Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY in Moscow.

(humanitarian)

KRASNODAR BRANCH.

Faculty of Economics.

Coursework in economic theory

on the topic: “Basic forms of international economic relations”

Completed:

Economics student

faculty group F-62

Larina Maria Sergeevna

Scientific director

Lychak G.V.

Krasnodar 2007 .

Introduction

1. International economic relations

2. Basic forms of international economic relations

2.1 World trade

2.2 International capital market

2.3 International labor migration

2.4 World monetary system

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The world economy and relations between the states of the planet are very dynamic and objectively developing in the direction of world economic creation. It can be assumed that in the near future, international economic relations based on the global division of labor will also become a decisive factor in achieving material well-being and spiritual growth of people in all countries.

No modern country can do without the development of foreign economic relations. In order to sufficiently fully satisfy social needs, it is necessary to rely on the international division of labor and actively exchange goods and various types of services between countries. In principle, this is the relevance of the topic I have chosen.

The goal and task of my course work is to clarify one or another problem of international economic relations in general, to consider these problems (main forms: world trade, international capital market, international labor migration, world monetary system) with different points vision.

1. International economic relations

International economic relations (IER) represent the connections between numerous economic entities of individual countries or their groups regarding the production and exchange on an international scale of various kinds of objects - goods, services, capital and labor force. These relations are carried out in the process of participation of national enterprises and companies in the international division of labor (ILD). The implementation of IEO is also influenced by political, socio-economic, legal and other factors.

The mechanism for implementing IEO at the macro level includes organizational, legal norms and instruments for their implementation (international economic treaties and agreements, international trade organizations, etc.), relevant activities of international economic organizations aimed at achieving goals for the coordinated development of international economic relations.

International practice shows that modern IEOs require significant, permanent supranational, interstate regulation.

The mechanism for implementing IEO at the micro level includes a system of international marketing and organization and technology of foreign economic activity. Despite all the external similarities with general (domestic) marketing, international marketing is a specific tool for managing entrepreneurship at the international level. Its specificity is manifested, first of all, in the methods of studying the characteristics of national markets, as well as world markets of certain goods and services.

The international division of labor is the objective basis for the international exchange of goods, services, knowledge, the development of production, scientific, technical, trade and other cooperation between all countries of the world, regardless of their economic development and nature social order. The essence of MRI is to reduce production costs and maximize customer satisfaction. It is MRI that is the most important material prerequisite for establishing fruitful economic interaction between states on a global scale.

The international division of labor can be defined as an important stage in the development of the social territorial division of labor between countries, which is based on the economically advantageous specialization of production of individual countries in certain types of products and leads to the mutual exchange of production results between them in certain quantitative and qualitative ratios. MRI plays an increasing role in the implementation of advanced production processes in countries around the world, ensures the interconnection of these processes, and forms the corresponding international proportions in the sectoral and territorial-country aspects.

In any socio-economic conditions, value is formed from the costs of means of production, payment of necessary labor and surplus value, then all goods entering the market, regardless of their origin, participate in the formation of international value and world prices. Goods are exchanged in proportions that obey the laws of the world market, including the law of value. Realization of the advantages of MRI in the course of international exchange of goods and services ensures that any country, under favorable conditions, receives the difference between the international and national costs of exported goods and services. Among the universal human incentives to participate in MRI and use its capabilities is the need to solve global problems of humanity through the joint efforts of all countries of the world.

2 . Basic forms of international economic relationseny

The main forms of IEO include:

· world trade (see paragraph 2.1);

· international capital market (see paragraph 2.2);

· international labor migration (see paragraph 2.3);

· world monetary system (see paragraph 2.4).

2.1 World trade(M.T)

The traditional and most developed form of international economic relations is world trade. Trade accounts for about 80% of the total volume of international economic relations.

For any country, the role of M.T. difficult to overestimate. In modern conditions, the active participation of the country in M.T. is associated with significant advantages: it allows you to more efficiently use the resources available in the country, join the world achievements of science and technology, carry out structural restructuring of your economy in a shorter time, and also more fully and diversifiedly satisfy the needs of the population.

In this regard, it is of significant interest to study both theories that reveal the principles of optimal participation national economies in global commodity exchange, factors of competitiveness of individual countries on the world market, and objective patterns of development of M.T. M.T is a form of communication between commodity producers of different countries, arising on the basis of MRT, and expresses their mutual economic dependence. The following definition is often given in the literature: “Global trade is the process of buying and selling carried out between buyers, sellers and intermediaries in different countries.” M.T includes the export and import of goods, the relationship between which is called the trade balance. UN statistical reference books provide data on the volume and dynamics of M.T. as the sum of the value of exports from all countries of the world.

Structural changes occurring in the economies of countries under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, specialization and cooperation industrial production strengthen the interaction of national economies. This contributes to the activation of M.T. World trade, which mediates the movement of all intercountry commodity flows, is growing faster than production. According to studies of foreign trade turnover, for every 10% increase in world production there is a 16% increase in the volume of M.T. This creates more favorable conditions for its development. When disruptions occur in trade, the development of production slows down. The term “foreign trade” refers to the trade of a country with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods.

Diverse foreign trade activities are divided according to product specialization into trade in finished products, trade in machinery and equipment, trade in raw materials and trade in services.

World trade is the paid total trade turnover between all countries of the world. However, the concept of world trade is also used in a narrower sense: for example, the total trade turnover of industrialized countries, the total trade turnover of developing countries, the total trade turnover of countries of a continent, region, for example, countries of Eastern Europe, etc.

It is in the interest of every country to specialize in those industries in which it has the greatest advantage or the least weakness, and for which the relative advantage is greatest.

A number of factors influenced the stable, sustainable growth of international trade:

1. development of the international division of labor and internationalization of production;

2. Scientific and technological revolution, promoting the renewal of fixed capital, the creation of new sectors of the economy, accelerating the reconstruction of old ones;

3. active activity of transnational corporations in the world market;

4. regulation (liberalization) of international trade through the activities of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT);

5. liberalization of international trade.

6. development of trade and economic integration processes: elimination of regional barriers, formation of common markets, free trade zones;

7. gaining political independence of former colonial countries. Singling out from among them “newly industrialized countries” with an economic model oriented to the foreign market.

According to available forecasts, the high pace of world trade will continue in the future: by 2003, the volume of world trade increased by 50% and exceeded 7 trillion. Doll.

Since the second half of the 20th century, the uneven dynamics of foreign trade have become noticeably evident. This affected the balance of power between countries in the world market. Dominant position The USA was shaken. In addition to Germany, exports from other Western European countries also grew at a noticeable pace. In the 1980s, Japan made a significant breakthrough in international trade. By the end of the 80s, Japan began to become a leader in terms of competitiveness factors. In the same period, the “new industrial countries” of Asia - Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan - joined it. However, by the mid-90s, the United States again took a leading position in the world in terms of competitiveness. They are closely followed by Singapore, Hong Kong, as well as Japan, which previously held first place for six years.

The growth rate of trade in raw materials lags noticeably behind the overall growth rate of world trade. This lag is due to the development of substitutes for raw materials, more economical, deepening of its processing. Industrialized countries have almost completely captured the market for high-tech products. The share of industrial exports of developing countries in the total world volume in the early 90s was 16.3%.

Types of world trade.

1. Wholesale trade.

2. Commodity exchanges.

3. Futures exchanges.

4. Stock exchanges.

5. Fair.

6. Foreign exchange trading.

1. The main organizational form in wholesale trade in countries with developed market economies is independent firms engaged in actual trade. But with the penetration of industrial firms into wholesale trade, they created their own trading apparatus. These are the wholesale branches of industrial firms in the United States: wholesale offices engaged in providing information services to various clients, and wholesale depots. Large German companies have their own supply departments, special bureaus or sales offices, and wholesale warehouses. Industrial companies create subsidiaries to sell their products to firms and may have their own wholesale network. Direct connections between production and retail trade, bypassing specialized wholesale companies. Organizational structure Wholesale trade in Japan has its differences. It is based on trading houses that provide all stages of not only trade, but also the production of goods. They supply industrial enterprises with raw materials, materials, sell their finished products and semi-finished products, coordinate the activities of related enterprises, participate in the development of new products, etc.

An important parameter in wholesale trade is the ratio of universal and specialized wholesale firms. The tendency towards specialization can be considered universal (in specialized firms, labor productivity is much higher than in universal ones). Specialization goes to the subject (product) and functional (i.e., limitation of the functions performed by the wholesale company) feature.

2. There are several main types of commodity exchanges:

1. Open - accessible to everyone. They trade real goods, so sellers and buyers are directly involved in transactions. Intermediaries between them are possible, but not required. The activities of such exchanges are poorly regulated.

