The term “paradigm” itself translated from Greek means “sample, example.” In linguistics, it is used in several meanings: firstly, linguistic units that differ in a broad sense from each other, at the same time, are united by common characteristics. Secondly, models (samples) and schemes for creating such groups. According to the system of groups of linguistic units, the paradigm is divided into lexical, morphological, syntactic, lexical and word-formative.
Paradigmatics is a branch of language that studies the vertical relationships of language units in a language system. Lexical paradigmatics considers lexical units, i.e. different semantic relationships that exist between lexemes. For example, some words are close in meaning, some word meanings are not close, and some are opposite, i.e. a paradigm of lexical units consisting of antonymic or synonymous relationships.
Paradigmatic relationships - these are such relationships of words when they are considered as simultaneously coexisting in the language, in the dictionary, in its stock. In paradigmatics, words are related to each other by relations of similarity and difference. Thus, relationships are distinguished: a) similarities in terms of content (SS) - synonyms; b) similarities in terms of expression (SP) - homonyms; c) incomplete (partial) similarity in both PS and PV - paronyms; d) inclusions – lexical-semantic or thematic fields; e) oppositions - antonyms.
Thus, the above relations are varieties of paradigmatic relations and constitute a lexical paradigm. All words have a common seme: “relating to...”. The seme structure of a word is the basis of paradigmatic relations.
Synonyms - words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, but having the same or very similar lexical meaning. Examples of synonyms in Russian: cavalry - cavalry, brave - brave. They serve to increase the expressiveness of speech and help avoid monotony.
Taking into account the semantic and stylistic differences of synonyms, they are divided into several groups.
Synonyms that differ in shades of meaning are called semantic (youth - youth, red - crimson - scarlet).
Synonyms that have the same meaning but differ in stylistic coloring are called stylistic. These include: 1) synonyms belonging to various functional styles of speech [cf.: live (interst.) - live (official business), newlyweds (official) - young (colloquial)]; 2) synonyms belonging to the same thing functional style, but having different emotional and expressive shades [cf.: (colloquial) sensible (with a positive connotation) - brainy, big-headed (with a touch of rude familiarity); said - blurted out - blurted out - chipped off - soaked - gave out]. Intra-style synonymy, especially developed in colloquial speech, much richer and brighter than the interstyle one.
Synonyms that differ both in meaning and in their stylistic coloring are called semantic-stylistic. For example: And I will go, I will go again. I’ll go wander in the dense forests, wander along the steppe road (Pol.); And I’ll go staggering - I’ll never fall asleep now (L); And the country of birch chintz will not entice you to wander around barefoot! (EU)– all these synonyms have a common meaning “to walk without a specific goal,” but they differ in semantic nuances: the word wander It has additional meaning“get lost, lose your way”; in a word to stagger there is a connotation of “walking around doing nothing”; verb hang around emphasizes disobedience, disobedience. In addition, the given synonyms also differ in stylistic coloring: to roam- stylistically neutral word, wander has a more bookish coloring, to stagger And hang around- colloquial, and the last one is rude.
The most important stylistic function of synonyms- to be a means of expressing thoughts most accurately. Surrounding phenomena and objects, their properties, qualities, actions, states are known by us with all their features; the concept is called the word most suitable for expressing the desired meaning. This is how a series of synonyms arise that make it possible to detail the description of the phenomena of reality with extreme accuracy.
When working on the vocabulary of their works, writers choose from a variety of semantically similar words the one that most accurately conveys the desired shade of meaning; working with synonyms reflects the writer’s creative position, his attitude towards the depicted. You can study options for stylistic editing of literary texts using the author’s drafts and different editions. Interesting synonymous substitutions M.Yu. Lermontov in the novel “Hero of Our Time”. In the story “Princess Mary”: I stood behind one fat (curvy) lady, covered in pink feathers. Using the definition " thick" instead of " lush“, the writer emphasized his contemptuous and ironic attitude towards the representative of the “water society”.
