6.1. Economic and social development Russia under the first Romanovs
The Troubles led Russia to complete economic collapse. Political stability was not immediately established; the system of government in the center and locally was destroyed. The main tasks of Mikhail Romanov were to achieve reconciliation in the country, overcome economic devastation and streamline the management system. The first six years of his reign, Mikhail ruled, relying on the Boyar Duma and Zemsky Councils. In 1619, the Tsar's father Fyodor Nikitich (in monasticism Filaret) Romanov returned from Polish captivity. Having accepted the patriarchal rank, Filaret actually began to rule the country until his death in 1633. In 1645, Mikhail Romanov also died. His son Alexei Mikhailovich (1645–1676) became the Russian Tsar.
By the middle of the century, the economic devastation brought by the Time of Troubles had been overcome. Economic development Russia in the 17th century characterized by a number of new phenomena in economic life. The craft gradually developed into small-scale production. More and more products were produced not to order, but for the market, and economic specialization of individual regions took place. In Tula and Kashira, for example, metal products were produced. The Volga region specialized in leather processing, Novgorod and Pskov were centers of flax production. The best jewelry was produced in Novgorod, Tikhvin and Moscow. Centers of artistic production began to emerge (Khokhloma, Palekh, etc.).
The development of commodity production led to the emergence of manufactories. They were divided into state-owned, i.e., owned by the state, and privately owned.
The growth of productive forces contributed to the development of trade and the emergence of an all-Russian market. Two large all-Russian fairs arose - Makaryevskaya on the Volga and Irbitskaya in the Urals.
The Zemsky Sobor in 1649 adopted the Council Code, a code of domestic feudal law that regulated relations in the main spheres of social life. The Council Code prescribed cruel punishments not only for rebellion against the Tsar or insulting the head of state, but even for fights and riots in the Tsar’s court. Thus, the process of formation of an absolute monarchy was legislatively consolidated.
The Council Code formalized the social structure of society, since it regulated the rights and responsibilities of all classes.
Dramatic changes took place in the life of the peasantry. The conciliar code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich finally formalized serfdom - an indefinite search for fugitive peasants was established.
According to the Council Code, city residents were assigned to their place of residence and “tax,” that is, to bear state duties. A significant part of the Code is devoted to the procedure of legal proceedings and criminal law. Laws of the 17th century look too harsh. For many crimes, the Council Code provided for the death penalty. The Code also regulated the procedure for military service, travel to other states, customs policy, etc.
Political development of Russia in the 17th century. characterized by the evolution of the state system: from estate-representative monarchy to absolutism. Zemsky Sobors occupied a special place in the system of class-representative monarchy. The Zemsky Sobor included the highest clergy, the Boyar Duma and the elected part: Moscow nobles, the administration of the orders, the district nobility, the top of the “tyaglovy” settlements of the Moscow suburb, as well as the Cossacks and Streltsy (“service people according to the device”).
In the first years of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the Zemsky Sobors worked almost continuously and helped him in governing the state. Under Filaret Romanov, the activities of the Councils become less active. The last Zemsky Sobor, which worked in 1653, resolved the issue of reunification of Ukraine with Russia. Subsequently, zemstvo activity fades away. In the 1660–1680s. Numerous class commissions were assembled. All of them were predominantly boyars. The end of the work of the Zemsky Sobors actually meant the completion of the transition from an estate-representative monarchy to absolutism. The Boyar Duma retained a significant role in the system of state power and administration bodies. However, in the second half of the 17th century. its value falls.
High development in the 17th century. reaches the command system of management. The orders dealt with individual branches of public administration within the country or were in charge of individual territories. The most important among them were the order of Secret Affairs, led personally by Alexei Mikhailovich and engaged in supervision of the activities of the highest government agencies and officials. The local order formalized land plots and conducted judicial investigations in land matters. The ambassadorial order carried out the foreign policy of the state. The order of the Great Treasury controlled finances.