2. Open exchanges of a mixed type, with intermediaries - brokers acting at the expense of the client, and dealers acting at their own expense.

3. Closed - selling real goods. On them, sellers and buyers do not have the right to enter the “exchange ring” and thus directly contact each other.

Currently, exchanges for real goods have survived only in some countries and have insignificant turnover. They are, as a rule, one of the forms of wholesale trade in goods of local importance, the markets of which are characterized by low concentration of production, sales and consumption, or are created in developed countries in an attempt to protect national interests when exporting goods that are essential for these countries. In developed capitalist countries there are almost no real commodity exchanges left. But in certain periods, in the absence of other forms of market organization, exchanges of real goods can play a significant role.

3. The combination of elements of purchase and sale and credit in trade transactions and the interest of the trader to quickly receive money for as much of the cost of the product as possible, regardless of its actual sale, were the most important factors in organizing a new type of exchange trading - futures.

Derivatives (futures) exchanges, where they trade not goods, but contracts for the supply of goods in the future. These can be closed derivatives exchanges, where only professionals trade directly and transactions predominate in insuring the prices of contract goods against the risk of their decline or, conversely, growth in the future; open derivatives exchanges, where, in addition to professionals, sellers and buyers of contracts participate. Futures exchange trading is one of the most dynamic sectors of the capitalist economy. In modern conditions, futures trading is the dominant form of exchange trading.

Futures exchanges make it possible not only to sell goods faster, but also to speed up the return of the advanced capital in cash in an amount as close as possible to the originally advanced capital plus the corresponding profit. In addition, the futures exchange provides savings in reserve funds that a businessman keeps in case of unfavorable conditions. In futures transactions, the parties retain complete freedom only in relation to price and limited freedom in choosing the delivery time of the goods; all other conditions are strictly regulated and do not depend on the will of the parties involved in the transaction. In this regard, futures exchanges are sometimes called a “price market” (that is, exchange values), in contrast to commodity (aggregate and unity) markets, such as real commodity exchanges, where the buyer and seller can agree on any terms of the contract. It is precisely as a price market that the stock exchange meets the requirements imposed by large-scale production at the highest stage of development of capitalism. The transformation of the exchange from a market for real goods into a unique institution serving and reducing the cost of trade and credit and financial operations occurred as a result of increased concentration of sales, production and consumption of exchange goods (but while maintaining competition), the emergence and evolution of forms financial capital. Today, futures exchanges serve the needs of both small and large companies.

4. Securities are traded on international money markets, that is, on the exchanges of such large financial centers as New York, London, Paris, Frankfurt am Main, Tokyo, Zurich. Trading of securities is carried out during business hours at the exchange, or the so-called exchange time. Only brokers (brokers) can act as sellers and buyers on exchanges, who fulfill the orders of their clients, and for this they receive a certain percentage of the turnover. For trading securities - stocks and bonds - there are so-called brokerage firms, or brokerage houses.

The exchange price of shares and other securities depends solely on the relationship between supply and demand. The stock quote (rate) index is an indicator of the prices of the most important shares on stock exchanges. It usually includes stock prices of the largest companies.

5. One of the best ways to find contact between manufacturer and consumer are fairs, most often specialized ones, which allow the consumer to compare and choose the product that best suits him in terms of consumer qualities and price, without spending enormous effort searching for information about the manufacturers of the goods he needs. At thematic fairs, manufacturers display their products in exhibition spaces, and the consumer has the opportunity to choose, buy or order the product he needs right on the spot. After all, the fair is an extensive exhibition where stands with goods and services are distributed according to theme, industry, purpose, etc. Therefore, anyone, having orientated themselves on the topics of the exhibitions, can choose one that will allow them to meet with the manufacturers that interest them. Accordingly, the manufacturer meets an audience at the fair who is interested in his product.

The role of fairs will not decrease in the future, but, on the contrary, will increase. So in Germany, fairs, as a rule, are held by organizing societies, for which this is their main activity. They belong to the state or communes, are independent of the participants and own the territory where the fairs are held. The largest of them have an annual turnover of 200 to 400 million marks.

In France, numerous industry exhibitions are organized by organizing societies, which in most cases do not have their own fairgrounds. Almost all such areas and buildings in Paris are administered or owned by the Chamber of Commerce and Industry. The vast majority of industry and specialized fairs are held in the French capital.

In the Italian fair industry there are also a large number of exhibition organizers, which either belong to industrial associations or are private. The largest fair company in Italy is the Milan Fair, which has no competitors in terms of its annual turnover. According to official data, about 30 percent of Italy's foreign trade is carried out through fairs, including 18 percent through Milan. It has 20 representative offices abroad. The share of foreign participants and visitors averages 18 percent. A very great future is predicted for the Madrid fair (on a European scale). This fair, having left behind the Barcelona one, has become the first place in the country and now has the best fair infrastructure.

6. The annual turnover of world trade is almost 20 billion dollars, and the daily turnover of foreign exchange markets is approximately 500 billion dollars. This means that 90 percent of all foreign exchange transactions are not directly related to trade transactions, but are carried out by international banks. All this happens within a day.

Foreign currency trading refers to transactions of purchase and sale of one currency for another or for national currency at a rate pre-established by partners. The most important exchange rate is the dollar to German mark. Banks that are ready to enter into foreign exchange transactions name the rates at which they expect to buy or sell.

In addition to banks and large enterprises, brokers also take part in market operations. Brokers are simply intermediaries and require a commission (courtage) for their services. Their firms are an important place for the exchange of all kinds of information. The foreign exchange market is the sum of telephone and teletype contacts between participants in the foreign exchange trade.

2.2 Internationalth marketcapitalAfishing

The market in which residents of different countries trade assets is called the international capital market (ICM). In fact, RTOs are not a single market - they are several closely interconnected markets in which the exchange of assets is carried out on an international scale. International currency trading in the foreign exchange market is an important component MRK. The main players in the international exchange market are the same as in the international foreign exchange market: commercial banks, large corporations, non-bank financial institutions, central banks and other government bodies. And like the foreign exchange market, RTOs operate within a network of global financial centers connected complex systems communications. But the assets traded on RTOs, in addition to foreign currency bank deposits, also include stocks and bonds of different countries.

When examining asset trading, it is often useful to distinguish between debt (bonds and bank deposits) and equity (stock holdings) funds.

Structure of the international capital market:

1. Commercial banks. They play a central role in RTOs not only because they set in motion the mechanism of international payments, but also due to the breadth of the scope of their financial activities. Banks' liabilities consist primarily of deposits of various maturities, while assets consist primarily of loans (to corporations and governments), deposits with other banks (interbank deposits) and bonds.

2. Corporations. A common practice for corporations, especially those that are multinational in nature, is to attract foreign sources of capital to finance their investments. To raise funds, corporations may sell blocks of stock, which give owners the right to a share of the corporation's assets, or they may resort to debt financing. Corporate bonds are often denominated in the currency of the financial centers where they are offered for sale.

3. Non-bank financial organizations. Insurance companies, pension funds and mutual funds became important participants in RTOs when they turned to foreign assets to diversify their portfolios. A particularly important role is played by investment banks, which are not banks at all, but specialize in subscription sales of stocks and bonds of corporations.

4. Central banks and other government bodies. Typically, central banks are included in global financial markets through foreign exchange intervention. In addition, other government agencies often borrow funds abroad.

With the current structure of RTOs, there is a risk of financial destabilization, which can only be reduced through close cooperation between bank controllers in many countries.

RTOs provide residents of different countries with the opportunity to diversify their portfolios by trading risky assets.

In addition, by ensuring the rapid dissemination of international information about investment opportunities existing around the world, the market can help distribute the world's savings in the most productive manner. Economic integration is a process of economic interaction between countries, leading to the convergence of economic mechanisms, taking the form of interstate agreements and coordinatedly regulated by interstate bodies.

Integration processes lead to the development of economic regionalism, as a result of which certain groups of countries create among themselves more favorable conditions for trade, and in some cases for the interregional movement of factors of production, than for all other countries.

The prerequisites for integration are the following: · Proximity of levels economic development and the degree of market maturity of the integrating countries. With rare exceptions, interstate integration develops either between industrial countries or between developing countries.

2.3 Interatnational labor migration

The world community, which until recently did not directly feel the size, characteristics and consequences of migration processes at the international level, was faced with the need to coordinate the efforts of many countries to resolve acute situations and collectively regulate migration flows. The last decade of our century is characterized by the fact that labor importing and exporting countries are making significant adjustments to their migration policies.

Modern international labor migration is characterized by the intensification and growing influence of labor exporting countries that use various methods and means to achieve the goals of emigration. International labor migration is the process of moving labor resources from one country to another for the purpose of employment for more favorable conditions than in the country of origin. In addition to economic motives, the process of international migration is also determined by considerations of a political, ethnic, cultural, family and other nature. Thus, international labor migration is part of a broad phenomenon - international population migration, when this process is not directly related to employment.

