigei's sons and grandsons scattered. One of the sons, Mansur, went to Khan Hadji-Muhammad, another son, Navruz, was with Ulug-Muhammad, Edigey’s grandson, Vokkas, served Abulkhair Khan. The population, previously subordinate to Edigei and his successor Gazi, migrated to the Uzbeks, then went to Central Asia. In the Mangkyt yurt, together with Edigei’s youngest son Nuraddin, who, according to Turkic custom, inherited his father’s yurt, which was located on Yaik, only a small part of the nomads remained.
Nuraddin's claims to supremacy over the Mangkyt yurt aroused sharp discontent on the part of representatives of other eminent clans. They remembered the humble origins of Edigei and his descendants, who did not belong to the branch of Genghis Khan. In this regard, Nuraddin’s supporters had to “justify” his right to supremacy by hastily compiling a genealogy of Edigei. At the direction of Nuraddin, a genealogy was also compiled at the same time of Edigei’s successors, allegedly descendants of either the Sufi Khoja Ahmed Yassawi, or Muhammad himself.
Nuraddin took a number of measures to collect the remnants of the former ulus, but despite this, he was not declared bek of the Horde. In the official genealogical table of Nogai beks and Murzas, he is referred to only as a Murza, and not as a Nogai bek.
The final formation of the Nogai Horde occurred under the son of Nuraddin Vokkas. Vokkas was one of the main persons under Abulkhair and even became his senior emir. However, anticipating the weakening of the Uzbeks, in 1447 he separated from Abulkhair and returned to the Mangkyt yurt, where he was declared Nogai bek. In the genealogy of the Nogai Beks and Murzas, Vokkas is called a Nogai Bek. True, he was soon killed by Abulkhair's agents. After the murder of Vokkas, his brother Abbas was proclaimed Nogai Bek.
The Nogai Horde (capital Saraichik) declared itself as an independent state by the beginning of the 16th century, strengthening in connection with the split of the Uzbek union. Then many of the tribes that were previously part of the Uzbek union joined the Nogais. “The Nogai Horde included the following tribes: Mangkyts, Neumanns, Kungarts, Kipchaks, Mins, Toguchans, Kolaches, Alchins, Chublaks, Konklyks, Keraits, Kiyats and others,” notes Mekhovsky.
During the collapse of Abulkhair's Horde, Abbas, together with the sons of Hadji Muhammad, played an active role in the seizure of Abulkhair's eastern possessions at the mouth of the Syr Darya, Amu Darya and the upper reaches of the Irtysh. In the 16th century the possessions of the Mangkyt beks bordered in the north-west with the Kazan Khanate along the Samara, Kinel and Kinelchek rivers. Here were their summer pastures. In the northeast, the Nogai Horde bordered the Siberian Khanate. In the south, the Altai Mountains were the border line separating the Kazakh Khanate from the Nogai Horde.
In the first half of the 16th century. The Nogais roamed in the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, off the shores of the Aral Sea, near the Karakum, Barsunkum and off the northeastern shores of the Caspian Sea.
In terms of its actual strength, the Nogai Horde became one of the most powerful state formations that arose after the collapse of the Golden Horde. However, the fact that its ruling dynasty did not belong to the descendants of Genghis Khan made its position not entirely legitimate and placed its rulers in a lower position compared to other sovereigns of the ruins of the Jochi ulus. In such conditions, the actual Nogai rulers, the beks, were forced to formally recognize the power of some neighboring sovereign. So, in the early 80s of the 15th century. the formal overlord of the Nogais was the Siberian Khan Ibak.
It was under his leadership that in January 1481 the Nogai army defeated the headquarters of the Khan of the Great Horde, Akhmat: “... King Ibak of Nagai came against him and took the Horde; and the godless Tsar Akhmat himself was killed by his brother-in-law, the Nagai Murza Yamgurchi.” After the death of Ibak, his brother Mamuk was made khan. At the very end of the 15th century. his troops were able to briefly capture Kazan, allied with Russia, and overthrow the protege of Ivan III, Muhammad-Emin, from the throne. However, Mamuk could not stay in Kazan for long. The Nogais also besieged the city under Abdul Latif, but then they managed to fight back. In 1505, at a time when Muhammad-Emin refused to obey Moscow and killed the Russians in Kazan, the Nogais sent a 20,000-strong army to his aid, with which the khan besieged Nizhny Novgorod. When representatives of the Girey dynasty sat on the Kazan throne, the influence of the Nogais in the Khanate increased. 30 thousand Nogais came to the aid of the Kazan people, “who wanted to fight with Russia, enrich themselves with Russian captivity and the Tsar’s hire.”
By the beginning of the 16th century. The Nogai rulers no longer needed the puppet Khanakhchingisids, and the Nogai Horde became a completely independent state entity. Direct diplomatic relations between the Nogai Horde and Russia were established at the end of the 15th century. From this time on, a constant exchange of embassies between the states began, despite certain contradictions on the issue of Kazan, in which the Nogai rulers sought to strengthen their influence. For example, information about the Nogai embassy to Moscow was entered into the official chronicle in 1502. It is interesting that the Nogai beks at first did not insist on equal status with the great princes. Only in the 30s. XVI century they began to demand recognition of equality or even their superiority over the Russian rulers. It even got to the point that Moscow was demanded to pay tribute that was due from Russian lands during the times of the power of the Golden Horde.
First quarter of the 16th century It also turned out to be very difficult for the new Turkic-Mongol state. A fierce struggle for power began between the contenders for refugee status. At the same time, the Kazakhs attacked from the east. In such conditions, many Nogai were transported to the right bank of the Volga and found themselves dependent on the Crimean Khan. Submitting to him, they took part in the devastating campaign of Muhammad-Girey against Russia in 1521. However, the Russian chronicle indicates that the Nogai’s participation in the campaign was not entirely voluntary: the Crimean Khan “overcame them then,” that is, they were subdued by force. However, already in 1523 the Nogais killed Muhammad-Girey and dealt a heavy blow to the Crimean Khanate.
