Tutorial. Under the general editorship. Ph.D. psychol. Sciences Yu. S. Shoigu. M.: Smysl, 2007. -319 pages (circulation 1000 copies). Reviewers: Zinchenko Yu. P., Doctor of Psychology. Sciences, Professor, Karayani A. G., Doctor of Psychology. Sciences, professor. The textbook, which reveals the psychological basis of the state and behavior of people in emergency situations, was written by a team of specialists from the Center for Emergency Psychological Assistance of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Russian Federation and is based on both foreign and domestic experience. The materials presented in the book are devoted to problems of psychology extreme situations, stress, emergency psychological assistance, as well as issues of professional health of specialists working in extreme conditions.ContentsIntroduction to the psychology of extreme situations.
Catastrophe, extreme situation, emergency, crisis: definition,
classification, correlation of concepts (Concepts of emergency, extreme and crisis situations. Emergency situation. Extreme situation. Crisis situation. A crisis. The influence of extreme situations on humans. Subjects of an extreme situation).Normal stress. Stress: history of study, definition, development curve of a stressful situation (Stress: history of study and modern ideas. Development curve of a stressful situation. The concept of stress resistance). Psychophysiology of stress, or how the body works when a stressful situation occurs (Nature of stress. Physiological and psychological manifestations . Nervous system: anatomical structure and functional division. Mechanisms of stress) Psychology of stress (Factors influencing the development of psychological stress. Types (levels) of human reactions to stress. The influence of individual and personal characteristics person on the occurrence and development of stress). The influence of stress on human life (The positive impact of stress on a person. Negative influence stress. The influence of stress on the human body).Emergency psychological assistance. Traumatic stress.
Emergency psychological assistance (Emergency psychological assistance with an acute reaction to stress. Help with fear. Help with anxiety. Help with crying. Help with hysteria. Help with apathy. Help with feelings of guilt or shame. Help with motor agitation. Help with nervous tremors. Help with anger, rage, aggression. Self-help with acute reactions to stress).Organizational aspects of providing emergency psychological assistance
in emergency situations (Organizational diagram of the activities of psychological service specialists at the scene of an emergency. General principles and basic professional psychological methods providing emergency psychological assistance. Principles and ethical standards of a psychologist when working in an emergency situation. Methods of providing emergency psychological assistance. Methods psychological diagnostics, used in the provision of emergency psychological assistance). Delayed reactions to traumatic stress (Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Grief reactions. Psychosomatic disorders). Post-traumatic stress disorder (Diagnostic criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Main directions
rehabilitation of PTSD). Experience of loss.
Chronic stress and professional health of a specialist.
Professional health of specialists (Professional development). Prevention of professional burnout syndrome among extreme specialists. First of all, the manual is aimed at future rescuers and firefighters; it may be of interest to students and graduate students of psychological faculties, teachers, psychologists and psychotherapists working in the field of psychology of extreme situations.

Ministry Russian Federation for civil defense, emergency situations and disaster relief

Emergency Psychological Assistance Center

Psychology of extreme situations for rescuers and firefighters

Under the general editorship. candidate of psychology n. Yu.S. Shoigu

UDC 159.9:614.8.084(078) BBK 88.4ya7 P 863

Gurenkova T.N., Ph.D. (Ch. 2,3,5), Eliseeva I.N. (Ch. 11, 12), Kuznetsova T.Yu. (chapter 4), Makarova O.L. (chapter 1), Matafonova T.Yu. (chapter 9), Pavlova M.V. (Ch. 8, 9, 10), Shoigu Yu.S., Ph.D. (Introduction, chapters 6, 7, 8, 9, Conclusion).

Reviewers:

Zinchenko Yu.P., Doctor of Psychology. Sciences, Professor Karayani A.G., Doctor of Psychology. sciences, professor

P 863 Psychology of extreme situations for rescuers and firefighters /

Under the general editorship. Yu.S. Shoigu. M.: Smysl, 2007. - 319 p.

The textbook, which reveals the psychological basis of the state and behavior of people in emergency situations, was written by a team of specialists from the Center for Emergency Psychological Assistance of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Russian Federation and is based on both foreign and domestic experience. The material presented in the book is devoted to the problems of the psychology of extreme situations, stress, the provision of emergency psychological assistance, as well as issues of professional health of specialists working in extreme conditions.