Synonyms can perform in speech clarification function. The use of synonyms that complement each other allows you to more fully express your thoughts ( He seemed a little lost, as if he was afraid.- T.). One of the synonyms in such cases may be accompanied by words emphasizing its meaning ( It so happened that the uncommunicative, even unsociable artist ended up with the Nevredimovs. - S.-C.).
Synonyms are also used in clarification functions [I use it (the word “ordinary”) in the sense in which it means: ordinary, trivial, habitual. - T.]. When using special vocabulary, foreign words, archaisms that may be incomprehensible to the reader, writers often explain them with synonyms ( Anarchy began, that is, anarchy. - S.-Sch.).
Synonyms may be used to compare the concepts they denote; in this case, the author draws attention to the differences in their semantics ( Invite a doctor and call a paramedic. - Ch.).
In special cases, synonyms perform function of opposition (He, in fact, did not walk, but dragged along, without lifting his feet from the ground. - Cupr.).
The most important stylistic function of synonyms is the substitution function when it is necessary to avoid repetition of words ( The Oryol peasant lives in crappy aspen huts... The Kaluga quitrent peasant lives in spacious pine huts. - T.).
Antonyms(Greek αντί- “against” + όνομα “name”) are words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, having directly opposite lexical meanings: truth - lie, good - evil, speak - remain silent.
Antonyms are paired by contrast. When studying antonymic relationships between words, it is necessary to take into account that for polysemantic words, individual meanings can sometimes enter into antonymic relationships. For example, the word day meaning “part of the day” has the antonym night, and in the meaning of “day, date” it has no antonyms at all. U different meanings There can be different antonyms for the same word. However, a polysemantic word can also have one antonym, which also has several meanings. For example: upper in the meaning of “being at the top, above others” has the antonym lower in the meaning of “located below” (upper - lower step).
In modern science, the phenomenon of antonymy is considered as a special additional characteristic of the lexical meaning of a word. However, in speech any words can be contrasted, sometimes even very close in meaning. For example, in Pushkin: There are many scientists, few smart ones, many acquaintances, but no friend. Such a comparison of words in context does not make them antonyms. In speech, words are often contrasted that are connected in the minds of speakers by association based on the contiguity of concepts (parents and children, brother and sister, moon and sun, wolves and sheep). In such cases, they sometimes talk about contextual antonyms, but this term is criticized, since antonymy presupposes the regularity of contrasting words with opposite meanings.
The main stylistic function of antonyms is to be a lexical means of expressing antithesis. Antithesis as a stylistic device is widespread in folk poetry, for example in proverbs: Learning is light and ignorance is darkness; Softly lays down, but hard to sleep. Classic examples of the use of antithesis are given by Russian fiction: You are rich, I am very poor. You are a prose writer, I am a poet. You are as ruddy as poppies, I am like death, and skinny and pale (P.).
The phenomenon of antonymy underlies the oxymoron(from the gr. oxýmoron - witty-stupid) - a bright stylistic device of figurative speech, consisting in the creation of a new concept by combining words with contrasting meanings. The combination of antonyms in “ pure form"in an oxymoron is rare ["The beginning of the end" (article title), "Bad Good Man" (movie title), In the midst of a period of stagnation... (from the newspaper)]. In most cases, words that have the opposite meaning are combined as a qualifying and defining ["Large little things", "Expensive cheapness", "Inconvenient conveniences" (headings)], therefore they cannot be considered antonyms in the exact meaning of the term (antonyms must belong to the same part of speech ). Russian poets created bright oxymorons [I love nature’s lush withering (P.); - Mother! Your son is beautifully sick! (Lighthouse.)].
Puns are based on antonyms: Where is the beginning of the end with which the beginning ends? (K.P.) It was so late that it was already early (Solzh.). In such cases, the play on words arises due to the use of polysemantic words that act as antonyms not in all meanings (cf.: Young was no longer young. - I. and P.).
Homonymy(from the gr. homos - identical, ónyma - name), i.e. the coincidence in the sound and spelling of words that have different meanings superficially resembles polysemy. For example: marriage in the meaning of "marriage" and marriage- “damaged products”. Homonymy is the random coincidence of words, while polysemy is the presence of different historically related meanings for a word.