International migrants are divided into 3 main categories:

· immigrants and non-immigrants legally admitted to the country. For countries that traditionally accept immigrants, the 80s - 90s. were a period of high levels of immigration;

· Migrant workers under contract. By the end of the 90s. there were more than 25 million people in the world. Many countries depend on foreign labor.

· illegal immigrants. Their number in the late 90s. exceeded 30 million people. Almost all industrialized countries have illegal immigrants. Some of them cross the border, others remain in a foreign country with expired visas; They usually replace jobs at the lowest level of the labor hierarchy.

According to rough estimates, the annual migration balance by the mid-90s was approximately 1 million people. According to forecasts, in the coming years, due to the stabilization of the global economy, the balance will decrease.

The volume of annual cash flows associated with international migration is measured in hundreds of billions of dollars and is quite comparable in scale to annual foreign direct investment (Table 1).

Developed countries account for approximately 9/10 of all labor income payments to non-resident foreign workers and 2/3 of all private unpaid remittances, while all developing countries account for only 1/10 and 1/3, respectively. Within the framework of cash flows associated with labor migration, remittances of workers occupy about 62%, labor income - about 31% and the movement of migrants - about 7%.

Table 1. Cash flows associated with labor migration (in billion dollars)

The largest payments of labor income to non-resident private individuals are made by Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Japan, Belgium, and the USA. In the developing world, the countries most actively using foreign labor are South Africa, Israel, Malaysia, and Kuwait. The largest private transfers are carried out from the main developed countries (USA, Germany, Japan, Great Britain) and newly industrialized countries and oil-producing countries (Korea, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela). The main recipients of transfers from abroad are developed countries, mainly due to the transfer of part of the salaries of employees of foreign divisions of TNCs and military personnel stationed abroad. In many developing countries, the scale of private remittances amounts to 25-50% of income from merchandise exports (Bangladesh, Jamaica, Malawi, Morocco, Pakistan, Portugal, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Turkey). In Jordan, Lesotho, Yemen, transfers reach 10 - 50% of GNP.

From a theoretical point of view, the income of a labor exporting country is far from being limited to remittances from emigrants from abroad, although they constitute their main share. Among other incomes that increase the total GNP and have a beneficial effect on the balance of payments are taxes imposed on firms for employment abroad, direct and portfolio investments of emigrants in the economy home country, reducing the costs of education, health care and other social expenses that are covered for emigrants by other countries. Returning to their homeland, migrants are estimated to bring with them the same amount of savings as they transferred through banks. Moreover, by gaining work experience abroad and improving their skills, migrants bring this experience home, as a result of which the country receives additional qualified personnel free of charge.

Emigration has a very tangible positive impact on the economy of labor-abundant countries, since the departure of workers abroad reduces unemployment. One cannot, of course, deny the negative consequences of immigration, which in developed countries are associated primarily with a decrease in real wages of unskilled labor as a result of the influx of immigrants.

Almost all countries to which more than 25 thousand people immigrate per year are highly developed states with a GNP of more than $6,900 per capita.

The process of internationalization of production, which is actively occurring throughout the world, is accompanied by the internationalization of the workforce. Labor migration has become part of international economic relations. Migration flows rush from one region and country to another. While giving rise to certain problems, labor migration provides undoubted advantages to countries receiving and supplying labor.

The intensification of migration processes observed in recent decades is expressed both in quantitative and qualitative indicators: the forms and directions of movement of labor flows are changing.

The world community, which until recently did not directly experience the size, characteristics and consequences of migration processes at the international level, is faced with the need to coordinate the efforts of many countries to resolve acute situations and collectively regulate migration flows.

Mass migration has become one of the characteristic phenomena of the life of the world community in the second half of the twentieth century. International (external) migration exists in different forms: labor, family, recreational, tourist, etc. The international labor market covers multidirectional flows of labor resources crossing national borders. The international labor market unites national and regional labor markets. The international labor market exists in the form of labor migration.

Types of labor migration:

Distinguish internal labor migration occurring between regions of one state, and external migration affecting several countries.

-International labor migration arose many centuries ago and has undergone significant changes since then.

In balance of payments statistics, indicators related to labor migration are part of the current account balance and are classified into three headings:

Labor income, payments to employees - wages and other payments in cash or in kind received by non-resident individuals for work performed for and paid for by residents.

Transfers of workers - transfer of money and goods by migrants to their relatives remaining in their homeland. In case of shipment of goods, their estimated value is taken into account.

State regulation of the international labor market is carried out on the basis of the national legislation of host countries and countries exporting labor, as well as on the basis of interstate and interdepartmental agreements between them. Regulation is carried out through the adoption of budget-financed programs aimed at limiting the influx of foreign labor (immigration) or encouraging immigrants to return to their homeland (re-emigration). Most receiving countries take a selective approach when regulating immigration. Screening of unwanted immigrants is carried out on the basis of requirements for qualifications, education, age, health status, on the basis of quantitative and geographical quotas, direct and indirect entry bans, time and other restrictions.

2.4 World monetary system

The world monetary system (WMS) is a historically established form of organization of international monetary relations, secured by international agreements. MMS is a set of methods, instruments and international bodies through which payment and settlement turnover is carried out within the framework of the world economy. Its emergence and subsequent evolution reflect the objective development of the processes of internationalization of capital, requiring adequate conditions in the international monetary sphere. The form of organization of currency relations is the international monetary system (IMS). MBC went through four stages in its development.

First stage - gold standard system, which spontaneously developed towards the end of the nineteenth century. It is characterized by the following features:

a certain gold content of the currency unit;

the convertibility of each currency into gold both within and outside the borders of a particular state;

maintaining a strict relationship between the national gold reserve and the domestic money supply.

Second phase - gold exchange standard system- was adopted at the Genoa Conference (1922). It was later recognized by most capitalist countries. Under the gold exchange standard, banknotes are not exchanged for gold, but for mottos (banknotes, bills, checks) of other countries, which can then be exchanged for gold. The dollar and pound sterling were chosen as the motto currencies.

Third stage - Bretton Woods monetary system received its design in Bretton Woods (USA) in 1944. Its main features:

gold retained the function of final monetary settlements between countries;

The US dollar became a reserve currency. It, along with gold, was recognized as a measure of the value of the currencies of different countries, as well as an international means of payment;

The dollar was exchanged for gold by central banks and government agencies of other countries in the US Treasury at the rate of 35 dollars per 1 troy ounce (31.1 g). The dollar has firmly taken its place in currency relations, the scale of gold use has fallen sharply;

each country had to maintain a stable (officially established) exchange rate of its currency relative to any other currency. Market fluctuations in exchange rates should not deviate from the fixed gold and dollar parities by more than 1%;

interstate regulation of currency relations was carried out primarily through the International Monetary Fund (IMF), created at the same Bretton Woods conference.

By the end of the 60s, the Bretton Woods system came into conflict with the developing internationalization of the world economy. The gold-dollar standard regime gradually began to turn into a dollar standard system. Meanwhile, the crisis of the US economy in the 60s and 70s and the growing importance of the Western European and Japanese economies led to a large concentration of dollars in Western Europe and Japan, for which the United States could not provide gold liquidity. In the early 1970s, the Bretton Woods system collapsed.

Fourth stage. In 1976, an IMF meeting was held in Kingston (Jamaica), at which the foundations of a new monetary system of the capitalist economy were determined, which was defined as managed floating currency systemRowls.

Let us highlight the main features of this system.

The function of gold as a measure of the value of exchange rates was abolished.

The SDR (Special Drawing Rights - SDR) standard was introduced - special drawing rights - with the aim of turning it into the main reserve stock, a collective currency.

Currency relations between countries began to be based on floating rates of national currencies. Fluctuations in exchange rates were caused by two main factors:

the purchasing power of currencies in the domestic markets of countries;

the relationship between supply and demand of national currencies in international markets.

According to IMF requirements, member countries must not allow sudden fluctuation exchange rates and, if necessary, regulate them. One of the instruments is the Central Bank's foreign exchange interventions (purchase or sale of foreign currency on the foreign exchange exchange).

According to the IMF classification, a country can choose the following exchange rate regimes: fixed, floating and mixed.

Against the backdrop of numerous problems associated with fluctuations in exchange rates, the experience of functioning of a zone of stable exchange rates in Europe, which allows the countries included in this currency group to develop sustainably, despite the problems arising in the IMF, is of particular interest in the world.