From the mid-20s. The power of the Nogai Horde is growing: internal conflicts have been settled for a while, the Crimean Khanate has ceased to be dangerous.
The close proximity allowed the Nogai to influence the internal situation of the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian khanates and to place their proteges on the thrones. According to some sources, these states were obliged to make certain payments to the rulers of the Nogai Horde. The Bashkir tribes, subjects of the Mangkyt beks, were subjected to even more direct and intense influence from the southern nomads.
The eastern neighbors of the Nogai Horde were the Kazakh Khanate and the khanates of Central Asia. The relations between the Nogai and the Kazakh dynasties also developed in a complex manner; there were fierce wars between them. In the first quarter of the 16th century. Khan Kasim conquered all the steppes beyond the Volga, but in the second quarter the Nogai “Reconquista” occurred, and the Kazakh Khanate turned into a vassal of the Nogais. The Uzbek states served mainly as a shelter for refugees from the Nogai state - beks and murzas who failed in the internecine struggle.
The political influence of the Nogai on Russia was limited both due to religious (Islam) and economic (nomadic cattle breeding) barriers, and because of remoteness. Only from the second half of the 16th century. the Murzas began to move to the Moscow kingdom; some of them laid the foundation for princely families (Kutumovs, Urusovs, Yusupovs, etc.). Nogai detachments often acted as part of Russian armies in the Livonian War and later, in campaigns against the Poles, Germans and Swedes.
It should be noted that among the Nogai rulers there was no unity in relation to the Kazan Khanate and, consequently, Russia. A split began in the Nogai elite in relation to Russia, and it was based on “geographical grounds.” The Murzas, who roamed the Volga, were inclined towards friendly relations with the Moscow authorities and agreed to recognize Russian interests in Kazan. This was explained by their economic ties with Moscow - they sold huge herds of horses in Russia and received significant “remembrances” from the grand ducal government. In addition, it was from the Russians that they bought the goods necessary for the nomads. It is no coincidence, therefore, that numerous Nogai embassies often touched upon trade issues.
The Murzas, who roamed the east of the Nogai Horde, often took an anti-Russian position, since they were not economically interested in expanding mutually beneficial trade with Russia.
At the end of the 40s. XVI century Yusuf becomes Nogai Bek. His attitude towards Russia was complex: he demanded that the Russian side recognize himself as a ruler equal in rank to the Golden Horde or Crimean khans. The Russian side could not accept such demands. Several times Yusuf planned to organize a campaign against Russian lands, but each time these plans were thwarted.
Yusuf's brother Ismail, the second person among the Nogai nobility, took a friendly position towards Russia. This had an explanation: he controlled the western part of the Nogai Horde and was vitally interested in stable friendly relations with Moscow for trade. When relations between Yusuf and Moscow effectively ceased, relations with Ismail continued. The Russian authorities relied on him, trying to cause conflict between the brothers and weaken the Horde as a whole. In the early 50s. XVI century Ismail thwarted several campaigns against Russia, including in 1552, when the siege of Kazan was underway. At the end of 1554, Yusuf died, and Ismail, who was oriented toward Russia, became bek. Now Russia did not have to fear the raids of numerous Nogai cavalry on the borders and strengthened its position in the recently subjugated Astrakhan.
In fact, the death of Biy Yusuf was only the beginning of the disasters that befell the Nogai Horde. The war between Ismail and his nephews (Yusuf's children) lasted for several years and was characterized by unprecedented bitterness and the death of a large number of nomads. Only in 1557 did Ismail manage to finally establish himself on the throne. To top off all the disasters, terrible famine and epidemics struck the Horde. As a result, the Nogai Horde was never again able to achieve the power that it had before the turmoil of the 50s. XVI century A general flight of the Bek's subjects to the right - Crimean - side of the Volga begins.
Good relations with Ismail did not prevent Ivan IV from honorably receiving his dynastic rivals in Russia - the relatives of the deceased Bek Yusuf.
Ismail Beg died in 1563. In the last years of his reign, the Horde was able to strengthen somewhat, but in reality it was much weaker than before the start of his reign.
After the death of Ismail, his son Din-Akhmet (1563–1578) became bey. The new ruler confirmed the continuity of the policy of alliance and cooperation with Russia. Din-Akhmet was succeeded by Urus (1578–1590), who, in the end, gradually leaned towards an anti-Russian position: negotiations between the Nogai Horde and the Crimean Khanate began and raids by their troops on the border territories of Russia began. The reason for this change in foreign policy orientation should be sought, apparently, in the desire of Bek Urus for equal relations with the tsar and the desire to receive more “salary”. However, Urus even earlier, in 1569, during the Turkish campaign against Astrakhan, supplied the invading army with food and fodder.
One of the reasons for the deterioration of relations between the Nogai Horde and Russia was also the founding of Russian cities in the Volga region. Samara was founded in 1586, Tsaritsyn in 1589, and Saratov in 1590. A city was also built in Bashkiria, on the land that the Nogais considered theirs - Ufa (1586). The beks were explained that the new cities were designed to protect the Nogais from attacks by the Volga Cossacks, who at that time began to greatly disturb the Horde. In reality, cities were founded on the most convenient crossings across the Volga in order to stop the raids of nomads. All demands of the Nogai side to leave the newly built cities were rejected. There was no unity among the Nogais themselves: some crossed to the Crimean side of the Volga and swore allegiance to the Crimean Khan, while others went to the so-called Little Nogai Horde in the North Caucasus. A significant part of the Murzas did not support the Bek’s anti-Russian course and were inclined towards friendship with Moscow. But in 1581, when Saraichik was burned by free Cossacks, the Nogai authorities accused the Russian government of organizing the attack. In general, the Cossacks in the late 70s - early 80s. XVI century settled on the Yaik River, on the ancestral Nogai lands. In 1586, the bek attempted to take the Cossack town, but his troops were defeated by the newcomers. Under such conditions, in the same 1586, Urus was forced to normalize relations with Russia.