The main administrative-territorial unit of the state was the county. The local government system was built in the 17th century. not on the basis of elected bodies, but on the authority of governors appointed from the center. Zemstvo and provincial elders were subordinate to them. Administrative, judicial and military power, supervision over the collection of taxes and duties were concentrated in the hands of the governor.
Social structure of Russian society in the 17th century. was deeply classed. The term "estate" means social group having rights and obligations enshrined in custom or law and inheritable. The privileged class were secular and spiritual feudal lords (clergy). Secular feudal lords were divided into ranks. In the 17th century this concept reflected not so much official position as belonging to a certain group of the feudal class. Its top were the Duma ranks: boyars, okolnichy, clerks and Duma nobles. The next in position in society were the Moscow ranks - officials, solicitors, Moscow nobles. They were followed by the lower categories of the privileged class - city officials. These included provincial nobles, who were called “children of the boyars.”
The majority of the dependent population were peasants. Personally, free members of the community were called black-growing peasants. The rest of the peasants were either privately owned, that is, belonging to the landowners, or palace, or appanage, belonging to the royal family. Serfs were in the position of slaves. Residents of cities - artisans and merchants - were assigned to their duties. The richest merchants were called “guests”. The dependent classes also included “service people according to the instrument”: archers, gunners and Cossacks.
Lectures 7, 8. Russia under the first Romanovs in the 17th century.
PLAN:
1. Social and economic development of Russia in the 17th century.
2. Anti-state protests.
3. Evolution of the state-political system.
4. Russian foreign policy. Development of Siberia and the Far East.
5. Church reform. Russia under the first Romanovs in the 17th century.
TOPIC 7, 8. Russia under the first Romanovs in XVII century
PLAN:
1. Social and economic development of Russia in the 17th century.
2. Anti-state protests.
3. Evolution of the state-political system.
4. Russian foreign policy. Development of Siberia and the Far East.
5. Church reform.
LITERATURE
1. Buganov V.I. World of History. Russia in the 17th century. M., 1989.
2. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861 / Ed. N. I. Pavlenko. M, 2000.
3. History of the Fatherland in persons. From ancient times to the end of the 17th century. Biographical encyclopedia. M., 1993.
4. Kargalov V.V. Stand strong on the borders of Rus'! Great Rus' and Wild Iole. Confrontation XIII-XVIII centuries. M., 1998.
5. Solovyov V. M. Contemporaries and descendants about the uprising of S. T. Razin. M., 1991.
6. Tarle E. V. International relations of Russia in the XVII-XVIII centuries. M., 1966.
7. Reader on the history of Russia. M., 1995. T. 2. Encyclopedia for children. T. 5. History of Russia. From the ancient Slavs to Peter the Great. M. 1995.
The ruling circles of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Catholic Church intended to divide Russia and eliminate its state independence. In a hidden form, the intervention was expressed in support of False Dmitry I and False Dmitry II. Open intervention under the leadership of Sigismund III began under Vasily Shuisky, when in September 1609 Smolensk was besieged and in 1610 a campaign against Moscow and its capture took place. By this time, Vasily Shuisky was overthrown by the nobles from the throne, and an interregnum began in Russia - Seven Boyars. The Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish interventionists and was inclined to call the Polish king, the young Vladislav, a Catholic, to the Russian throne, which was a direct betrayal of the national interests of Russia. In addition, in the summer of 1610, a Swedish intervention began with the goal of separating Pskov, Novgorod, and the northwestern regions from Russia.
Under these conditions, it was only possible for the whole people to defend the independence of the Russian state and expel the invaders. External danger brought to the fore national and religious interests, which temporarily united the warring classes. As a result of the first people's militia (under the leadership of P. P. Lyapunov) and the second people's militia (led by Prince D. M. Pozharsky and K. M. Minin) in the fall of 1612, the capital was liberated from the Polish garrison.
The victory was won as a result of the heroic efforts of the Russian people. A symbol of loyalty to the Motherland is the feat of the Kostroma peasant Ivan Susanin, who sacrificed his own life in the fight against the Polish invaders. Grateful Russia erected the first sculptural monument in Moscow to Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky (on Red Square, sculptor I. P. Martos).