However, another part of linguists draws the line between polysemy and homonymy in a different way. Namely, if most people see a common shade of meaning in two coinciding words (as linguists say, “a common semantic element”), then this is polysemy, and if they do not see it, then this is homonymy, even if the words have a common origin. For example, in the words “braid” (tool) and “braid” (hairstyle), the common semantic element noticed by most people is “something long and thin.”
Homonyms are words that are the same in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. Homophones(phonetic homonyms) - words that are the same in sound, but different in spelling and meaning (meadow - onion). Homographs(graphic homonyms) - words that are the same in spelling, but different in sound and meaning (circles - circles, hit - hit, forty - forty, etc.). Omoforms(grammatical homonyms) are different words that coincide in separate grammatical forms. For example, verbs fly And treat coincide in the 1st person singular form of the present tense – I’m flying.
Words with the same root, similar in sound, but not the same in meaning ( recognize - recognize, dress - put on, signature - painting), are called paronyms (from gr. para - near, onyma - name). Paronyms, as a rule, refer to the same part of speech and perform similar syntactic functions in a sentence.
We can highlight:
1) paronyms having different prefixes ( typos - imprints);
2) paronyms distinguished by suffixes ( irresponsible - irresponsible, creature - essence);
3) paronyms, one of which has a non-derivative base, and the other - a derivative with a prefix ( height - age), with the suffix ( brake - braking), with a prefix and suffix ().
Most paronyms are close in meaning, but differ in subtle shades of meaning ( long - long, desirable - desirable, maned - maned, life - everyday, diplomatic - diplomatic). There are significantly fewer paronyms that differ sharply in meaning ( nest - nesting place, defective - defective). A special group is formed by paronyms, which, despite their great semantic similarity, differ in lexical compatibility (building - structure, heritage - inheritance, perform - perform). Paronyms may differ in stylistic coloring, scope of use [ cf.: tailoring (special) - sewing (interst.); work (common) - work (colloquial) and (special)].
The study of paronyms raises the question of their relationship to homonyms, synonyms and antonyms. Even Sh. Bally pointed out the closeness of paronymy and homonymy, defining paronyms as pseudohomonyms. However homonyms and paronyms only they are similar to each other, but with homonymy there is a complete coincidence of words with different meanings, and with paronymy there is only their similarity, since they necessarily differ in some way in word formation. In addition, paronymous words are based on a root, etymological feature, while homonym words are based only on a random coincidence in spelling and pronunciation.
Paronyms also differ from synonyms. With paronymy, the discrepancy in the meanings of consonant words is usually so significant that replacing one word with another is impossible. Synonyms, although they may differ in shades of meaning, giving the author the right to a wide choice of the most appropriate word in meaning, usually allow interchangeability.
Synonyms are words that differ in sound and spelling, but are similar in lexical meaning (catastrophe, crash, collapse).
There are the following types of synonyms:
Semantic (differing in shades of meaning): anger - rage;
Stylistic (differing in expressive coloring, belonging to a certain style): look - stare;
Absolute (not distinguished by expressive coloring, shades of lexical meaning and stylistic fixation): hippopotamus - hippopotamus.
According to the morphemic composition, synonyms can be single-rooted (illiterate - illiterate) and multi-rooted (bad - terrible, disgusting).
Several synonymous words form a synonymous row in which the words differ in shades of lexical meaning (look, look - neutral, look - bookish, look - colloquial, colloquial).
Functions of synonyms in speech:
Clarification;
Substitution;
Expressive-stylistic.
Antonyms are words that have opposite lexical meanings (true - false).
Antonyms are the basis of antithesis (opposition).
Types of antonyms:
Qualitative (bad - good);
Quantitative (many - few);
Temporary (early - late);
Spatial (far - close);
Abstract concepts (good - evil);
Actions, states (come - go; get sick - get well).
Homonyms are words of the same part of speech that are the same in sound and spelling, but different in meaning (cook is a type of hairstyle, cook is a cook on a ship). The lexical meanings of homonyms are not related to each other.