At the end of the 16th century. Russian government governors also appear on Yaik, who, despite the protests of the Nogai Horde, found the Yaitsky town.
After the death of the Bek, another turmoil begins in the Nogai Horde. Russia did not remain aloof from the events: it benefited from the weakening of the Horde.
In the second half of the 16th century. The Nogai Horde split into the Big Nogai, the Small Nogai and the Altyul Horde, which did not play an outstanding historical role.
After the bloody civil strife, only pitiful remnants of the once mighty state entity survived. The territory of the Nogai was now limited mainly to the area between the Volga and Yaik rivers. Ishterek became Beck (1600). The Horde's dependence on the Russian authorities grew. Discord among the Nogais themselves intensified, large groups of them migrated under the rule of the Crimean Khanate.
The Russian government intensified its policy of inciting quarrels between various representatives of the Nogai aristocracy, trying to prevent the restoration of the unity of the Nogai Horde. At the height of the crisis in 1619, Ishterek died.
After his death, another civil strife broke out, supported by the Russian authorities in Astrakhan. In the end, Kanai was proclaimed the new bek, but there was no peace in the steppes, wars continued. The situation became even more complicated with the beginning of a large-scale invasion of the Kalmyks, who dealt a mortal blow to the Horde. Most of the Nogais then moved to the right side of the Volga. The Astrakhan authorities, government governors, and archers also caused a lot of harm to the Nogai. In fact, by the mid-30s. XVII century The Nogai Horde ceased to exist, and the last Bek Kanai ended up in Astrakhan prison, where he died in 1638.
So, the Nogai power dominated and was one of the undisputed hegemons of Eastern Eurasia, although for a relatively short period - at the end of the 15th and the first half of the 16th centuries. The apogee of its power came in the second quarter of the 16th century, after which it gradually weakened and eventually collapsed.
The ancestors of the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, Kazan and Crimean, Siberian and Astrakhan Tatars, Bashkirs and Karakalpaks, Turkmens and Kalmyks, Don and Ural Cossacks, as well as many peoples of the North Caucasus came into contact with and partly assimilated with the Nogai Horde and people from it.
During their migrations, the Nogai also carried elements of spiritual culture. The Turkic peoples of Eurasia (Nogais, Tatars, Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Karakalpaks, etc.) have developed a common layer of heroic epic, the so-called Nogai cycle, telling about Edigei and his descendants. The very figure of the ancestor of the Mangkyt beks, Edigei, was sacralized by the Kazakhs and Karakalpaks, who revered him as the patron saint of horses. The people also appear in the Kyrgyz heroic epic “Manas”.
| |
The Nogai Horde is the name given to the Tatar medieval state today. It arose on the lands of the Golden Horde, which was destroyed by Aksak-Timur, in the first half of the 15th century. The Nogai Horde, whose history is closely connected with the development of such states as the Great Horde, the Kalmyk Horde, the states of Siberia, Astrakhan, Kazan, and the Principality of Moscow, is a striking example of a medieval power that experienced its rise and fall.
The prerequisites for the formation of the Nogai Horde were the transfer by Tokhtamysh Khan of the nomadic Tatars of the Nogai ulus to the territory between the Urals and the Volga. Kara-bek led the Horde, which left the Turks and then moved to Belaya and Kama. After this, the Nogai Horde conquered the Bulgars, and then migrated to Kazanka, where the city of Kazan was founded. Afterwards the Horde occupied lands along
Leaders. The leadership of the peoples who formed the Nogai Horde was taken by the Mangyt tribes located in Khorezm. During the campaign against the Golden Horde, Aksak-Timur collaborated with them. The Mangyts were a numerous and strong Tatar tribe. They were mainly under the rule of Idegei. When Aksak-Timur was retreating from Eastern Europe, Idegei led his subjects to Khorezm. In 1420, Idegey died and his people fell under the rule of the nomadic Uzbek khans. The Mangyt tribes were led by Waqqas Bey, who earned the post of backlerbek and participated in the military operations of Khan Abukhair.
After the death of Vakkas Bey, his successor launched a struggle against the power of the Kazakh and Uzbek khans. Musa Bey, who led the Mangyt tribes, fought for independence and was able to achieve relief. Under him, the Nogai Horde had its capital in the city of Saraichik.
The emergence of the Nogai Horde. The first mentions of the Nogai state were found in Russian sources dating back to the end of the 15th century. Musa Bey was able to strengthen his position so much that he began to make attempts to influence the Great Horde, Kazan, Astrakhan. In alliance with Khan Ibak, he launched a campaign against the Astrakhan Khanate, and at the end of the 15th century, united with the Siberian Khan, he went to At this time the strength of the Nogai state was so noticeable that Alexander Kazimirovich, the Lithuanian prince, persuaded them to join the anti-Moscow coalition.
Later, the Nogai Horde acted as a united front with Moscow and Crimea against the Great Horde. In 1502, in the lower reaches of the Volga, the Great Horde was defeated by the joint forces of Moscow, Kazan and Crimea. As a result of this, the Astrakhan Khanate became completely dependent on the Nogai Horde.
Nogai Horde: development of statehood. The defeat of the Great Horde became the impetus for the development of the Nogai Horde. The population of the young state increased, its borders expanded, and a system of statehood emerged. Bey was recognized as the head of the Horde. After him in importance came Nuradin. His duties included protecting the uluses from attacks. Kekovat was also prescribed. His sphere of interests included the eastern borders of the state. The sons of the bey bore the title of murza. When the bey died, his eldest son took his place. In wartime, batyrs were appointed - leaders of detachments. They became recognized brave men, craftsmen and daredevils. The Nogai Horde also had ministers - Karachis - responsible for their areas.