Thanks to the introduction of fixed exchange rates in Western Europe, the so-called currency snake phenomenon appeared. A currency snake, or a snake in a tunnel, is a curve that describes the joint fluctuations in the exchange rates of the countries of the European Community relative to other currencies that are not included in this currency group.

Measures of government influence on the exchange rate:

Currency interventions;

Discount policy;

Protective measures.

The exchange rate has a great impact on international economic relations. First, it allows producers in a given country to compare the costs of producing goods with world market prices. Thus, it is one of the guidelines in the implementation of foreign economic relations and allows one to predict the financial results of economic activity. Secondly, the level of the exchange rate directly affects the economic situation of the country, which is manifested, in particular, in the state of its balance of payments. Thirdly, the exchange rate affects the redistribution of the world gross product between countries.

In an undeveloped form, the exchange of one national monetary unit for the monetary unit of another country existed for several centuries in the form of a money changer business, however, in a developed economy, currency exchange takes place on foreign exchange markets. At the end of the 20th century, the volume of daily currency trading exceeded 1.2 trillion. dollars. Of course, such a large volume cannot be explained only by the needs of international trade and investment flows. Great importance has currency speculation, that is, the desire to make a profit on a correctly guessed future movement of the exchange rate. Profits or losses could amount to hundreds of millions of dollars.

Conclusion

The world economy and relations between the states of the planet are very dynamic and objectively developing in the direction of world economic creation. It can be assumed that in the near future, international economic relations based on the world (European) division of labor will also become a decisive factor in achieving material well-being and spiritual growth of people in all countries.

International economic relations are carried out according to the laws of a single market between countries and are based on the global division of labor and the economic isolation of partners in entrepreneurship and business.

No modern country can do without the development of foreign economic relations. In order to sufficiently fully satisfy social needs, it is necessary and advisable to rely on the international division of labor and actively exchange goods and various types of services between countries.

If we consider world trade in terms of its development trends, then there is, on the one hand, a clear strengthening of international integration, the gradual erasure of borders and the creation of various interstate trade blocs, on the other hand, a deepening of the international division of labor, a gradation of countries into industrially developed and backward. One cannot help but notice the growing role modern means communications in the process of exchanging information and concluding transactions themselves. Trends towards depersonalization and standardization of goods make it possible to speed up the process of concluding transactions and the turnover of capital.

Labor migration is the relocation of the working population from one state to another for a period of more than a year, caused by economic and other reasons, and can take the form of emigration (departure) and immigration (entry). Labor migration leads to equalization of wage levels in different countries. As a result of migration, total world output increases due to more effective use labor resources due to their intercountry redistribution.

List of used literature:

1. Avdokushin E.F. International economic relations, Textbook. M.-1999

2. Vinogradov V.V. Economy of Russia. Tutorial. - M.: Yurist, 2001

3. Kan E.A., Chekshin V.I. Introduction to the world economy: Textbook. M.: “MODEK” 2002

4. Kireev A.S. International economics. T 1.2. M, 1998

5. World Economy: Textbook for universities / edited by Professor I.P. Nikolaeva. - 2nd edition, revised and expanded - M.: UNITY - DANA, 2003

6. Semenov K.A. International economic relations: Course of lectures. - M.:

"GARDARIKI", 1999

7. Rumyantsev A.P., Rumyantseva N.S. International Economics - Lectures. MAUP.1999

8. Khalevinskaya E.D., Crozet I. World economy: Textbook / edited by Khalevinskaya E.D. M.: Yurist, 2000

Similar documents

The essence and main problems of international trade as a form of international commodity-money relations. Modern theories of international trade. Participation of Ukraine in regional integration associations. Features of the formation of the labor market in Ukraine.

test, added 08/16/2010


The essence of capital export as one of the types of international economic relations, its main reasons and prerequisites, stimulating factors. Forms of capital export and the procedure for state regulation, the role of transnational organizations.

test, added 05/28/2010


The concept, essence and structure of the world economy and the world economy. The concept of integration and internationalization, international economic relations and their features. Forms of international economic relations. Foreign economic trade policy of Russia.

course work, added 01/23/2009


Forms and main components of international economic relations, their characteristics. International movement of capital and its role in the implementation of economic relations. Foreign trade relations and investment policy, their components and assessment.

test, added 04/10/2009


The place of migration in international problems of the world economy. Causes and consequences of labor migration. Disadvantages and advantages of exporting and importing labor. Analysis of the dynamics of migration processes in Russia. National migration policy of the Russian Federation.

course work, added 07/10/2012


The structure of foreign trade as a form of international economic relations. Main indicators and place of Russian foreign trade in the world economy. Analysis of exports and imports by product and geography. Prospects for the development of foreign trade.

course work, added 09/05/2014


Activities of international economic organizations in the system of international economic relations, their essence and order of formation. Classification of international economic organizations according to a number of characteristics, features of their relationships with Russia.

thesis, added 12/01/2010


Economic relations in the world economic system and their regulation. Stages of development of the world economy. Forms of economic relations in the world economic system: world trade, export of capital and labor. World integration processes.

abstract, added 03/15/2013


The global labor market is part of global economic relations that formed in the 19th century. The concept of migration balance. World labor centers. Quantitative indicators of international movement of labor resources. Features of migration.

course work, added 02/05/2013


Basic concepts of international economic relations. Features of foreign trade in developed and developing countries. The essence of political and economic relations between developed and backward countries (the specifics of the "Center - Periphery" relations).

• · International trade in goods and services;
• · Capital migration;
• · Migration of labor;
• · International scientific and technical cooperation;
• · International monetary relations.

Balance of payments: essence, structure.

Basic forms of international economic relations

International economic relations (MEO)-- economic relations between states, regional groups, transnational corporations and other entities of the world economy. International economic relations are implemented through the following forms:

• 1) international trade in goods and services;
• 2) international movement of entrepreneurial and loan capital;
• 3) international labor migration;
• 4) international scientific and technical cooperation;
• 5) international monetary relations.

International trade arose in the process of the emergence of the world market in the 16th-18th centuries. Its development is one of the important factors in the development of the world economy. International trade is the exchange of goods and services across national borders. This exchange is based on the principle of comparative advantage proposed by D. Ricardo. In accordance with this principle, the state should produce and sell to other countries those goods that it is able to produce with the greatest productivity and efficiency, that is, at relatively lower costs than other goods in the same country, while buying those goods from other countries , which it is not capable of producing with similar parameters.

In relation to international trade, a state can pursue two types of policies: free trade and protectionism.

Protectionism is a policy aimed at protecting the national economy from foreign goods and limiting imports. Protectionist policy has the following directions:

organization of customs taxation, providing for high customs duties when importing finished products and lower ones when exporting;

establishment of non-tariff barriers, which include contingent (establishing a certain quota, or share, for the export or import of certain goods), licensing (obtaining permission to carry out foreign economic activity) and state monopoly (establishment of exclusive right government agencies to carry out certain types of foreign economic activity).

Free trade , or free trade policy, is the opposite of protectionism. It is based on liberalization, the essence of which is that the state sets the goal of opening the domestic market to foreign goods and services in order to increase competition in the domestic market. At the same time, it is assumed that national enterprises will withstand competition.

In real life, modern states combine both free trade and protectionism in their foreign economic policies.

International trade includes two interrelated processes: export , or export, and import , or import. Total value export and import of goods and services forms foreign trade turnover.

The real benefits (or real losses) that international trade brings are reflected by trade balance countries.

Trade balance - is the ratio of payments abroad for imported goods and services and receipts from abroad for exported goods and services over a certain period of time. If receipts exceed payments, then the balance of payments of a given country is active; if the difference between these payments and receipts is negative, then the balance is passive. The difference between receipts from abroad (the amount of exports) and payments abroad (the amount of imports) is called trade balance .

The second form of international economic relations is export of capital . Export of capital - is the export of capital by legal entities and individuals for the purpose of more profitable placement or use.

Among the main reasons causing the movement of capital from one country to another are the following:

• 1. The unevenness of capital accumulation in different countries and the emergence of a relative surplus of capital in some national markets. At the same time, in some there is an overaccumulation of capital, that is, the formation of its relative surplus in a country where it cannot find highly profitable use, in others there is a relative surplus.
• 2. The impossibility of investing capital effectively or investing it at a high rate of return.
• 3. The presence of customs barriers that prevent the export of goods, which leads to the replacement of the export of goods with the export of capital to penetrate commodity markets.
• 4. Bringing producers closer to sources of raw materials, as well as the opportunity for capital owners to use factors of production that are cheaper than domestic ones in economically less developed countries (low wage, low prices for raw materials, water, energy).

Thus, purpose of capital export is to obtain a higher rate of profit in another country due to the advantages associated with its use here compared to national economic conditions. There are two forms of capital export: entrepreneurial and loan.