First of all, the manual is aimed at future rescuers and firefighters; it may be of interest to students and graduate students of psychological faculties, psychologists and psychotherapists working in the field of psychology of extreme situations.

UDC 159.9:614.8.084(078) BBK 88.4ya7

ISBN 978-5-89357-253-7 © CEPP EMERCOM of the Russian Federation, 2007

INTRODUCTION

In this book, we consider it necessary to highlight the range of psychological issues that arise in conditions of work in emergency situations, problems associated with the psychology of emergency situations or the psychology of disasters.

What happens to people caught in a disaster zone? Why do people behave differently in seemingly identical conditions? What happens to people during and after an emergency? These are the questions that interest specialists.

Highly qualified specialists, working in emergency situations, are exposed to a huge number of stress factors. The cost of error in such cases is extremely high. The need to quickly make decisions on which people’s lives may depend, working in non-standard conditions with irregular work hours and a lack of information are specific to the work of an extreme specialist.

In an emergency zone, the state of specialists is subject to the general laws of adaptation to a stressful situation. A specialist’s susceptibility to stress factors is determined by individual psychophysiological characteristics, level of stress resistance, and work experience. It’s good if a specialist knows what can await him (although there are no identical situations - each is special in its own way). An emergency always disrupts plans and pulls you out of your daily rhythm. For specialists who have experience working in emergency situations, this circumstance is not traumatic, whereas for young specialist is one of the stress factors. Knowledge of the patterns of mental response to a stressful situation increases the body's tolerance to the effects of stress. “Forewarned is forearmed,” the ancients said.

It is known that an emergency situation can be the starting point of future changes in beliefs, lifestyle, the cause of changes in states and feelings, or the launch of a mechanism for the dynamics of the existing experience of traumatic experiences of people who find themselves at the epicenter of events. This applies not only to the victims, but also to the specialists who provide assistance to them. Typically, people working in emergency situations do not think about the impact their work has left on them, although it does not go unnoticed for them that they see the grief and suffering of other people. Obviously, without sufficient knowledge about the nature of the psychological consequences of emergency situations, skills mental self-regulation, extreme specialists are more susceptible to deterioration in health in the future. Specialists develop defensive styles of behavior that create the appearance that nothing special is happening in their lives. Among them there are those that help constructively protect the psyche from the effects of traumatic factors in emergency situations, and there are those that lead to illness and deterioration of the condition. After finishing work, traumatic reactions may occur: sleep disturbances (insomnia, restless sleep); predominance of a background of low mood (predominance of emotions of sadness, depression). Normally, reactions may continue for a short time after returning. During this time, the body gradually recovers.

In the professional baggage of a psychologist working in emergency situations, there are constructive styles of protective behavior, they have certain skills, there is an opportunity to “work through,” comprehend, and “experience” the emotional impressions of working in an emergency situation. This same knowledge can also help rescuers and firefighters.

Extreme specialists, just like others, go through the stages of adaptation to the profession, professional development, professional burnout, and transition to the next stage of professional development. We considered all this important to describe in this book.

The book is structured according to system principle, consists of four sections. The first section, “Introduction to the psychology of extreme situations,” defines the basic concepts: disaster, extreme situation, emergency, crisis, and also classifies the main types of situations and gives the relationship between these concepts.

The second section, “Normal Stress,” reveals the concept of “stress” and its effect on the human body, describes the physiological dynamics of the stress reaction, the dynamics of the body’s adaptation to a stressful situation, behavioral response patterns, and protective mechanisms of the psyche.

In the third section “Emergency psychological assistance. Traumatic Stress” describes the psychological aspects of emergency situations and their consequences. The picture of the work of rescue and fire department specialists involved in rescuing victims in emergency situations would be incomplete without the work of psychologists. This section describes the work of psychologists in an emergency situation, methods of emergency psychological assistance to people, the conditions for their use, the organization of the work of psychologists, the stages of carrying out activities for psychological support of emergency rescue and other emergency work. Next, the delayed psychological consequences of emergency situations are revealed. The concepts of “traumatic stress”, “mental trauma”, the conditions of their occurrence, the dynamics of experiencing a traumatic situation, recovery from it, constructive behavioral patterns of coping, pathological forms of response, the dynamics of reactions of a grieving person are described.