The state religion in the Nogai Horde was Islam. Servants - Abyzs, Sufis, Shaekhs, Seites - performed Islamic rituals. The Nogai Horde spoke Tatar and used Arabic script for correspondence.
Relations with the Moscow Principality. Under Ivan the Terrible, with the help of bribery and cunning, the Nogai Horde turned out to be closed to other Tatar states. As a result, hostility and mistrust flared up between the Nogai Horde and Crimea, Kazan and Siberia. In 1556, the Nogai Horde was overtaken by famine, and they refused to help it. This greatly undermined the forces of the Nogai Horde, but the Tatars still remained on their lands. As the Nogai Horde weakened, Moscow developed Tatar lands, building fortresses. The destruction of the Nogai Horde continued by the Cossacks in the 16th century and the Kalmyk Horde in the 17th century. By the beginning of the 18th century, the last of its inhabitants were exterminated.
The history of the Nogai Horde is closely intertwined with the history of modern Kazakhstan. Nogais and Kazakhs are people of the same people.
Plan
Introduction
1 Formation of the Nogai Horde
2 Administrative device
3 Household
4 Political history of the Horde
5 Rulers of the Nogai Horde
Bibliography
Introduction
The Nogai Horde (Mangyt Yurt) is a nomadic state formed as a result of the collapse of the Golden Horde under the attacks of Tamerlane’s army (1391) in the area between the Volga and Irtysh rivers.
The end of the Nogai Horde as an independent formation was marked by endless unrest in the Horde. Trepavlov V.V. identifies three Troubles and the agony of the Horde. Naturally, the rivals of the Nogai Khanate did not fail to take advantage of the ensuing weakness of the state. As a result, some of the Nogais migrated to the Ottoman Empire, some became part of the Russian Kingdom, and some migrated to the Kazakh Khanate.
1. Formation of the Nogai Horde
After the collapse of the Golden Horde, a new state association arose in the north-west of present-day Kazakhstan - the Nogai Horde. Its main territory was in the steppes between the Volga and the Urals (Yaik), and its political center was in the Saraichik area (on the Ural River). In the east, the Nogais roamed along the left bank of the Urals, in the northeast - to the West Siberian Lowland, in the northwest their nomads reached Kazan, in the southwest - to the Aral Sea region and the northern Caspian Sea.
The center of the Horde was the city of Saraichik in the lower Urals. The city was founded in the 13th century. During the existence of the Golden Horde state, trade routes from the Crimea and the Caucasus to the Karakorum and China passed through the city of Saraichik. The 13th-14th centuries were the heyday of the city, but in the 15th century Saraichik was destroyed. Only after becoming the capital of the Nogai Horde did the city begin to revive again. At the beginning of the 16th century, the Kazakh Khan Kasym briefly captured Saraichik, where he soon died, and the Kazakhs again retreated to their Betpak Dala desert. In 1580 the city was captured by free Cossacks. The khans of the Golden Horde and the Nogai Horde were buried in Saraichik. The name of the Horde comes from the name of the military leader of the Golden Horde - Nogai. Nogai took part in Batu’s campaigns of conquest and was a military leader of five khans of the Golden Horde. He played a very important role in the history of the Golden Horde. The main population of the Nogai Horde were the tribes that were part of Nogai's army. The Turkic-speaking Mangyt tribe, which made up the majority of the Nogai warriors, called their ulus the Mangyt Yurt. Edyge is considered the actual founder of the Nogai (Mangyt) Horde. Under the reign of Edyge, the Nogai Horde began to separate itself from the Golden Horde. During the reign of Edyge's son Nur ad-din, an independent state was created, which separated from the Golden Horde.
2. Administrative structure
The Horde was divided into a number of self-governing uluses, headed by the Murzas. The Murzas obeyed the biy, who ruled with the help of nuradin. In the 16th century, the migration of the Nogais to the western bank of the Volga led to the separation of the Lesser Nogais from the Nogai Horde; subsequently, among the Western Nogais, the highest title became the title of Sultan.
3. Household
The basis of the economy was nomadic cattle breeding (horses, sheep, cattle and camels) and transit trade. While the population of the remaining Tatar states switched to a sedentary lifestyle, the economy of the Nogai Horde was still nomadic in nature. On the territory of this state formation there was only one city - Saraichik, which he inherited from the Golden Horde. However, Saraichik lost its former significance as a large trading center and soon ceased to play any role in the economy of the Khanate.
4. Political history of the Horde
An important role in the creation and strengthening of the Nogai Horde was played by Edyge, who did not have the right to the title of khan, but was for many years the de facto ruler of the Golden Horde. During his reign, the Golden Horde became isolated and their lands became an independent fief. While ruling the Golden Horde, Edyge bore the title (beklar-begi) or (great emir). He had unlimited power. There was a tradition according to which, without the consent of the descendants of Edyge, the approval of a khan from among the representatives of the Genghis Khan dynasty was considered invalid. During this period, the epic about Edyge appeared among the Mangyt people. In the 90s of the 14th century, he waged wars with Tokhtamysh Khan, firstly, for dominance in the Golden Horde, and secondly, in order to strengthen the power of the Nogai Horde over neighboring possessions and expand its borders. Edyge ruled the Horde for 15 years (1396-1411). Under the reign of Edyge, the possessions of the Nogai Horde expanded to the West Siberian Lowland. It was here that Tokhtamysh Khan fled and died, on this land the Taibug tribe recognized the power of Edyge over themselves. Judging by written sources, the Nogais (Mangyts) in the middle of the 15th century reached the middle reaches of the Syr Darya and captured fortified cities. For example, in 1446, Mangyt Uakas-biy ruled the city of Uzgend. An important role in the political life of Eastern Desht-i-Kipchak in the 15th century was played by the descendants of Edyge - Musa-myrza and Zhan-byrshy. At the beginning of the 16th century, the Nogai Horde began to decline. In the 1550s, after the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to Russia, the Nogai Horde broke up into several independent possessions. As a result of a three-year drought and ice in the winter in the 50s of the 16th century, all livestock died, internecine struggle began among the Nogais, followed by a plague epidemic, 80% of the population died out, and the Nogais began to migrate to the North. Caucasus. At the beginning of the 17th century, their nomadic settlements along both banks of the Yaik to the Volga were settled by Kalmyks.