Entrepreneurial capital exported either to create their own production abroad in the form of direct investment, or to invest money in local companies in the form of portfolio investment. Direct investments are associated with the emergence of new or acquisition of ready-made enterprises and require full control over enterprises. Portfolio investment consist of purchasing shares of foreign enterprises in amounts that do not provide ownership or control over them. Such investments are made when they seek to place their funds in different sectors of the economy or when the legislation of the host country prevents direct investment.

Loan capital exported in the form of loans, or credits that bring interest.

On the basis of the export of capital and the creation of enterprises in other countries, the internationalization and transnationalization of capital and the creation of transnational corporations (TNCs) occur.

The modern export of capital is characterized by the following features:

In the growth of the scale of export of productive capital with direct investment in the sphere latest technologies.

In the export of capital, carried out mainly between highly developed countries.

The increasing role of developing countries as exporters of capital.

The next form of international economic relations is international labor migration . It represents the movement of the country's working population outside its borders. Emigration- departure of the country's population abroad. Immigration- entry of the population of other countries into the territory of a given country. Historically, migration processes arose many centuries ago. The first mass movement of workers was the importation of slaves from Africa to America. In the 40s XIX century There was an explosion of emigration from Ireland to the United States due to the “potato famine.” A new wave of migration from Europe to the USA was noted in the 20s. XX century Currently, two new flows in labor migration can be distinguished: firstly, there is a “brain drain” - a steady flow of highly qualified specialists and members of their families to the United States. Today, more than 700 thousand people legally immigrate to the country. in year. Secondly, the influx of labor from Mexico, the Caribbean and Asia into the United States and developed European countries. At the beginning of the new century, 84% of all immigrants came from these regions.

In total, according to rough estimates, there are currently more than 35 million migrant workers in the world. The annual number of migrants in the world currently exceeds 100 million people. The reasons for labor migration can be different.

Among the main reasons for migration are the following:

• 1. Economic. In recent years, they have played an increasingly important role in finding work, increasing income, living standards, etc. Chronic unemployment, which exists in some countries (especially underdeveloped ones), has become an important factor in increasing migration. This is also facilitated by the increase in the amount of exported capital in recent years, the creation of an extensive network of branches of large companies abroad, since, following the capital, those wishing to get a job flock to these countries.
• 2. Non-economic (demographic, political, religious, national, cultural, family, etc.). International labor migration between developed countries occurs primarily for non-economic reasons. In this case, the prestige of the job or company, the opportunity for professional growth, career, and cultural needs play a significant role.

There are the following types of international labor migration:

Permanent or irrevocable , that is, relocation with a change of residence.

Cyclic or periodic , that is, moving for a certain period with a return to the previous place of residence.

Pendulum or shuttle , which is the regular movement of the population to work or study from one country to another and back.

Adjustable , based on the organized recruitment and regulation of specialists.

Unregulated , which consists in independent movement of the population (family reunification, moving to the previous place of residence after the end of the employment contract).

Legal carried out in accordance with current legislation.

Illegal , contrary to current legislation.

Migration of low-skilled labor , consisting in its movement from developing countries to industrialized ones.

Migration of highly skilled labor , or “brain drain”, carried out as the departure of specialists to industrialized countries.

Practice shows that labor migration can be beneficial both for countries exporting labor and for countries receiving it. For the labor exporting country:

• 1) it is a source of currency into the country (transfers to families and upon the employee’s return from abroad);
• 2) the departure of labor abroad means an improvement in the situation on the domestic labor market and a reduction in unemployment in the country;
• 3) at the same time, transfers sent to the country allow families to increase the level of consumption, increase aggregate demand, stimulate the development of production, i.e., enable the country as a whole to more successfully solve a complex of internal socio-economic problems. Part of the money received through the purchase of shares, land, and real estate is directly invested in the development of the national economy;
• 4) those working abroad, in the process of work, acquire new professional skills, experience, and knowledge, which they use when returning home, increasing their productivity.

For the labor importing country: reduction in production costs. Immigrant workers receive significantly lower wages than local workers, which reduces production costs and increases the competitiveness of national goods on the world market. If skilled labor is imported, the country's training costs are reduced.

However, labor migration can also have negative consequences. Among the negative consequences of labor migration are: trends in the growth of consumption of funds earned abroad, the desire to hide income received, “brain drain”, and in some cases, a decrease in the qualifications of working migrants.

It is no coincidence that recently, in the interests of neutralizing the negative consequences and enhancing the positive effect the country receives as a result of labor migration, they have been using means such as public policy, and interstate politics. A specialized UN agency that carries out activities in the global labor market to solve problems of labor migration, employment, conditions of organization and remuneration of labor, vocational training, is International Labor Organization (ILO) .

international scientific and technical cooperation . It represents the participation of legal entities and individuals in global scientific developments in order to obtain new knowledge and use it in economics and technology. global migration capital cooperation

International scientific and technical cooperation takes the following forms:

Material, consisting in the exchange of high-tech products.

Intangible, consisting of the exchange of drawings, descriptions, patents, licenses.

Providing services in the form of exchange of specialists, technical personnel, assistance in the field of management and marketing.

Commercial exchange of scientific and technical knowledge, consisting of technology transfer under licenses, engineering, consulting.

Non-commercial exchange of scientific and technical information, consisting of holding international conferences and symposiums.

Intercompany cooperation in the field of research and development, carried out in applied research and associated with the development and creation of prototypes of products.

The most important form of international economic relations is international monetary relations . This is a set of economic relations that arise during the functioning of money in international circulation. Payment and settlement transactions in the global economy are carried out through currency relations. International monetary relations are carried out within the framework . International monetary system is a set of rules, laws and institutions that regulate currency relations.

Components international monetary system are:

• 1) types of money performing the functions of an international means of payment and reserve;
• 2) interstate regulation of international currency liquidity;
• 3) interstate regulation of exchange rates;
• 4) 4 interstate regulation of currency restrictions and conditions of currency convertibility;
• 5) the regime of international currency markets and gold markets;
• 6) unification of the main forms of international payments;
• 7) international monetary and credit organizations that regulate currency relations.

Exchange rate is the price of one country's currency expressed in the currency of other countries. Exchange rates can be fixed, floating or intermediate. If a state strictly establishes the exchange rate relationship between its national currency and foreign ones, then such an exchange rate is called fixed . With a fixed exchange rate, the Central Bank sets it at a certain level in relation to the currency of another country or to a currency basket. The peculiarity of a fixed exchange rate is that it remains unchanged for a certain time, and its change occurs as a result of an official revision (devaluation or revaluation). A fixed exchange rate is usually established in countries with strict foreign exchange restrictions and non-convertible currencies. An exchange rate that changes in response to changes in the demand for and supply of a given currency is called floating exchange rate . Only 26 countries out of 187 that are members of the IMF have a floating exchange rate. The Republic of Belarus has a floating exchange rate. It fluctuates within a certain currency corridor.

The state of the exchange rate is influenced by two groups of factors:

structural factors , reflecting the state of the economy of a given country. These include: indicators of economic growth (GDP, industrial production), balance of payments, growth money supply in the domestic market, the level of inflation and inflation expectations, the solvency of the country and confidence in the national currency in the world market;

market factors related to changes in the situation in sectors of the global financial market: speculative operations in foreign exchange markets, the degree of development of the securities market competing with the foreign exchange market;

conditions of currency convertibility. Currency convertibility (reversibility) - is the free exchange of the currency of one country for the currency of other countries. A currency can be fully convertible, partially convertible or non-convertible. The currency of countries in which there are practically no currency restrictions on all types of foreign exchange transactions for all currency holders (residents and non-residents) is fully convertible. There are now 20 such countries (USA, Germany, Japan, UK, Canada, Denmark, the Netherlands, Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, Hong Kong, Arab oil-producing countries). With partial convertibility in the country, restrictions remain on certain types of transactions and for individual currency holders. A currency will be inconvertible if the country has almost all types of restrictions and, above all, a ban on the purchase and sale of foreign currency, its storage, export and import.

International monetary organizations regulating currency relations at the interstate level. The most influential of them are: the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).

An important form of international economic relations is international economic integration , which is a process of economic and political unification of countries, allowing for a coordinated interstate economic policy. Economic integration provides a number of favorable conditions for the interaction of countries: wider access to various resources, the possibility of production based on the entire integrated group of countries, the creation of privileged conditions for their enterprises and firms, harmony joint decision social problems.