In the fourth section “Chronic stress and professional health of a specialist” we're talking about about the conditions of accumulation chronic stress related to the working conditions of extreme profile specialists, about professional deformation that may arise at a certain stage. Along with this, the ways and conditions for maintaining one’s professional health, stages professional development, formations, meaning-forming components professional activity.

Under the general editorship. candidate of psychology n. Yu.S. Shoigu

UDC 159.9:614.8.084(078) BBK 88.4ya7 P 863

Reviewers:

Zinchenko Yu.P., Doctor of Psychology. Sciences, Professor Karayani A.G., Doctor of Psychology. sciences, professor

P 863 Psychology of extreme situations for rescuers and firefighters /

Under the general editorship. Yu.S. Shoigu. M.: Smysl, 2007. - 319 p.

UDC 159.9:614.8.084(078) BBK 88.4ya7

ISBN 978-5-89357-253-7 © CEPP EMERCOM of the Russian Federation, 2007

INTRODUCTION

Highly qualified specialists, working in emergency situations, are exposed to a huge number of stress factors. The cost of error in such cases is extremely high. The need to quickly make decisions on which people's lives may depend, working in non-standard conditions with irregular work hours and a lack of information are specific to the work of an extreme specialist.

In an emergency zone, the state of specialists is subject to the general laws of adaptation to a stressful situation. A specialist’s susceptibility to stress factors is determined by individual psychophysiological characteristics, level of stress resistance, and work experience. It’s good if a specialist knows what can await him (although there are no identical situations - each is special in its own way). An emergency always disrupts plans and pulls you out of your daily rhythm. For specialists who have experience working in emergency situations, this circumstance is not traumatic, while for a young specialist it is one of the stressful factors. Knowledge of the patterns of mental response to a stressful situation increases the body's tolerance to the effects of stress. “Forewarned is forearmed,” the ancients said.

It is known that an emergency situation can be the starting point of future changes in beliefs, lifestyle, the cause of changes in states and feelings, or the launch of a mechanism for the dynamics of the existing experience of traumatic experiences of people who find themselves at the epicenter of events. This applies not only to the victims, but also to the specialists who provide assistance to them. Typically, people working in emergency situations do not think about the impact their work has left on them, although it does not go unnoticed for them that they see the grief and suffering of other people. It is obvious that without sufficient knowledge about the nature of the psychological consequences of emergency situations and mental self-regulation skills, extreme specialists are more susceptible to deterioration in health in the future. Specialists develop defensive styles of behavior that create the appearance that nothing special is happening in their lives. Among them there are those that help constructively protect the psyche from the effects of traumatic factors in emergency situations, and there are those that lead to illness and deterioration of the condition. After finishing work, traumatic reactions may occur: sleep disturbances (insomnia, restless sleep); predominance of a background of low mood (predominance of emotions of sadness, depression). Normally, reactions may continue for a short time after returning. During this time, the body gradually recovers.

The book is structured according to a systematic principle and consists of four sections. The first section, “Introduction to the psychology of extreme situations,” defines the basic concepts: disaster, extreme situation, emergency, crisis, and also classifies the main types of situations and gives the relationship between these concepts.

The fourth section, “Chronic stress and professional health of a specialist,” deals with the conditions for the accumulation of chronic stress associated with the working conditions of extreme specialists, and with professional deformation that can arise at a certain stage. Along with this, ways and conditions for preserving one’s professional health, stages of professional development, formation, and meaning-forming components of professional activity are indicated.

Section I.

Introduction to the psychology of extreme situations

Chapter 1. DISASTER, EXTREME SITUATION, EMERGENCY, CRISIS: DEFINITION, CLASSIFICATION, RELATIONSHIP OF CONCEPTS

Issues covered in the chapter:

Definitions of extreme, emergency, crisis.

The relationship between these concepts.

The subject of studying the psychology of extreme situations. The influence of an extreme situation on a person.

Catastrophe - how often we hear this word from acquaintances, friends, from television screens, it has firmly entered our lives, language, and worldview. What is a disaster?