5. Rulers of the Nogai Horde
Bibliography:
1. Crimea - ulus of the Golden Horde. Venice and the possessions of Genoa in Crimea
2. Trepavlov V.V. History of the Nogai Horde. – M.: Publishing company “Oriental Literature” RAS, 2001. – 752 p.
Nogai Horde
The Nogais - the inhabitants of the Nogai Horde - are known by this name in most sources, in particular Russian, although there is information that the Nogais called themselves Mangkyts, and their state - the Mangkyt Yurt. The earliest mentions of the Nogais and the Nogai Horde are found in Russian sources - chronicles and ambassadorial books - under 1479, 1481 and 1486, in Western Europe - on the map of Martin Waldseemüller in 1516 and in a letter from the Polish king Sigismund I to the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey in 1514 ., in the eastern - in the letters of the Crimean khans and dignitaries to the sovereigns of Poland and Rus' in 1500, 1510 and 1516.
The Nogai Horde, located on the territory of the left bank of the Lower Volga, Southern Urals, Western and Central Kazakhstan, at the end of the 15th–16th centuries. was one of the leading political forces in Eurasia. The ancestor of the ruling dynasty in the Nogai Horde is considered to be the outstanding figure of the Golden Horde, Edigei, who was the de facto ruler of the Jochi ulus at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries.
After the death of Edigei in 1420, his son Gaziy, declared bek, became the successor to rule in the Mangkyt yurt, according to his will. Gaziy Bey was a cruel man. Unable to withstand his tyranny, in 1428 the emirs killed him and then began to leave the Horde with their people.
With the departure of most of the emirs and tribal leaders to Siberia, the Mangkyt yurt fell into decay for a time. Edigei's sons and grandsons scattered. One of the sons, Mansur, went to Khan Hadji-Muhammad, another son, Navruz, was with Ulug-Muhammad, Edigey’s grandson, Vokkas, served Abulkhair Khan. The population, previously subordinate to Edigei and his successor Gazi, migrated to the Uzbeks, then went to Central Asia. In the Mangkyt yurt, together with Edigei’s youngest son Nuraddin, who, according to Turkic custom, inherited his father’s yurt, which was located on Yaik, only a small part of the nomads remained.
Nuraddin's claims to supremacy over the Mangkyt yurt aroused sharp discontent on the part of representatives of other eminent clans. They remembered the humble origins of Edigei and his descendants, who did not belong to the branch of Genghis Khan. In this regard, Nuraddin’s supporters had to “justify” his right to supremacy by hastily compiling a genealogy of Edigei. At the direction of Nuraddin, a genealogy was also compiled at the same time of Edigei’s successors, allegedly descendants of either the Sufi Khoja Ahmed Yassawi, or Muhammad himself.
Nuraddin took a number of measures to collect the remnants of the former ulus, but despite this, he was not declared bek of the Horde. In the official genealogical table of Nogai beks and Murzas, he is referred to only as a Murza, and not as a Nogai bek.
The final formation of the Nogai Horde occurred under the son of Nuraddin Vokkas. Vokkas was one of the main persons under Abulkhair and even became his senior emir. However, anticipating the weakening of the Uzbeks, in 1447 he separated from Abulkhair and returned to the Mangkyt yurt, where he was declared Nogai bek. In the genealogy of the Nogai Beks and Murzas, Vokkas is called a Nogai Bek. True, he was soon killed by Abulkhair's agents. After the murder of Vokkas, his brother Abbas was proclaimed Nogai Bek.
The Nogai Horde (capital Saraichik) declared itself as an independent state by the beginning of the 16th century, strengthening in connection with the split of the Uzbek union. Then many of the tribes that were previously part of the Uzbek union joined the Nogais. “The Nogai Horde included the following tribes: Mangkyts, Neumanns, Kungarts, Kipchaks, Mins, Toguchans, Kolaches, Alchins, Chublaks, Konklyks, Keraits, Kiyats and others,” notes Mekhovsky.
During the collapse of Abulkhair's Horde, Abbas, together with the sons of Hadji Muhammad, played an active role in the seizure of Abulkhair's eastern possessions at the mouth of the Syr Darya, Amu Darya and the upper reaches of the Irtysh. In the 16th century the possessions of the Mangkyt beks bordered in the north-west with the Kazan Khanate along the Samara, Kinel and Kinelchek rivers. Here were their summer pastures. In the northeast, the Nogai Horde bordered the Siberian Khanate. In the south, the Altai Mountains were the border line separating the Kazakh Khanate from the Nogai Horde.
In the first half of the 16th century. The Nogais roamed in the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, off the shores of the Aral Sea, near the Karakum, Barsunkum and off the northeastern shores of the Caspian Sea.
In terms of its actual strength, the Nogai Horde became one of the most powerful state formations that arose after the collapse of the Golden Horde. However, the fact that its ruling dynasty did not belong to the descendants of Genghis Khan made its position not entirely legitimate and placed its rulers in a lower position compared to other sovereigns of the ruins of the Jochi ulus. In such conditions, the actual Nogai rulers, the beks, were forced to formally recognize the power of some neighboring sovereign. So, in the early 80s of the 15th century. the formal overlord of the Nogais was the Siberian Khan Ibak.
