The directory includes all theoretical material school course chemistry required for passing the Unified State Exam, – final certification of students. This material is distributed into 14 sections, the content of which corresponds to the topics tested on the Unified State Exam - four content blocks: “Chemical element”, “Substance”, “Chemical reaction”, “Knowledge and application of substances and chemical reactions" For each section, training tasks from parts A and B are given - with a choice of answers and a short answer. Section 15 is entirely devoted to solving the calculation problems included in exam part C.

The test tasks are designed in such a way that, by answering them, the student will be able to more rationally repeat the main provisions of the school chemistry course.

At the end of the manual, answers to tests are provided that will help schoolchildren and applicants test themselves and fill in existing gaps.

For the convenience of working with this reference book, a table is provided that shows the correspondence between the topics of the exam and the sections of the book.

The manual is addressed to high school students, applicants and teachers.

1. Common elements. structure of atoms. Electronic shells. Orbitals

Chemical element- a specific type of atom, designated by name and symbol and characterized by atomic number and relative atomic mass.

In table 1 lists common chemical elements, gives the symbols by which they are designated (pronunciation in brackets), serial numbers, relative atomic masses, characteristic oxidation states.

Zero The oxidation state of an element in its simple substance(s) is not indicated in the table.

All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons in the nucleus and the same number of electrons in the shell. So, in an atom of an element hydrogen N is 1 p + in the core and periphery 1 e- ; in an element atom oxygen O is 8 p + in the core and 8 e- in a shell; element atom aluminum Al contains 13 R+ in the core and 13 e- in a shell.

Atoms of the same element can differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus; such atoms are called isotopes. So, the element hydrogen H three isotopes: hydrogen-1 (special name and symbol protium 1 H) with 1 p + in the core and 1 e- in a shell; hydrogen-2 (deuterium 2 N, or D) with 1 p + and 1 P 0 in the core and 1 e- in a shell; hydrogen-3 (tritium 3 N, or T) with 1 p + and 2 P 0 in the core and 1 e- in a shell. In the symbols 1H, 2H and 3H, the superscript indicates mass number– the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Other examples:

Electronic formula any atom chemical element in accordance with its location in the Periodic Table of Elements of D.I. Mendeleev can be determined from the table. 2.

The electron shell of any atom is divided into energy levels(1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.), levels are divided into sublevels(indicated by letters s, p, d, f). Sublevels consist of atomic orbitals– areas of space where electrons are likely to reside. Orbitals are designated as 1s (1st level s-sublevel orbital), 2 s, 2 R, 3 s, 3 p, 3d, 4 s... Number of orbitals in sublevels:

The filling of atomic orbitals with electrons occurs in accordance with three conditions:

1) principle of minimum energy

Electrons fill the orbitals, starting with the sublevel with lower energy.

The sequence of increasing energy of sublevels:

1 s< 2 c< 2 p< 3 s< 3 p< 4 s≤ 3 d< 4 p< 5 s≤ 4 d< 5 p< 6 s…

2) exclusion rule (Pauli principle)

Each orbital can accommodate no more than two electrons.

One electron in an orbital is called unpaired, two electrons are called electronic pair:

3) principle of maximum multiplicity (Hund's rule)

From the completed energy diagrams, electronic formulas atoms of elements. The number of electrons in the orbitals of a given sublevel is indicated in the superscript to the right of the letter (for example, 3 d 5 is 5 electrons per Z d-sublevel); first come the electrons of the 1st level, then the 2nd, 3rd, etc. The formulas can be complete and brief, the latter contain in brackets the symbol of the corresponding noble gas, which conveys its formula, and, moreover, starting with Zn , filled inner d-sublevel. Examples:

3 Li = 1s 2 2s 1 = [ 2 He]2s 1

8 O = 1s 2 2s 2 2p 4= [2 He] 2s 2 2p 4

13 Al = 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1= [10 Ne] 3s 2 3p 1

The directory is organized according to the alphabetical principle of chemical formulas and a clearly developed structure, equipped with a subject index that makes it easy to find the desired substance. It has no analogues in domestic and foreign chemical literature.

For students of chemical and chemical-technological universities. Can be used by university teachers, graduate students, scientists, engineers and technicians chemical industry, as well as teachers and high school students high school.

Al - aluminum.

White, light, ductile metal. Passivates in concentrated water nitric acid and potassium dichromate solution due to the formation of a stable oxide film; the amalgamated metal reacts with water. Reactive, strong reducing agent. Exhibits amphoteric properties; reacts with dilute acids and alkalis.

AIN - aluminum nitride.