IN " Explanatory dictionary Russian language" D.N. Ushakov gives the following definitions of disaster:

1. An unexpected misfortune, disaster, event leading to tragic consequences.

2. A major shock of a tragic nature, causing a sharp change in personal or public life.

There have always been disasters and emergencies: earthquakes, floods, epidemics and other disasters have accompanied humanity throughout the history of its development. For example, there are three colossal plague pandemics (epidemics) known in history. The first, leaving Egypt, devastated almost all the countries of the Mediterranean and lasted for about 60 years. At the height of the epidemic in 542, thousands of people died every day in Constantinople alone. The second and most ominous in the history of Western Europe is the “Black Death” of the mid-14th century. The Black Death, which came from Asia, killed a third of Europe's population. In 1346-48. V Western Europe The bubonic plague raged, killing 25 million people. In the preface to the Decameron, Boccaccio left a description of its horrors. The third is the plague pandemic, which began in 1892 in India (where more than 6 million people died) and spread into the 20th century. to the Azores, South America.

Another major disaster in human history is the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Italy, which occurred in 79 AD. Then powerful lava flows mixed with rock wiped out the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Thousands of people died.

Man has always tried to protect himself from various disasters, using all the methods available to him: healers and shamans, turning to the forces of nature; sacrifices to appease the gods; military detachments defending their own and capturing new - less dangerous and richer territories. All these are the first attempts to ensure our own safety.

The development of medicine, military affairs, science and technology has allowed humanity to live more comfortably and be more protected - on the one hand. On the other side, technical means themselves become a source of increased danger. Technological progress leads to an increase in the number and scale of disasters. The development of the media determines the involvement of a huge number of people in experiencing an extreme situation. The beginning of the era of man-made disasters was marked by the death of the Titanic, a symbol of its era, a luxurious transatlantic liner. Humanity has never seen such a huge ship. The largest, most powerful, most reliable, absolutely, as the designers claimed, unsinkable, it received the appropriate name - “Titanic”. Launched from Britain's Royal Dockyards, the Titanic set out on its maiden voyage across the Atlantic - and never returned. A catastrophe unprecedented at the dawn of the industrial age, which claimed hundreds of lives, shocked the world.

On April 26, 1986, the fourth power unit of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, located on the territory of Ukraine (at that time - the Ukrainian SSR), was destroyed. The destruction was explosive, the reactor was completely destroyed, and a large amount of radioactive substances was released into the environment. The accident is regarded as the largest of its kind in the entire history of nuclear energy, both in terms of the estimated number of people killed and affected by its consequences, and in terms of economic damage.

The radioactive cloud from the accident passed over the European part of the USSR, Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, Great Britain and the eastern part of the USA. Approximately 60% of the radioactive fallout fell on the territory of Belarus. About 200,000 people were evacuated from contaminated areas. Lateness, incompleteness and mutual contradictions official information about the disaster has given rise to many independent interpretations. The victims of the tragedy can be considered not only the citizens who died immediately after the accident, but also the residents of the adjacent regions who went to the May Day demonstration, not knowing about the danger. With this calculation, the Chernobyl disaster significantly exceeds the number of victims atomic bombing Hiroshima.

There is also an opposite point of view, according to which 29 people died from radiation sickness in Chernobyl - station employees and firefighters who took the first blow. Outside the industrial site of the nuclear power plant, no one had radiation sickness. Thus, estimates of the number of victims of the disaster range from tens of people to millions.

The range in official estimates is smaller, although the number of victims Chernobyl accident can only be determined approximately. In addition to the dead nuclear power plant workers and firefighters, these should include sick military personnel and civilians involved in eliminating the consequences of the accident, and residents of areas exposed to radioactive contamination. Determining what proportion of illnesses resulted from the accident is very difficult difficult task for medicine and statistics; Different organizations provide estimates that differ tenfold. It is believed that most of the deaths associated with radiation exposure have been or will be caused by cancer. Many local residents had to leave their homes and lost some of their property. The problems associated with this and fear for their health caused people severe stress, which also led to various diseases.

If previously the main concern was the consequences of extreme situations, such as the number of deaths, physical illnesses, injuries, now experts are also concerned about the consequences for the psychosocial and mental health of the population. Experts working with people who have survived a disaster have drawn attention to the fact that the mental consequences of disasters can be no less severe than the somatic ones, and lead to serious illnesses and social problems, both for an individual and for groups of people and society as a whole. .