It was under his leadership that in January 1481 the Nogai army defeated the headquarters of the Khan of the Great Horde, Akhmat: “... King Ibak of Nagai came against him and took the Horde; and the godless Tsar Akhmat himself was killed by his brother-in-law, the Nagai Murza Yamgurchi.” After the death of Ibak, his brother Mamuk was made khan. At the very end of the 15th century. his troops were able to briefly capture Kazan, allied with Russia, and overthrow the protege of Ivan III, Muhammad-Emin, from the throne. However, Mamuk could not stay in Kazan for long. The Nogais also besieged the city under Abdul Latif, but then they managed to fight back. In 1505, at a time when Muhammad-Emin refused to obey Moscow and killed the Russians in Kazan, the Nogais sent a 20,000-strong army to his aid, with which the khan besieged Nizhny Novgorod. When representatives of the Girey dynasty sat on the Kazan throne, the influence of the Nogais in the Khanate increased. 30 thousand Nogais came to the aid of the Kazan people, “who wanted to fight with Russia, enrich themselves with Russian captivity and the Tsar’s hire.”
By the beginning of the 16th century. The Nogai rulers no longer needed the puppet Khanakhchingisids, and the Nogai Horde became a completely independent state entity. Direct diplomatic relations between the Nogai Horde and Russia were established at the end of the 15th century. From this time on, a constant exchange of embassies between the states began, despite certain contradictions on the issue of Kazan, in which the Nogai rulers sought to strengthen their influence. For example, information about the Nogai embassy to Moscow was entered into the official chronicle in 1502. It is interesting that the Nogai beks at first did not insist on equal status with the great princes. Only in the 30s. XVI century they began to demand recognition of equality or even their superiority over the Russian rulers. It even got to the point that Moscow was demanded to pay tribute that was due from Russian lands during the times of the power of the Golden Horde.
First quarter of the 16th century It also turned out to be very difficult for the new Turkic-Mongol state. A fierce struggle for power began between the contenders for refugee status. At the same time, the Kazakhs attacked from the east. In such conditions, many Nogai were transported to the right bank of the Volga and found themselves dependent on the Crimean Khan. Submitting to him, they took part in the devastating campaign of Muhammad-Girey against Russia in 1521. However, the Russian chronicle indicates that the Nogai’s participation in the campaign was not entirely voluntary: the Crimean Khan “overcame them then,” that is, they were subdued by force. However, already in 1523 the Nogais killed Muhammad-Girey and dealt a heavy blow to the Crimean Khanate.
From the mid-20s. The power of the Nogai Horde is growing: internal conflicts have been settled for a while, the Crimean Khanate has ceased to be dangerous.
The close proximity allowed the Nogai to influence the internal situation of the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian khanates and to place their proteges on the thrones. According to some sources, these states were obliged to make certain payments to the rulers of the Nogai Horde. The Bashkir tribes, subjects of the Mangkyt beks, were subjected to even more direct and intense influence from the southern nomads.
The eastern neighbors of the Nogai Horde were the Kazakh Khanate and the khanates of Central Asia. The relations between the Nogai and the Kazakh dynasties also developed in a complex manner; there were fierce wars between them. In the first quarter of the 16th century. Khan Kasim conquered all the steppes beyond the Volga, but in the second quarter the Nogai “Reconquista” occurred, and the Kazakh Khanate turned into a vassal of the Nogais. The Uzbek states served mainly as a shelter for refugees from the Nogai state - beks and murzas who failed in the internecine struggle.
The political influence of the Nogai on Russia was limited both due to religious (Islam) and economic (nomadic cattle breeding) barriers, and because of remoteness. Only from the second half of the 16th century. the Murzas began to move to the Moscow kingdom; some of them laid the foundation for princely families (Kutumovs, Urusovs, Yusupovs, etc.). Nogai detachments often acted as part of Russian armies in the Livonian War and later, in campaigns against the Poles, Germans and Swedes.
It should be noted that among the Nogai rulers there was no unity in relation to the Kazan Khanate and, consequently, Russia. A split began in the Nogai elite in relation to Russia, and it was based on “geographical grounds.” The Murzas, who roamed the Volga, were inclined towards friendly relations with the Moscow authorities and agreed to recognize Russian interests in Kazan. This was explained by their economic ties with Moscow - they sold huge herds of horses in Russia and received significant “remembrances” from the grand ducal government. In addition, it was from the Russians that they bought the goods necessary for the nomads. It is no coincidence, therefore, that numerous Nogai embassies often touched upon trade issues.
The Murzas, who roamed the east of the Nogai Horde, often took an anti-Russian position, since they were not economically interested in expanding mutually beneficial trade with Russia.
At the end of the 40s. XVI century Yusuf becomes Nogai Bek. His attitude towards Russia was complex: he demanded that the Russian side recognize himself as a ruler equal in rank to the Golden Horde or Crimean khans. The Russian side could not accept such demands. Several times Yusuf planned to organize a campaign against Russian lands, but each time these plans were thwarted.
Yusuf's brother Ismail, the second person among the Nogai nobility, took a friendly position towards Russia. This had an explanation: he controlled the western part of the Nogai Horde and was vitally interested in stable friendly relations with Moscow for trade. When relations between Yusuf and Moscow effectively ceased, relations with Ismail continued. The Russian authorities relied on him, trying to cause conflict between the brothers and weaken the Horde as a whole. In the early 50s. XVI century Ismail thwarted several campaigns against Russia, including in 1552, when the siege of Kazan was underway. At the end of 1554, Yusuf died, and Ismail, who was oriented toward Russia, became bek. Now Russia did not have to fear the raids of numerous Nogai cavalry on the borders and strengthened its position in the recently subjugated Astrakhan.