White, very hard, fireproof, heat resistant. Does not react with liquid water, is completely hydrolyzed by water vapor. Insoluble in ethanol. Reacts with acids and alkalis, but is acid resistant in a compact form.

ZnS - zinc(II) sulfide.

White, amorphous (precipitated from solution) or crystalline - cubic a-modification and hexagonal B-modification. Sensitive to UV irradiation. In amorphous form it is more reactive. Peptizes (turns into a colloidal solution) during prolonged treatment hydrogen sulfide water. Insoluble in water, does not react with alkalis or ammonia hydrate. Reacts with strong acids, such as wet 02 of air is slowly oxidized.

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Constants of inorganic substances, Handbook, Lidin R.A., Andreeva L.L., Molochko V.A., 2008
Chemistry, For high school students and those entering universities, Theoretical foundations, Questions, Tasks, Tests, Textbook, Lidin R.A., Molochko V.A., Andreeva L.L., 2001

Title: Chemistry. Complete guide to prepare for the Unified State Exam.

The reference book includes all the theoretical material of the school chemistry course required to pass the Unified State Exam, the final certification of students. This material is distributed into 14 sections, the content of which corresponds to the topics tested on the Unified State Exam - four content blocks: “Chemical element”, “Substance”, “Chemical reaction”, “Knowledge and application of substances and chemical reactions”. For each section, training tasks from parts A and B are given - with a choice of answers and a short answer. Section 15 is entirely devoted to solving the calculation problems included in exam part C.
The test tasks are designed in such a way that, by answering them, the student will be able to more rationally repeat the main provisions of the school chemistry course.
At the end of the manual, answers to tests are provided that will help schoolchildren and applicants test themselves and fill in existing gaps.
For the convenience of working with this reference book, a table is provided that shows the correspondence between the topics of the exam and the sections of the book.
The manual is addressed to high school students, applicants and teachers.

A chemical element is a specific type of atom, designated by a name and symbol and characterized by an atomic number and relative atomic mass.
In table Table 1 lists common chemical elements, gives the symbols by which they are designated (pronunciation in brackets), serial numbers, relative atomic masses, and characteristic oxidation states.
The zero oxidation state of an element in its simple substance(s) is not indicated in the table.
The electron shell of any atom is divided into energy levels (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.), the levels are divided into sublevels (denoted by the letters s, p, d, f). Sublevels consist of atomic orbitals - regions of space where electrons are likely to reside. Orbitals are designated as 1s (orbital of the 1st level of the s sublevel), 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s…

Content
Preface
1. Common elements. structure of atoms. Electronic shells. Orbitals
2. Periodic law. Periodic system. Electronegativity. Oxidation states
3. Molecules. Chemical bond. Structure of substances
4. Classification and relationship of inorganic substances
5. Metals of the main subgroups of groups I–III
5.1. Sodium
5.2. Potassium
5.3. Calcium
5.4. Hardness of water
5.5. Aluminum
6. Transition metals of the 4th period. Properties, methods of production. General properties of metals
6.1. Chromium
6.2. Manganese
6.3. Iron
6.4. General properties of metals. Corrosion
7. Nonmetals of the main subgroups of groups IV–VII
7.1. Hydrogen
7.2. Halogens
7.2.1. Chlorine. Hydrogen chloride
7.2.2. Chlorides
7.2.3. Hypochlorites. Chlorates
7.2.4. Bromides. Iodides
7.3. Chalcogens
7.3.1. Oxygen
7.3.2. Sulfur. Hydrogen sulfide. Sulfides
7.3.3. Sulfur dioxide. Sulfites
7.3.4. Sulfuric acid. Sulfates
7.4. Non-metals VA-group
7.4.1. Nitrogen. Ammonia
7.4.2. Nitrogen oxides. Nitric acid
7.4.3. Nitrites. Nitrates
7.4.4. Phosphorus
7.5. Non-metals of group IVA
7.5.1. Free carbon
7.5.2. Carbon oxides
7.5.3. Carbonates
7.5.4. Silicon
8. Theory of structure, diversity, classification and nomenclature organic compounds. Types of chemical reactions
9. Hydrocarbons. Homology and isomerism. Chemical properties and methods of obtaining
9.1. Alkanes. Cycloalkanes
9.2. Alkenes. Alcadienes
9.3. Alkynes
9.4. Arenas
10. Oxygen-containing organic compounds
10.1. Alcohols. Ethers. Phenols
10.2. Aldehydes and ketones
10.3. Carboxylic acids. Esters. Fats
10.4. Carbohydrates
11. Nitrogen-containing organic compounds
11.1. Nitro compounds. Amines
11.2. Amino acids. Squirrels
12. Chemical reactions. Speed, energy and reversibility
12.1. Reaction speed
12.2. Energy of reactions
12.3. Reversibility of reactions
13. Aqueous solutions. Solubility and dissociation of substances. Ion exchange. Hydrolysis of salts
13.1. Solubility of substances in water
13.2. Electrolytic dissociation
13.3. Dissociation of water. Solution medium
13.4. Ion exchange reactions
13.5. Hydrolysis of salts
14. Redox reactions. Electrolysis
14.1. Oxidizing agents and reducing agents
14.2. Selection of odds using the electronic balance method
14.3. Metal stress range
14.4. Electrolysis of melt and solution
15. Solving calculation problems
15.1. Mass fraction of solute. Dilution, concentration and mixing of solutions
15.2. Gas volume ratio
15.3. Mass of substance (volume of gas) by to a certain number another reagent (product)
15.4. Thermal effect of reaction
15.5. Mass (volume, amount of substance) of the product by reagent in excess or with impurities
15.6. Mass (volume, amount of substance) of a product based on a reagent with a known mass fraction in solution
15.7. Finding the molecular formula of an organic compound
Answers