Among the forms of economic integration the following can be distinguished:

free trade zones , within which customs duties and other trade restrictions between participating countries are abolished;

Customs Union , which implies, in addition to the free trade zone, the establishment of a single foreign trade tariff and the implementation of a unified foreign trade policy in relation to the countries that are part of it;

payments union , which allows for mutual convertibility of currencies and the functioning of a single unit of account;

Common Market , providing its participants with a coordinated economic policy, freedom of movement of goods, capital and labor;

economic union , providing for the coordination of macroeconomic policy and the unification of legislation in key areas - currency, budget, monetary, as well as the creation of interstate bodies with supranational functions;

free economic zones (FEZ), which are distinguished by the absence of restrictions on the activities of foreign firms, the right to transfer their profits and capital to their country, as well as their infrastructure support.

International integration processes have received the greatest development in Western Europe. Here, an example of the largest integration regional association can be considered European Union (EU) . The EU has established a free exchange of national currencies and created a European monetary system with its own mechanism for forming payments and establishing exchange rates. A collective currency unit (euro) was established, which became an international means of payment. In this integration association, numerous border and customs barriers separating states have been overcome. All this allowed us to achieve a number of positive results, which include direct cost savings due to lower costs when eliminating trade and production barriers, gains from the unification of markets and increased competition. Integration has helped Western European capital in a number of economic spheres to compete on an equal footing with its main competitors - the USA and Japan.

In North America stands out North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA) , which includes the United States, Canada and Mexico. Among 20 regional groupings in Asia and Latin America can be distinguished Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA) , Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) .

A number of countries of the former USSR (Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine) formed in 1992. Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). A distinctive feature of this integration association is the reintegration of countries that were previously part of a single state on a new equal basis corresponding to their modern status.

In 1996, an agreement was adopted on the creation Customs Union between Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, as well as more advanced in terms of integration Commonwealth of Belarus and Russia , which in 1997 was transformed into Union of Belarus and Russia . In 1999, an agreement was signed to transform this entity into Union State , the integration process within which continues to deepen. On October 10, 2000, in Astana (Republic of Kazakhstan), the heads of state (Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan) signed the Treaty establishing the Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC). The Treaty lays down the concept of close and effective trade and economic cooperation to achieve the goals and objectives defined by the Treaty on Customs Union and the Common Economic Space. Organizational and legal instruments for the implementation of the agreements reached, a system for monitoring the implementation of decisions made and the responsibility of the Parties are provided.

International economic relations: lecture notes Ronshina Natalia Ivanovna

5. IEO forms and their participants

5. IEO forms and their participants

Participants in international economic relations: individuals, enterprises (firms) and non-profit organizations, states (governments and their bodies), international organizations. Forms of international economic relations: international trade in goods, trade in services, capital movement, labor migration, technology exchange.

Individuals buy foreign goods and services, exchange one currency for another, etc., so they are participants in international economic relations. An increasing number of people around the world are becoming them. However, many people in the poorest countries cannot participate in this process.

In modern business, a collective type of acceptance is common important decisions. But there is a small amount of people who have a significant impact on the global economy through their personal decisions and actions. These include owners and senior managers of the largest transnational corporations (TNCs) and financial institutions.

Hundreds of thousands of firms take part in international economic relations with different shapes ownership, but an increasingly significant role in them is played by TNCs - joint-stock economic complexes that are engaged in production and other activities in many countries. Foreign direct investment in modern conditions is primarily business entities owned by TNCs. They create international production, while specialization and cooperation occur between enterprises in different countries belonging to the same company.

Most of the largest banks and insurance companies in developed countries are transnational in nature, having branches in many countries. Transnational financial institutions also include investment funds. They manage the financial resources of individuals, firms and organizations, investing them in securities and other assets in different countries. These financial institutions provide significant mobility of monetary capital throughout the world. Consequently, the efficiency of the world economy increases, but factors that aggravate financial and economic crises are created.

Often, governments are direct participants in international economic relations as borrowers on international financial markets, exporters and importers of goods, etc. Regional and local authorities also issue securities abroad and bank borrowings. But of even greater importance for the world economy is the fact that the subjects of international economic relations are countries that are national states and national economies with their own institutions, laws, currencies, and economic policies. The regulation of international economic relations by states has a major impact on them. International economic organizations are classified according to different criteria:

1) by country coverage– global and regional. The former include most of the UN bodies, the International Monetary Fund, etc. Among the latter main role played by economic integration bodies, especially in Western Europe;

2) by composition of participants (members)– interstate (intergovernmental) and non-state (for example, the International Cooperative Alliance);

3) by field of activity– trade (World Trade Organization), finance (World Bank Group), agriculture (European Livestock Association), communications (Universal Postal Union), etc.;

4) the nature of the activity. Some organizations provide free or other financial support to governments, enterprises, and public associations. These are interstate banks (World Bank Group, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development and other regional banks). Other organizations are involved in international regulation of certain areas of the world economy (World Trade Organization, many regional integration bodies). A significant role is played by organizations in charge of harmonizing various kinds of international standards, patents, norms, copyrights, procedures, etc.

Economic aspects occupy one of the leading places in the activities of military-political organizations (primarily NATO). Also economic activity Many sports, scientific, professional, cultural and other organizations are involved in the global market.

From the book Security Encyclopedia author Gromov V I

2.4.2. Participants in a long-term exit from enemy territoryParticipants in a long-term exit may include crew members of a downed aircraft, personnel cut off from the landing airborne forces or forces participating in airborne operations, and those who escaped

From the book Collection of current resolutions of plenums supreme courts USSR, RSFSR and Russian Federation in criminal cases author Mikhlin A S

From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (KO) by the author TSB

From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (FI) by the author TSB

From the book Economics of Real Estate author Burkhanova Natalya

From the book Finance: Cheat Sheet author author unknown

8. Participants in the real estate financing process Participants in the real estate financing process include local and federal government authorities, financial institutions, investors, etc. Economic and legal relations that are created between

From the book Insurance Business: Cheat Sheet author author unknown

25. INSURANCE MARKET AND PARTICIPANTS IN INSURANCE RELATIONS The insurance market is a special system for organizing insurance relations, in which the purchase and sale of insurance services as a product occurs, supply and demand for them are formed. Characteristic features of insurance

From the book Driver's Protection Book author Volgin V.

4. PARTICIPANTS IN INSURANCE RELATIONS The insured is a legal or capable individual who has entered into an insurance agreement with the insurer or is such by force of law, who is obliged to pay the insurer an insurance premium, and upon the occurrence of an insurance

From the book Civil Code of the Russian Federation by GARANT

Fraudsters - participants in road accidents While trying to avoid incidents, you still need to perceive them as everyday troubles and not complicate the consequences with incorrect, passive, or even stupid behavior during clarification of circumstances, investigation and trial as a victim or

From the book Lawyer Encyclopedia by the author

From the book Business Planning author Beketova Olga

Professional participants in the securities market PROFESSIONAL PARTICIPANTS IN THE SECURITIES MARKET - according to the Law of the Russian Federation of April 22, 1996 No. 39-FZ “On the Securities Market”, legal entities, including credit organizations, as well as citizens (individuals) registered in

From the book The Book of the Russian Duel [with illustrations] author Vostrikov Alexey Viktorovich

1. The concept of business, its participants The word “business” (from the English business) means any activity, business that generates income. A person doing business is a businessman (from the English businessman), i.e. a businessman, a merchant, an entrepreneur. In new economic reference books by business

From the book Universal Medical Directory [All diseases from A to Z] author Savko Liliya Mefodievna

Chapter Four Participants in the duel Requirements for opponents. Social equality of rivals. Prohibition on duels: with minors, the sick, close relatives, creditors. Other types of inequality as obstacles to a duel. Social role of seconds.

From the book Fundamentals of Competitiveness Management author Mazilkina Elena Ivanovna

Dosage forms These are ready-to-use medications. There is a wide variety of them. Tablet. Solid dosage form obtained by compressing medicines. Dragees. The solid dosage form obtained as a result

From the book The buyer is not always right! Typical situations for protecting the rights of all participants in the process of buying and selling goods and services author Gusyatnikova Daria Efimovna

12.3. Participants in distribution channels The main participants in distribution channels are resellers - trade organizations, enterprises and individuals who resell goods to meet market needs and make a profit. Functions of traders

From the author's book

1.1. Participants in relations in the field of consumer rights protection Undoubtedly, any legal entity, regardless of its organizational and legal form (hereinafter referred to as the organization) or individual entrepreneur carrying out trade operations or activities in the service sector,

The existence of any economy in modern realities is impossible without international cooperation and diverse cooperation between countries. No state today can exist in isolation and remain successful. The development of international economic relations is the key to the normal functioning of the entire world economy.

What is the global economy and how does it work?

The world economy is a global and complexly structured system that includes the economies of different countries on the planet. The impetus for its formation was the territorial (and later global) division of human labor. What it is? In simple words: country “A” has all the resources to produce cars, and country “B” has a climate that allows for growing grapes and fruits. Sooner or later, these two states agree on cooperation and “exchange” of the products of their activities. This is the essence of the geographical division of labor.