In fact, the death of Biy Yusuf was only the beginning of the disasters that befell the Nogai Horde. The war between Ismail and his nephews (Yusuf's children) lasted for several years and was characterized by unprecedented bitterness and the death of a large number of nomads. Only in 1557 did Ismail manage to finally establish himself on the throne. To top off all the disasters, terrible famine and epidemics struck the Horde. As a result, the Nogai Horde was never again able to achieve the power that it had before the turmoil of the 50s. XVI century A general flight of the Bek's subjects to the right - Crimean - side of the Volga begins.
Good relations with Ismail did not prevent Ivan IV from honorably receiving his dynastic rivals in Russia - the relatives of the deceased Bek Yusuf.
Ismail Beg died in 1563. In the last years of his reign, the Horde was able to strengthen somewhat, but in reality it was much weaker than before the start of his reign.
After the death of Ismail, his son Din-Akhmet (1563–1578) became bey. The new ruler confirmed the continuity of the policy of alliance and cooperation with Russia. Din-Akhmet was succeeded by Urus (1578–1590), who, in the end, gradually leaned towards an anti-Russian position: negotiations between the Nogai Horde and the Crimean Khanate began and raids by their troops on the border territories of Russia began. The reason for this change in foreign policy orientation should be sought, apparently, in the desire of Bek Urus for equal relations with the tsar and the desire to receive more “salary”. However, Urus even earlier, in 1569, during the Turkish campaign against Astrakhan, supplied the invading army with food and fodder.
One of the reasons for the deterioration of relations between the Nogai Horde and Russia was also the founding of Russian cities in the Volga region. Samara was founded in 1586, Tsaritsyn in 1589, and Saratov in 1590. A city was also built in Bashkiria, on the land that the Nogais considered theirs - Ufa (1586). The beks were explained that the new cities were designed to protect the Nogais from attacks by the Volga Cossacks, who at that time began to greatly disturb the Horde. In reality, cities were founded on the most convenient crossings across the Volga in order to stop the raids of nomads. All demands of the Nogai side to leave the newly built cities were rejected. There was no unity among the Nogais themselves: some crossed to the Crimean side of the Volga and swore allegiance to the Crimean Khan, while others went to the so-called Little Nogai Horde in the North Caucasus. A significant part of the Murzas did not support the Bek’s anti-Russian course and were inclined towards friendship with Moscow. But in 1581, when Saraichik was burned by free Cossacks, the Nogai authorities accused the Russian government of organizing the attack. In general, the Cossacks in the late 70s - early 80s. XVI century settled on the Yaik River, on the ancestral Nogai lands. In 1586, the bek attempted to take the Cossack town, but his troops were defeated by the newcomers. Under such conditions, in the same 1586, Urus was forced to normalize relations with Russia.
At the end of the 16th century. Russian government governors also appear on Yaik, who, despite the protests of the Nogai Horde, found the Yaitsky town.
After the death of the Bek, another turmoil begins in the Nogai Horde. Russia did not remain aloof from the events: it benefited from the weakening of the Horde.
In the second half of the 16th century. The Nogai Horde split into the Big Nogai, the Small Nogai and the Altyul Horde, which did not play an outstanding historical role.
After the bloody civil strife, only pitiful remnants of the once mighty state entity survived. The territory of the Nogai was now limited mainly to the area between the Volga and Yaik rivers. Ishterek became Beck (1600). The Horde's dependence on the Russian authorities grew. Discord among the Nogais themselves intensified, large groups of them migrated under the rule of the Crimean Khanate.
The Russian government intensified its policy of inciting quarrels between various representatives of the Nogai aristocracy, trying to prevent the restoration of the unity of the Nogai Horde. At the height of the crisis in 1619, Ishterek died.
After his death, another civil strife broke out, supported by the Russian authorities in Astrakhan. In the end, Kanai was proclaimed the new bek, but there was no peace in the steppes, wars continued. The situation became even more complicated with the beginning of a large-scale invasion of the Kalmyks, who dealt a mortal blow to the Horde. Most of the Nogais then moved to the right side of the Volga. The Astrakhan authorities, government governors, and archers also caused a lot of harm to the Nogai. In fact, by the mid-30s. XVII century The Nogai Horde ceased to exist, and the last Bek Kanai ended up in Astrakhan prison, where he died in 1638.
So, the Nogai power dominated and was one of the undisputed hegemons of Eastern Eurasia, although for a relatively short period - at the end of the 15th and the first half of the 16th centuries. The apogee of its power came in the second quarter of the 16th century, after which it gradually weakened and eventually collapsed.
The ancestors of the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, Kazan and Crimean, Siberian and Astrakhan Tatars, Bashkirs and Karakalpaks, Turkmens and Kalmyks, Don and Ural Cossacks, as well as many peoples of the North Caucasus came into contact with and partly assimilated with the Nogai Horde and people from it.
During their migrations, the Nogai also carried elements of spiritual culture. The Turkic peoples of Eurasia (Nogais, Tatars, Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Karakalpaks, etc.) have developed a common layer of heroic epic, the so-called Nogai cycle, telling about Edigei and his descendants. The very figure of the ancestor of the Mangkyt beks, Edigei, was sacralized by the Kazakhs and Karakalpaks, who revered him as the patron saint of horses. The people also appear in the Kyrgyz heroic epic “Manas”.