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Inorganic chemistry in reactions. Directory. Lidin R.A., Molochko V.A., Andreeva L.L.

2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: 2007 - 637 p.

The directory contains 1100 inorganic substances, for which equations of the most important reactions are given. The choice of substances was justified by their theoretical and laboratory-industrial importance. The directory is organized according to the alphabetical principle of chemical formulas and a clearly developed structure, equipped with a subject index that makes it easy to find the desired substance. It has no analogues in domestic and foreign chemical literature. For students of chemical and chemical-technological universities. Can be used by university teachers, graduate students, scientific and engineering workers in the chemical industry, as well as teachers and high school students.

Format: pdf

Size: 36.2 MB

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The reference book presents the chemical properties (reaction equations) of the most important compounds of 109 elements of the Periodic Table from hydrogen to meitnerium. More than 1,100 inorganic substances are described in detail, the selection of which was carried out according to their industrial importance (starting substances for chemical processes, mineral raw materials), the breadth of their prevalence in engineering, technical and educational laboratory practice (model solvents and reagents, reagents for qualitative analysis) and use in the latest branches of chemical technology.
The reference material is divided into sections, each of which is devoted to one element, the elements are arranged alphabetically by their symbols (from actinium Ac to zirconium Zr).
Any section consists of a number of headings, the first of which relates to a simple substance, and all subsequent ones - to complex substances, in chemical formulas in which the section element is in the first (left) place. The substances of each section are listed alphabetically by their nomenclature formulas (with one exception: at the end of the sections of acid-forming elements all the acids corresponding to them are placed). For example, in the “Actinium” section there are the headings Ac, AcC13, AcF3, Ac(N03)3, Ac203, Ac(OH)3. The formulas of compounds with a complex anion are given in inverted form, i.e.
Each section contains short description substances, where its color, thermal stability, solubility, interaction (or lack thereof) with common reagents, etc. are indicated, as well as methods for obtaining this substance, presented in the form of links to the headings of other substances. The links contain the symbol of the section element, the section number and the superscript number of the reaction equation.
Next in the section is a numbered set of reaction equations, reflecting the main chemical properties of a given substance. In general, the order of the equations is as follows:
- thermal decomposition of the substance;
- dehydration or decomposition of crystalline hydrate;
- attitude towards water;
- interaction with common acids (if the reactions are of the same type, the equation is given only for hydrochloric acid);
- interaction with alkalis (usually sodium hydroxide);
- interaction with ammonia hydrate;
- interaction with simple substances;
- metabolic reactions with complex substances;
- redox reactions;
- complexation reactions;
- electrochemical reactions (electrolysis of the melt and/or solution).
The reaction equations indicate the conditions for their conduct and occurrence, when this is important for understanding the chemistry and degree of reversibility of the process. These conditions include:
- state of aggregation reagents and/or products;
- coloring of reagents and/or products;
- state of the solution or its characteristics (diluted, concentrated, saturated);
- slow reaction;
- temperature range, pressure (high or vacuum), catalyst;
- formation of sediment or gas;
- the solvent used, if it is different from water;
- inert or other special gas environment.
At the end of the reference book there is a list of references and a subject index of substances under headings.

R. A. Lidin

Chemistry: A complete guide to preparing for the Unified State Exam

Preface

The test tasks are designed in such a way that, by answering them, the student will be able to more rationally repeat the main provisions of the school chemistry course.

At the end of the manual, answers to tests are provided that will help schoolchildren and applicants test themselves and fill in existing gaps.