Even during the First World War, psychiatrists noticed the following phenomenon: soldiers who had not received physical injuries, wounds, or received minor injuries during combat operations, showed symptoms of a certain disease, the cause of which could not be determined. The soldiers experienced a depressed state, weakness, exhaustion, sleep disturbances, disturbances in appetite, and outbursts of unmotivated aggression. Later it was found out that the cause of this disease is a mental experience (trauma) received during combat operations.

It is important to note that natural and man-made disasters, local armed conflicts, terrorist attacks, etc. affect the psyche and contribute to the emergence of delayed and protracted reactions not only among direct participants in the events, but also among outside observers, who, as already mentioned, thanks to the media information (media) become indirect participants in these events. Since the media realistically reflect current events, people are forced to immerse themselves in them, as if they were direct eyewitnesses.

One of the most striking global examples of this phenomenon is the death of Princess Diana, when hundreds of thousands of people, not being her relatives, acquaintances or in any way involved in her death, deeply (even to the point of psychotic manifestations) mourned the death of Diana for a long time. It was enough to simply observe people's reactions to understand that it went beyond the usual empathy and sympathy in these cases for ordinary people. This and similar situations, in fact, are a manifestation of modern reality, in which not only a way of life is imposed on a person, but also a form of mental experiences.

However, not only disasters and military conflicts have a negative impact on the human psyche. Development technical progress and the emergence of new types of professional activities that pose a high risk, requiring increased responsibility and concentration, also affect people’s mental health.

Until some time, it was believed that only miners and astronauts worked in extreme working conditions. Changes in the life of society over the past 10-15 years have led to an increase in the number of professions whose representatives work in extreme conditions. Thus, the professions of firefighter, rescuer, air traffic controller, cash collector, and road patrol officer have elements of extremes.

In the activities of workers in “hazardous professions,” there are two types of conditions under which work becomes extreme:

1) everyday stressful activity in which danger is presented as a potential event (air traffic controllers, cash collectors);

2) so-called critical incidents, in which workers are faced with human casualties and material losses, with a real danger to their life, health or value system, as well as a threat to the life, health, and well-being of others (rescuers, firefighters).

The need to study the influence of extreme factors on the human psyche has led to the emergence and active development of a new field psychological science and practices - extreme psychology.

Extreme psychology (EP) is a branch of psychological science that studies the general psychological patterns of human life and activity in changed (unusual) conditions of existence. Research in the field of extreme psychology has as its goal the improvement of psychological selection and psychological preparation for work in unusual living conditions, as well as the development of measures to protect against the traumatic effects of psychogenic factors (Psychology. Dictionary, 1990).

The subject of study of EP is the psyche exposed to extreme factors, the mechanisms of influence of extreme factors on a person, patterns of reactions and experiences, possible consequences and ways to correct them.

CONCEPTS OF EMERGENCY, EXTREME AND CRISIS SITUATIONS

The concepts of emergency, extreme and crisis situations have not yet received comprehensive definitions. In the context of further study of the subject, we suggest using the following definitions.

An emergency situation (ES) is a situation in a certain territory that has arisen as a result of an accident, a dangerous natural phenomenon, catastrophe, natural or other disaster that may result in human casualties, damage to human health or environment, significant material losses and disruption of people’s living conditions (“Law on the protection of the population and territories from natural and man-made emergencies of December 21, 1994 No. 68-FZ (NWRF 94-35)”).

An extreme situation (from the Latin extremus - extreme, critical) is a sudden situation that threatens or is subjectively perceived by a person as threatening life, health, personal integrity, well-being.

A crisis situation (from the Greek krisis - decision, turning point, outcome) is a situation that requires a person to significantly change his ideas about the world and himself in a short period of time. These changes can be both positive and negative.

Let's take a closer look at each of the above situations.

Emergency

These are objectively existing conditions. The catastrophe has already happened.