The world (planetary) economy is nothing more than the unification of all national industries and structures. But international economic relations are precisely a tool for bringing them closer together, ensuring their cooperation.

This is how the world economy came into being. International economic relations were aimed equally at both the division of labor (which resulted in the specialization of different countries in the production of certain products) and the unification of efforts (which resulted in the cooperation of states and economies). As a result of industrial cooperation, large transnational companies emerged.

System of international economic relations

Relationships of an economic nature between countries, companies or corporations are usually called international economic relations (abbreviated as IEO).

International economic relations, like any other, have their own specific subjects. IN in this case the role of such subjects is:

• independent states and dependent territories, as well as their individual parts;
• TNCs (transnational corporations);
• international banking institutions;
• individual large companies;
• international organizations and blocs (including financing and controlling ones).

Modern international economic relations have formed key centers (poles) of economic and technological growth on the body of our planet. Today there are three of them. These are the Western European, North American and East Asian poles.

Basic forms of international economic relations

The main forms of IEO include the following:

• international trade;
• monetary and credit (or financial) relations;
• international production cooperation;
• movement (migration) of money and labor resources;
• international scientific and technical cooperation;
• international tourism and others.

All these forms of international economic relations are different in their role and significance for the world economy. Thus, in modern conditions, it is currency and credit relations that hold the leadership.

International trade and monetary relations

International trade is understood as a system of export-import relations between countries, which are based on monetary payment for goods. It is believed that the world commodity market began to take shape in the modern era (from the end of the 16th century). Although the term “international trade” itself was used four centuries earlier in a book by the Italian thinker Antonio Margaretti.

Countries participating in international trade receive a number of obvious benefits from this, namely:

• the possibility of growth and development of mass production within a specific national economy;
• the emergence of new jobs for the population;
• healthy competition, which is present in one form or another on the world market, stimulates the processes of modernization of enterprises and production;
• The proceeds from the export of goods and services can be accumulated and used for further improvement of production processes.

Monetary and credit international relations mean the entire spectrum of financial relations between different countries or individual entities. These include various settlement transactions, money transfers, currency exchange transactions, provision of loans, and so on.

Subjects of international financial relations can be:

• countries;
• international financial organizations;
• banks;
• Insurance companies;
• individual businesses or corporations;
• investment groups and funds;
• individual individuals.

Scientific and technical international cooperation

In the second half of the twentieth century, scientific and technical cooperation occupied an important place in the IEO system. The subjects of such relations can be entire states, as well as individual companies and corporations.

The consequences of scientific and technical cooperation are very positive for all states that take part in it. Especially when we're talking about about developing countries of the world. The growth of industrialization, technical progress, strengthening the country’s defense capability, training highly qualified personnel - this is the goal and result of almost everyone international relations in the field of science and technology.

International tourism as a form of IEO

One of the forms of IEO is international tourism - a system of relations aimed at meeting the recreational and tourism needs of people. The subject of these relations are intangible, intangible services.

The era of active development of international tourism began around the 60s of the twentieth century. There were several reasons for this: the increase in the well-being of citizens, the emergence of a large amount of free time, as well as the development of air transport.

Today, the most “tourist” countries in the world, based on the amount of income to the national budget from tourism, are Austria, France, Italy, Spain, Switzerland and Thailand.

Finally...

So, if we imagine our global economy as human body, and all countries are in the form of specific bodies performing their functions, then the nervous system that ensures the interaction of all “organs and systems” will precisely be international economic relations. They create the basis for effective cooperation of all national economies, corporations, individual companies and international unions.