For the convenience of working with this reference book, a table is provided that shows the correspondence between the topics of the exam and the sections of the book.

The manual is addressed to high school students, applicants and teachers.

1. Common elements. structure of atoms. Electronic shells. Orbitals

Chemical element- a specific type of atom, designated by name and symbol and characterized by atomic number and relative atomic mass.

In table Table 1 lists common chemical elements, gives the symbols by which they are designated (pronunciation in brackets), serial numbers, relative atomic masses, and characteristic oxidation states.

Zero The oxidation state of an element in its simple substance(s) is not indicated in the table.

All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons in the nucleus and the same number of electrons in the shell. So, in an atom of an element hydrogen N is 1 p+ in the core and periphery 1 e-; in an element atom oxygen O is 8 p+ in the core and 8 e- in a shell; element atom aluminum Al contains 13 R+ in the core and 13 e- in a shell.

Atoms of the same element can differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus; such atoms are called isotopes. So, the element hydrogen H three isotopes: hydrogen-1 (special name and symbol protium 1H) from 1 p+ in the core and 1 e- in a shell; hydrogen-2 (deuterium 2H, or D) from 1 p+ and 1 P 0 in the core and 1 e- in a shell; hydrogen-3 (tritium 3H, or T) from 1 p+ and 2 P 0 in the core and 1 e- in a shell. In the symbols 1H, 2H and 3H, the superscript indicates mass number– the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Other examples:

Electronic formula an atom of any chemical element in accordance with its location in D.I. Mendeleev’s Periodic Table of Elements can be determined from the table. 2.

The electron shell of any atom is divided into energy levels(1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.), levels are divided into sublevels(indicated by letters s, p, d, f). Sublevels consist of atomic orbitals– areas of space where electrons are likely to reside. Orbitals are designated as 1s (1st level s-sublevel orbital), 2 s, 2R, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s... Number of orbitals in sublevels:

The filling of atomic orbitals with electrons occurs in accordance with three conditions:

1) principle of minimum energy

Electrons fill the orbitals, starting with the sublevel with lower energy.

The sequence of increasing energy of sublevels:

1s < 2c < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s ≤ 3d < 4p < 5s ≤ 4d < 5p < 6s…

2)exclusion rule (Pauli principle)

Each orbital can accommodate no more than two electrons.

One electron in an orbital is called unpaired, two electrons are called electronic pair:

3) principle of maximum multiplicity (Hund's rule)

Within a sublevel, electrons first fill all orbitals halfway, and then completely.

Each electron has its own characteristic - spin (conventionally represented by an up or down arrow). The electron spins add up as vectors; the sum of the spins of a given number of electrons at a sublevel must be maximum(multiplicity):

Filling of levels, sublevels and orbitals of atoms of elements from H with electrons (Z = 1) up to Kr (Z = 36) shown in energy diagram(the numbers correspond to the filling sequence and coincide with the ordinal numbers of the elements):

3Li = 1s22s1 = 2s1

8O = 1s2 2s22p4 = 2s22p4

13Al = 1s22s22p6 3s23p1 = 3s23p1

17Cl = 1s22s22p6 3s23p5 = 3s23p5

2OCа = 1s22s22p63s23p 4s2 = 4s2

21Sc = 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d14s2 = 3d14s2

25Mn = 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d54s2 = 3d54s2

26Fe = 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d64s2 = 3d64s2

3OZn = 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s2 = 4s2

33As = 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s24p3 = 4s24p3

36Kr = 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s24p6 = 4s24p6

Electrons placed outside the brackets are called valence They are the ones who take part in the formation of chemical bonds.

The exceptions are:

24Cr = 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d54s1 = Зd54s1(not 3d44s2!),

29Cu = 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d104s1 = 3d104s1(not 3d94s2!).

Examples of Part A tasks

1. Title, not relevant to hydrogen isotopes, is

1) deuterium

2) oxonium

2. The formula for the valence sublevels of a metal atom is

3. The number of unpaired electrons in the ground state of an iron atom is

4. In the excited state of an aluminum atom, the number of unpaired electrons is equal to

5. Electronic formula 3d94s0 corresponds to the cation

6. The electronic formula of the E2-3s23p6 anion corresponds to the element

7. The total number of electrons in the Mg2+ cation and the F- anion is equal to

2. Periodic law. Periodic system. Electronegativity. Oxidation states

Modern formulation periodic law, discovered by D.I. Mendeleev in 1869:

The properties of elements are periodically dependent on the ordinal number.

The periodically repeating nature of changes in the composition of the electronic shell of atoms of elements explains the periodic change in the properties of elements when moving through the periods and groups of the Periodic System.