From the book Empire - I [with illustrations] author1. The Horde is the Slavic Rada, that is, the council or the Cossack Horde. It is impossible not to note the obvious similarity of the words Horde and the Russian-Ukrainian Rada, that is, the Council or row - order. This is where the Russian word rod comes from. All these words have the same root - “ genus" and mean "ordered
From the book Empire - II [with illustrations] author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich4. Land of Naharain - Nogai River or Greece-Byzantium In “ancient” Egyptian history, the “land of Naharain” plays an important role, p.444 ff. In the era of Pharaoh Ramses II, this kingdom is an ally of the Hits, p.467. That is, an ally of the Ready for our reconstruction. We will offer
From the book Rus' and the Horde. Great Empire of the Middle Ages author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich4. Great Russia = Golden Horde, Little Russia = Blue Horde, Belarus = White Horde As we have seen, the Arabs, when describing Rus', talk a lot about the THREE CENTERS of Russia. When describing Mongolia, the same Arabs talk a lot about the THREE SARAYS, namely - BATU SHED , BERKE'S BARN and NEW BARN.About the three centers
From the book Pictures of the Past Quiet Don. Book one. author Krasnov Petr NikolaevichHorde. Devlet-Girey with 20,000 horsemen advanced on the regiments of Platov and Larionov, dug in in the steppe. They sent two Cossacks with a report to Bukhvostov. One was killed immediately, the other rode away safely. The rising sun illuminated the motley horde of the Tatars. Red and white turbans,
From the book Tatars and Rus' [Directory] author Pokhlebkin William VasilievichV. NOGAI HORDE Relations between the Nogai Horde and the Russian state (1549-1606) The Nogai Horde was significantly different from the other feudal states, into which it broke up at the end of the 15th century. Golden Horde. The separation of the Nogai territories occurred already in
From the book The Great Troubles. End of the Empire author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich3. The word Horde means Rada, that is, Assembly, Council, Cossack Horde and Army. One cannot help but note the obvious similarity of the words ORDA and the Russian-Ukrainian RADA, that is, COUNCIL or ROW, ORDER. By the way, the word RADA has long been well known in Rus'. For example, in the era of the “Terrible Tsar” there is
From the book Book 1. New chronology of Rus' [Russian Chronicles. "Mongol-Tatar" conquest. Battle of Kulikovo. Ivan groznyj. Razin. Pugachev. The defeat of Tobolsk and author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich4. Great Russia = Golden Horde, Little Russia = Blue Horde, Belarus = White Horde As we have seen, the Arabs, when describing Rus', talk a lot about the THREE CENTERS of Rus'. Describing Mongolia, the same Arabs talk a lot about THREE SHEDS, namely, BATU SHED, BERKE SHED and NEW SHED. How
From the book New Chronology and the Concept of the Ancient History of Rus', England and Rome author Nosovsky Gleb VladimirovichGreat Russia = Golden Horde, Little Russia = Blue Horde, Belarus = White Horde A) As we have seen, the Arabs, when describing Rus', talk a lot about the THREE CENTERS of Russia. B) When describing Mongolia, the same Arabs talk a lot about the THREE SHEDS, namely: BATU BATH, | BERKE'S BARN and | NEW BARN.B) How we
From the book Book 2. The Mystery of Russian History [New Chronology of Rus'. Tatar and Arabic languages in Rus'. Yaroslavl as Veliky Novgorod. Ancient English history author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich3. Horde is a Slavic Rada, that is, a council, or a Cossack horde. It is impossible not to note the obvious similarity of the words HORDE and the Russian-Ukrainian RADA, that is, COUNCIL or ROW = ORDER. This is also where the Russian word ROD comes from. All these words have the same root and mean an orderly society,
From the book Empire of the Steppes. Attila, Genghis Khan, Tamerlane by Grusset ReneJochi and his sons. Golden Horde, White Horde and Sheybani ulus It is known that Genghis Khan gave to his son Jochi, who died in February 1227, six months earlier than Genghis Khan himself, the valley west of the Irtysh, where modern Semipalatinsk, Akmolinsk, Turgai are located,
From the book Russian Middle Ages author Gorsky Anton AnatolievichChapter 10 Rus' and the Horde (essay 2): Tver, Moscow and the Horde at the beginning of the 14th century Now let us turn to point two of the traditional scheme for the development of Russian-Horde relations: the Tver princes at the beginning of the 14th century. led the fight to overthrow the yoke, while Moscow at that time were
From the book Rus'. China. England. Dating of the Nativity of Christ and the First Ecumenical Council author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich From the book Pre-Letopic Rus'. Pre-Horde Rus'. Rus' and the Golden Horde author Fedoseev Yuri GrigorievichChapter 6 Sophia Paleologue and her influence on the domestic and foreign policies of Ivan III. Horde. Khan's feuds. Foundation of the Crimean and Kazan Khanates. Tsarevich Kasim. The Golden Horde and Khan Akhmat, his plans and actions. Standing on the Ugra. Death of Akhmat and further fragmentation of the Horde.
From the book Book 2. The Rise of the Kingdom [Empire. Where did Marco Polo actually travel? Who are the Italian Etruscans? Ancient Egypt. Scandinavia. Rus'-Horde n author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich4. The land of Naharain - the Nogai river or Greece-Byzantium In the “ancient” Egyptian history, the “land of Naharain” plays an important role, p. 444 ff. In the era of Pharaoh Ramses II, this kingdom is an ally of HIT, p. 467. That is, the ally is READY, according to our reconstruction. We will offer
From the book Turkic Empire. Great civilization author Rakhmanaliev RustanNogai Horde The Nogais - the inhabitants of the Nogai Horde - are known by this name in most sources, in particular Russian, although there is information that the Nogais called themselves Mangkyts, and their state - the Mangkyt Yurt. The earliest mentions of the Nogai and the Nogai Horde
From the book Book 1. Biblical Rus'. [The Great Empire of the XIV-XVII centuries on the pages of the Bible. Rus'-Horde and Ottomania-Atamania are two wings of a single Empire. Bible fuck author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich1.2. Biblical Babylon is the White Horde or Volga Horde. And after the Ottoman conquest, Babylon is probably Tsar-Grad Babylon - one of the capitals of Assyria. Babylonian kings are often at the same time Assyrian kings. As well as vice versa. For example: “And the Lord brought