Homonyms in a language appear as a result of:
Borrowing words from other languages (kok);
Transformation of one of the lexical meanings of a polysemantic word into an independent one (braid - “braided hair”; braid - “agricultural implement”);
Word formations (ambassador - “the position of a diplomat”; ambassador - “salting something”).
There are the following types of homonyms:
Lexical homonyms (mow the grass with a scythe - a girl's scythe);
Omoforms (my hands are my jacket);
Homophones (forests - fox);
Homographs (flour - flour).
Distinguish homonyms from polysemantic words: in polysemantic words the meanings are interconnected, but homonyms are different words that have nothing in common (mink is an “animal of the mustelid family”, mink is an animal’s dwelling).
Homonyms are accompanied by paronyms - words with different spellings and similar sounds (dawn - blossoming, having fun - weighed little). The similarity of paronyms in sound and spelling can lead to lexical errors (Compare: “affirmative answer” instead of the correct one: “affirmative answer”).
1. In which rows are not all words synonymous?
a) beautiful, magnificent, attractive
b) kind-hearted, merciful, humane
c) decisive, persistent, defiant
d) brave, courageous, courageous
2. Indicate the extra word in the series of synonyms.
a) despot
c) autocrat
d) usurper
3. -Indicate in the synonymous row the words that are colloquial.
a) run
b) rush
c) rush
d) fly
4. Which pair of words are not antonyms?
a) cunning, persistent
b) caring, indifferent
c) persistent, lack of initiative
d) rare, frequent
5. Indicate a word that has homonyms.
b) print
c) warm
6. Indicate what these pairs of words are: dawn - blossom.
a) synonyms
b) antonyms
c) homonyms
Synonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, different in spelling and pronunciation, but similar in lexical name (cheerful - joyful).
Antonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, different in spelling and pronunciation, and having directly opposite lexical meanings. (cheerful - sad).
Synonymous nouns: fun - joy, moon - month, doctor - doctor.
Antonymous nouns: minus - plus, evil - good, heat - cold.
Nouns are a group of words that give names to people, objects, abstract concepts, natural phenomena, etc. Nouns answer the questions who? or what? Among nouns, various subgroups are distinguished according to the meaning of words. Among these subgroups are synonyms and antonyms.
What are synonyms and antonyms
Synonyms are words whose meaning is very similar. The words sound and are written differently and have nothing in common. For example, trouble and sadness, doctor and doctor. These words have exactly the same meanings and can be used in the same situations. Such synonyms are called absolute.
In addition to absolute synonyms, there are partial synonyms. For example, hot and hot. When describing the weather we can say both “hot weather” and “hot weather”, but with the word “tea” we can only say “hot tea”. "Hot" in in this case will sound stupid.
A word and a phrase can also be synonyms. For example, morning is the beginning of the day. In this case, one word “morning” can be replaced by two words without loss of meaning.
Synonyms are used when it is necessary to avoid the constant use of the same words in the text.
Antonyms are words with opposite meanings. Unlike synonyms, antonyms can have completely different spellings, but they can also be words with the same root. The first include the words “black” and “white”. The second example is “true” and “false”.
It is also worth mentioning that synonyms form a synonymous series, in which there may be unlimited amount words For example, nonsense, nonsense, nonsense, nonsense, nonsense... Antonyms only form pairs: heavy - light, good - evil, strong - weak.
Examples of synonyms and antonyms
To better understand the difference between synonyms and antonyms, let's look at a few examples:
- day - night - the words could be considered synonyms, because they denote a part of the day, but these are antonyms, since day is the light part, night is the dark part;
- lake - pond - synonyms. There is a difference between a lake and a pond, but these bodies of water are very similar and the words are synonymous;
- space - Universe - synonyms;
- noise - silence - antonyms.
Synonyms- these are words that differ in sound and spelling, but are similar in lexical meaning. (Catastrophe, crash, collapse.)
Several words of synonyms form a synonymous row in which the words differ in shades of lexical meaning (look, look - neutral, look - bookish, look - colloquial, vernacular).
Types of synonyms:
a) absolute - identical in lexical meaning and stylistic coloring (linguistics - linguistics);
b) stylistic (experience – neutral, experiment – bookish);
c) semantic: anger - rage (strong anger);
d) same-root (illiterate - illiterate) and different roots (scarlet - red).