There are a number of classifications of emergency situations according to various criteria

	Regional	Emergency situations that resulted in more than 50, but not more than 500, people being injured, or the living conditions of more than 500, but not more than 1,000 people being disrupted, or material damage is over 0.5 million, but not more than 5 million. The minimum wage on the day of the emergency and the emergency zone covers the territory of two constituent entities of the Russian Federation
	Federal	Emergency situations that resulted in more than 500 casualties, or disrupted the living conditions of more than 1,000 people, or material damage exceeding 5 million minimum wages on the day of the emergency and the emergency zone extends beyond the boundaries of more than two constituent entities of the Russian Federation
	Cross-border	Emergency situations, the damaging factors of which extend beyond the borders of the Russian Federation, or emergency situations occurred abroad and their damaging factors cover the territory of the Russian Federation
By source of origin	Man-made emergency	Transport accidents and catastrophes, fires, unprovoked explosions or their threat, accidents with releases (threat of releases) of dangerous chemical, radioactive, biological substances, sudden destruction of structures and buildings, accidents on engineering networks etc.

	Natural emergencies, natural disasters	Hazardous geological, meteorological, hydrological marine and freshwater phenomena, soil or subsoil degradation, natural fires, earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, landslides, landslides, avalanches, mudflows, hurricanes, tornadoes, tornadoes, forest fires, rainstorms, snowfalls, drought and other phenomena caused by natural causes.
	Emergency of ecological and biological nature	Mass illness of people with infectious diseases (epidemics), farm animals, mass destruction of agricultural plants by diseases or pests, changes in the state of water resources and the biosphere, subsidence, landslides, landslides, soil degradation, depletion of non-renewable natural resources, destruction of the ozone layer of the atmosphere, depletion of water resources, extinction of species of animals, plants, etc. as a result of human activity
	Emergencies of a sociogenic nature	Terrorism, hostage taking, riots, hostilities

The textbook, which reveals the psychological basis of the state and behavior of people in emergency situations, was written by a team of specialists from the Center for Emergency Psychological Assistance of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Russian Federation and is based on both foreign and domestic experience. The materials presented in the book are devoted to the problems of the psychology of extreme situations, stress, the provision of emergency psychological assistance, as well as issues of professional health of specialists working in extreme conditions.

Introduction to the psychology of extreme situations.
Catastrophe, extreme situation, emergency, crisis: definition,
classification, correlation of concepts (Concepts of emergency, extreme and crisis situations. Emergency situation. Extreme situation. Crisis situation. Crisis. The influence of extreme situations on humans. Subjects of an extreme situation).

Normal stress. Stress: history of study, definition, development curve of a stressful situation (Stress: history of study and modern concepts. Development curve of a stressful situation. The concept of stress resistance).

Psychophysiology of stress, or how the body works when a stressful situation occurs (Nature of stress. Physiological and psychological manifestations. Nervous system: anatomical structure and functional division. Mechanisms of stress)

Psychology of stress (Factors influencing the development of psychological stress. Types (levels) of human reactions to stress. The influence of individual and personal characteristics on the occurrence and development of stress).

The influence of stress on a person’s life (The positive influence of stress on a person. The negative influence of stress. The influence of stress on the human body).

Emergency psychological assistance. Traumatic stress.
Emergency psychological assistance (Emergency psychological assistance with an acute reaction to stress. Help with fear. Help with anxiety. Help with crying. Help with hysteria. Help with apathy. Help with feelings of guilt or shame. Help with motor agitation. Help with nervous tremors. Help with anger, rage, aggression. Self-help with acute reactions to stress).

Organizational aspects of providing emergency psychological assistance
in emergency situations (Organizational diagram of the activities of psychological service specialists at the scene of an emergency. General principles and basic professional psychological methods of providing emergency psychological assistance. Principles and ethical standards of a psychologist when working in an emergency situation. Methods of providing emergency psychological assistance. Methods of psychological diagnostics used when providing emergency psychological assistance).

Delayed reactions to traumatic stress (Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Grief reactions. Psychosomatic disorders).

Post-traumatic stress disorder (Diagnostic criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Main directions
rehabilitation of PTSD).

Experience of loss.
Chronic stress and professional health of a specialist.
Professional health of specialists (Professional development).

Prevention of professional burnout syndrome among extreme profile specialists.

First of all, the manual is aimed at future rescuers and firefighters; it may be of interest to students and graduate students of psychological faculties, teachers, psychologists and psychotherapists working in the field of psychology of extreme situations.

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