Currently, the forms of international economic relations have expanded significantly. In modern conditions, the main forms of international economic relations are the following:
1) foreign and world trade;
2) credit relations;
3) currency and payment and settlement relations;
4) migration and export of capital;
5) international labor migration;
6) international integration processes;
7) creation and development of transnational corporations and financial institutions;
8) interstate regulation of international economic relations (regulation of monetary, financial, trade relations);
9) activities of international credit and financial institutions (IMF, IBRD) in the field of international economic relations;
10) scientific, technical and industrial cooperation.
Foreign and world trade. Foreign trade occupies a prominent place in the system of international economic relations. For many Western countries, it has recently become the main factor in economic development. This applies to industrialized countries, which export a significant part of their products to other countries. The wide exchange of goods between countries as a result of the growth of foreign trade creates conditions for the development of the world market and world trade. The modern world market is a sphere of exchange that covers the total commodity circulation of various countries, which are its constituent organic elements. Today it is impossible to imagine a single country, not a single nation that could do without foreign trade, even the smallest countries.
The need to grow global trade is due to a number of reasons:
1) development of national commodity production and exchange, including foreign trade;
2) the ongoing uneven development of individual sectors of social production, which is inherent in a market economy;
3) the tendency of constant expansion of production in order to make a profit, characteristic of countries with market economies.
The desire to make a profit and the relatively narrow scope of national markets for the sale of products force corporations, companies, and enterprises to go beyond the boundaries of their market, which ultimately leads to the search for foreign markets.
Credit relations. In the field of international economic relations, credit relations arise in three cases:
1) in connection with foreign trade lending;
2) as a result of the movement of loan capital within the global market;
3) in connection with international payments.
Foreign trade lending includes export lending and import lending. Export lending is carried out: in the form of purchase contributions, which are issued by exporters of a particular country to foreign producers in the form of bank lending as loans for goods in the exporter’s country; in the form of loans for goods located within the country; loans against goods and trade documents in the country of export, unsecured blank loans. The significance of the first three loans is to accelerate the circulation of the exporter’s capital, i.e. transformation of its part from commodity to monetary.
Import credit is also provided through commercial and bank credit. Trade (or corporate) credit includes an open account credit (the exporter credits the importer's account as his debt with the cost of goods sold and shipped, and the importer must repay the loan when due); bill credit (the exporter enters into a deal to sell goods on credit, issues a draft to the importer); private insurance (the insurance company takes on the risk of export credits and pays for the insolvency of the importer with its exports); state guarantees (the risk of non-payment is borne by the state). In the USA and Japan, state guarantees are issued by export-import banks, in England - by the Department of Export Credit Guarantee, in Germany - by the Interministerial Committee on Export Credits, in France - by the Insurance Company for Foreign Trade.
A bank credit for imports includes: a credit issued upon acceptance or consent of the importer's bank to pay the exporter's draft; acceptance-reimbursement loan (acceptance of a bill of exchange by a bank subject to receipt of a guarantee on it from a foreign bank servicing the importer); direct bank lending to foreign buyers; credit lines (for their foreign borrowers to pay foreign trade transactions, a type of credit line is a renewal or rollover line, which is widely used in the Eurocurrency market); factoring (an exporter who has sold goods on credit terms receives a number of services from the factoring company in the form of debt collection, accounting of export drafts, and control); leasing (transfer of legal ownership of goods to the consumer); compensation transactions (long-term loan based on mutual supplies of goods of equal value); multinational contract insurance (includes huge sums jointly insured by commercial banks and national export credit insurance companies).
Currency and payment and settlement relations. These relationships also represent a form of international economic relations. These include currency relations between different countries; foreign exchange transactions between various participants in the foreign exchange market, representing official centers for the purchase and sale of currencies based on supply and demand, currency arbitrage, which makes it possible to use the difference in currency quotes on international and national foreign exchange markets; development and regulation of the national foreign exchange market, as well as participation in the operations of the international foreign exchange market, implementation of foreign exchange restrictions and the use of foreign exchange clearings.
In turn, payment and settlement relations represent the regulation of payments for monetary claims and obligations that are formed as a result of economic, political, scientific, technical and cultural relations between states, legal entities(companies, enterprises) and citizens of various countries. Settlements are carried out through commercial or specialized banks servicing foreign trade, usually by non-cash method.
Migration and export of capital. The export of capital is the placement of capital abroad in order to systematically obtain additional profits through the use of local production, material and labor resources. If, when selling goods as a result of unequal exchange, part of the profit created in another country is appropriated and there is a one-time realization of the profit, then when exporting capital, profit is appropriated continuously as long as the invested capital is owned by foreign companies. The modern world economy and international economic relations are characterized by increased export and migration of capital.
The process of intensifying the export of capital is currently determined by the following factors:
1) the development of the world market and the involvement of an increasing number of countries in it;
2) further concentration and centralization of capital in national economies;
3) overaccumulation of capital in the national loan capital markets of industrialized countries;
4) the interest of individual countries in the influx of foreign capital due to a lack of domestic capital.
The main features of the export of capital at the present stage is its migration to both developing and developed countries. At the same time, the tendency towards the export of capital to developed countries (the USA, Western Europe, Japan, and vice versa) has intensified, which is mainly due to the absence of serious economic and political shocks. Other features of the export of capital continue to be military-political aspects, broad government support, strengthening the dominance of transnational corporations, the presence of unequal exchange, and periodic monetary and financial shocks leading to rapid migration of capital to a particular country.
International labor migration. Labor migration is one of the important forms of international economic relations in modern conditions. The internal labor markets of some countries are external sources of replenishment of the army of hired labor of other countries. Only that part of the hired workers who are forced to sell their labor abroad falls into the sphere of the world labor market.
The presence of a global labor market is due to the international migration of workers, i.e., the intersecting flow of migration (departures from countries) and immigration (entry into the country). International labor migration is the movement of wage earners across state borders in search of work. When leaving his country, a worker is an emigrant, and when entering another country, he is an immigrant. The main reason for the movement of hired labor is fluctuations in demand for it from various fields market economy represented by the private and public sectors. The unevenness of capital accumulation in different countries necessitates the international exchange of labor. This exchange, as a rule, occurs spontaneously, in waves, reflecting a reaction to changing needs of capital. A number of Western economists who take a Malthusian position cite the pressure of the “surplus population” on the productive forces as the cause of migration. To a certain extent, this interpretation is acceptable for a number of developing countries, where the growth of productive forces lags behind population growth due to high birth rates. At the same time, “excessive overpopulation” in developed countries is caused by pushing workers out of production, and migration is caused by uneven demand for hired labor. Therefore, capital accumulation there can create sources of migration and determine the direction of flows. In general, the spontaneous transfer of excess labor from one part of the world economy to another personifies the uneven development of a market economy.
International integration processes. One of the forms of international economic relations is the integration processes taking place within the framework of the world economy. Integration is interstate regulation of national economies; the formation of a regional economic complex with a structure and proportions aimed at the needs of certain economies; eliminating national barriers to the movement of goods, capital, services and labor; creation of a single regional market; ensuring the overall growth of productive labor and living standards in the countries of the combined group. The best example This integration became the European Economic Community (EEC).
In the 80s XX century An integration grouping emerged in Asia, ASEAN (Southeast Asian Free Trade Association), which included a number of Asian countries, as well as the USA, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. The leaders of this market group were Japan, the USA and the so-called eastern tigers» - Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, China. The main direction of the Association is the liberalization of trade, customs duties, investments, mutual credit assistance, mutual access to the securities markets. ASEAN, organized later by Western European integration, still lags behind the latter in solving a number of important integration problems.
Under the influence of competition and imbalances in trade and payment balances with the countries of Western Europe, Japan and a number of countries in Southeast Asia, a new integration grouping, the Free Trade Area, was created in 1992 North America, which included the USA, Canada and Mexico with the aim of further liberalizing trade, movement of labor and capital. The development of this integration scheme is still very slow due to the significant gap between the economic potential of the United States and Canada, on the one hand, and Mexico, on the other.
In addition to the powerful and large integration groups mentioned above, smaller ones formed by developing countries operate on various continents. This is the Andean Pact, which includes such Latin American countries as Chile, Argentina, Peru, Uruguay, Paraguay, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, which provides for the liberalization of trade and investment between these countries.
The goal of all integration processes carried out between different countries is to increase the efficiency of national economies, capital markets, and foreign trade. As practice shows recent years, the process of integration deepens and expands, since it brings certain benefits to both individual states and their populations.
Development of transnational corporations and financial institutions. An important form of modern international economic relations is the activity of transnational corporations and financial institutions. In the late 60s - early 70s. XX century The activities of transnational corporations became most clearly visible and began to actively create a production, sales, dealer and financial network in the national markets of other countries. As a result, they had a significant evolutionary impact on the formation of international economic relations by influencing foreign and world trade, the investment process, capital markets, foreign exchange transactions, labor migration, and the transfer of new technologies.
In turn, the scale of operations of transnational companies required credit and investment services, which were undertaken by transnational commercial and investment banks, as well as insurance, investment companies and private pension funds. It was these institutions, starting from the 60s. of the last century are engaged in providing bank loans, placing and purchasing large bond loans (Eurobonds) and Euroshares on the Eurocurrency market, which makes it possible to satisfy the needs for loan capital of transnational corporations and ensure their financing. Due to this connection, the globalization of modern international economic relations is carried out. At the same time, the activities of corporations and banks are not always efficient enough. In a number of cases, these institutions engage in currency speculation, transfer short-term capital (“hot money”) from one country to another, receive additional profits due to high interest rates, and conduct speculative transactions with securities, especially derivatives, which undermines the stability of the market capital, and foreign exchange markets. An example of such actions is the monetary and financial shocks in 1992, 1995, 1997, 1998, 2008-2009.
Interstate regulation of international economic relations. This regulation, being a form of international economic relations, allows them to be maintained for a long time at a level of relative stability.
Interstate regulation, as a rule, comes down to the development of a common policy between a group of countries in the field of various areas of international economic relations: trade, migration of capital and labor, foreign exchange policy, customs tariffs, investments. This regulation is carried out through meetings of the ministers of finance, trade, economy, heads of government and states. Such coordination regulation is carried out either within the framework of integration groups or outside them. Since the 70s. last century, regulation of international economic relations is carried out at the level of the G8 countries - the leading industrialized countries of the West (USA, Japan, Germany, France, England, Russia, Canada and Italy). They are usually accepted global solutions in the field of world trade, monetary policy, investment, capital migration. Currently, these decisions are decisive for many other countries and international financial institutions.
Activities of international financial and credit institutions. Their activities in the post-war years also became an important form of international economic relations. This applies to the IMF, IBRD, EBRD, BIS, as well as regional institutions of this type.
The main activities of these institutions boil down to providing monetary and financial assistance to various countries in the form of loans to stabilize the economy, equalize balances of payments, implement large targeted projects, and regulate monetary and foreign exchange systems. Most of the monetary resources sold by these institutions go to assist developing countries and, to a lesser extent, developed countries (mainly small countries, countries of Eastern and Central Europe, the CIS), and countries with economies in transition.
Recently, the role of institutions such as the IMF, IBRD, and EBRD has sharply increased in the system of international economic relations in terms of providing loans for the development of national economies. At the same time, the IMF and the World Bank determine the main parameters in relation to economic development (the volume of money supply, the size of the budget deficit, the level of inflation, interest rates, the restructuring of certain sectors of national economies).
Scientific, technical and industrial cooperation.
In the post-war years, scientific and technical cooperation was widely developed within the framework of the world economy. This is due to the impact of the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution on international economic relations. The rapid development of productive forces and labor productivity makes it possible to overcome the existing differences in the conditions of economic growth of individual countries.
Scientific, technical and industrial cooperation can be carried out either through licensing and patent relations, which was typical mainly for capitalist countries (carried out mostly through the private corporate sector), or through agreements on scientific and technical cooperation between states, as was practiced between socialist countries in 60 - 80's twentieth century, as well as between them and some developing countries.
Important place Integration groups such as the European Union or ASEAN are involved in the implementation of scientific and technical cooperation. Thus, in Western countries, especially among NATO members, scientific and technical cooperation is carried out in the field of weapons production, mainly in aviation and rocket science, as well as in nuclear energy. For example, the Tornado multi-role fighter is the result of scientific, technical and production cooperation between England, France, and Italy. New European fighter of the 21st century. is also being developed by a number of European countries, in particular England, France, Germany, and Spain.
Large private corporations also carry out the same scientific and technical cooperation on a number of targeted projects. The development and production of a civil aircraft such as the Airbus, for example, has been carried out for a long time by French and English aviation corporations. Cooperation is also due to the saving of financial resources of corporations, since it is difficult for one corporation to implement similar project. Russia and the United States in the field of space exploration, along with joint flights on the orbital station, began to carry out specific scientific and technical cooperation in the development of individual components of space technology.
Scientific and technical cooperation, which manifests itself in the most various forms, contributes to the industrialization and increase in the technological potential of a number of countries, and especially some developing ones. In this regard, Russia has been cooperating with India for a long time, which has allowed the latter to increase its scientific and technical potential in the field of metallurgy, mechanical engineering, energy, and the production of military aircraft. Similar assistance was provided to Finland many years ago.
In addition, one of the forms of scientific and technical cooperation is the training of personnel and specialists, the exchange of scientists, the conclusion of agreements between academies of sciences, universities, scientific and other institutions of higher education. This form of cooperation allows us to prepare national working potential for new technologies, scientific developments, and production processes. All this ultimately contributes to accelerating the pace of economic development and increasing the efficiency of the economies of individual countries. Scientific, technical and industrial cooperation is reflected, as a rule, through the trade and balance of payments of the participating countries and, accordingly, is served through foreign trade and the international payment and settlement system operating within the framework of modern international economic relations.