Functions of synonyms in speech:
a) substitution (to avoid repetitions: boy, Petya, he, schoolboy...);
b) clarification (Scarlet, then red streams flowed young world);
c) expressively stylistic (punishment is neutral, retribution is bookish).
The stylistic function of synonyms is expressed:
a) from the point of view of use in a particular style (waste - neutral, squander - colloquial);
b) from the point of view of attitude towards modern language(together - modern, together - obsolete);
c) from an expressively emotional point of view (punishment is neutral, retribution is bookish).
Antonyms- these are words that are opposite in lexical meaning (true - lie).
Antonyms are the basis of antithesis (opposition).
Antonyms are most often called:
– qualitative signs (good – evil);
– actions, states, assessments (coming – leaving);
– quantitative characteristics (many – few);
– temporal or spatial characteristics (winter – summer, southern – northern).
Unlike synonyms, the antonymic series of antonyms consists of two words (bad - good).
According to their morphemic composition, antonyms can be of different roots (evil - kind, good - bad) and single-rooted (literate - illiterate).
Antonyms use:
- How means of expression creating contrasting images in fiction and newspaper journalism (“You are rich, I am very poor.” A.S. Pushkin);
– as an oxymoron (a combination of incompatible concepts): “miserly knight”;
- in proverbs and sayings (It lays down softly, but sleeps hard);
– in the titles of works (“Fathers and Sons”, “War and Peace”).
Homonyms- these are words of the same part of speech, which are the same in sound and spelling, but different in meaning (kok - a type of hairstyle, kok - a cook on a ship).
Distinguish homonyms from polysemantic words: in polysemantic words the meanings are interconnected, but homonyms are different words that have nothing in common.
There are different types of homonyms:
– lexical homonyms (mow the grass with a scythe – a girl’s scythe);
– homoforms (washing my hands – my jacket);
– homophones (forests – fox);
– homographs (flour – flour).
Homophones are words that sound the same but have different spellings (mow the meadow - plant onions).
Homographs are words that are identical in spelling, but different in meaning and sound (they differ in emphasis: ancient castle - open the lock).
Homoforms are identical in sound and spelling different words(I'm flying to Moscow for dental treatment).
Stylistic functions of homonyms:
a) are used in different styles speeches to increase its expressiveness: Peace to the world (call);
You can't hide the truth
The whole world knows:
Knowledge is power!
Knowledge is light!
(S. Marshak)
b) are often used to create puns (play on words): He loved to make students fall asleep, apparently because they loved to fall asleep during his lectures. (S.Ya. Marshak);
c) used in children's poems:
The hedgehog ran out of the hole
And he asked the gray mink:
"Where have you been?" - “At the fox’s!”
"What did you eat there?" - “Foxes!”
Paronyms- these are words with different spellings and similar sounds (dawn - blossom, have fun - weighed little; hidden - secretive).
Paronomasia- this is a stylistic figure that consists of placing words next to each other that are similar in sound, but different in meaning (“He is not stupid who is stingy with words”, “Fight will torture you, but battle will teach you”).
Paronyms are adjacent to homonyms. The reason for the emergence of paronyms is the need to replenish the lexical composition to clarify the semantic shades of cognate words.
Types of paronyms:
a) paronyms that are synonymously close in one of the meanings (to conduct experiments - to carry out experiments);
b) stylistic paronyms (stand up and stand - “stop moving or acting”, colloquially - stand up, stand - neutral).
Stylistic functions of paronyms:
a) clarifying the meaning of the word (His face is familiar to me. His personality is familiar to me.);
b) greater expressiveness, expressiveness of speech:
I'm worried about random encounters,
What is not to the heart, not to the mind,
And that is not festivity, but idleness,
In my guest house.
(E. Yevtushenko)
c) for the speech characterization of a character or to create a comic effect (He was assigned the title role.)
The similarity of paronyms in their sound and spelling can cause their incorrect, inaccurate use and lead to lexical errors (Grushnitsky took an effective pose - instead of a spectacular one).