In 1613, the Zemsky Sobor took place V Moscow, where the question of choosing a new Russian Tsar was raised. The Polish prince Vladislav, the son of the Swedish king Karl Philip, the son of False Dmitry II and Marina Mnishek Ivan, nicknamed “Vorenko” (False Dmitry 11 - “Tushinsky thief”), as well as representatives of the largest boyar families were proposed as candidates for the Russian throne.
On February 21, the cathedral chose Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, The 16-year-old grandnephew of Ivan the Terrible’s first wife, Anastasia Romanova. On July 11, Mikhail Fedorovich was crowned king. Soon his father, the patriarch, took the leading place in governing the country Filaret, who “mastered all royal and military affairs.” Power was restored in the form of an autocratic monarchy. The leaders of the fight against the interventionists received modest appointments. Dmitry Pozharsky was sent by the governor to Mozhaisk, and Kozma Minin became the Duma governor.
The government of Mikhail Fedorovich faced the most difficult The task is to eliminate the consequences of the intervention. The greatest danger to him was posed by the detachments of Cossacks who wandered around the country and did not recognize the new king. Among them is Ivan Zarutsky, to whom Marina Mnishek and her son moved. The Yaik Cossacks handed over I. Zarutsky to the Moscow government. I. Zarutsky and Vorenok were hanged, and Marina Mnishek was imprisoned in Kolomna, where she probably died soon.
The Swedes posed another danger. In 1617 a contract was concluded with them Pillar world(in the village of Stolbovo, near Tikhvin). Sweden returned the Novgorod land to Russia, but retained the Baltic coast and received monetary compensation.
In the village of Deulino near the Trinity-Sergius Monastery in 1618, a Truce of Deulino with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which retained the Smolensk and Chernigov lands. There was an exchange of prisoners. Vladislav did not give up his claims to the Russian throne.
Thus, the main consequence events of the Time of Troubles in foreign policy there was a restoration of the territorial unity of Russia, although part of the Russian lands remained with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden.
Socio-economic development of Russia c.XVIIV. To the middle of the 17th century. the devastation and devastation of the Time of Troubles were overcome. The economy recovered slowly in conditions:
- preservation of traditional forms of farming (low productivity peasant farm with its primitive technique and technology);
- sharply continental climate;
- low soil fertility in the Non-Black Earth Region - the most developed part of the country.
The leading sector of the economy remained Agriculture. Height production volumes were achieved through the involvement of new lands in economic circulation: Black Earth Region, Middle Volga Region, Siberia.
In the 17th century further growth of feudal land ownership, redistribution of land within the ruling class. The new Romanov dynasty, strengthening its position, made extensive use of the distribution of land to the nobles. In the central regions of the country, land ownership by black-growing peasants has practically disappeared. The desolation of the central counties as a result of a long crisis and the outflow of population to the outskirts was one of the reasons strengthening of serfdom.
In the 18th century there was a development of crafts into small-scale production. By the end of the 17th century. There were at least 300 cities in Russia, and the main areas of handicraft production were formed. The centers of metallurgy and metalworking, textiles, salt making, and jewelry were further developed.
The development of small-scale production prepared the basis for the emergence manufactory Manufacture is a large enterprise based on the division of labor and handcraft techniques. In the 17th century There were approximately 30 manufactories in Russia. The first state-owned manufactories arose in the 16th century. (Pushkarsky Dvor, Mint). The Nitsinsky copper smelter in the Urals, built in 1631, is considered the first privately owned manufactory.
Since there were no free workers in the country, the state began to assign, and later (1721) allowed factories to buy peasants. The assigned peasants had to work off their taxes to the state at a factory or plant at certain prices. The state provided enterprise owners with assistance with land, timber, and money. Manufactories founded with the support of the state later received the name "possession"(from the Latin word “possession” - possession). But until the 90s. XVII century metallurgy remained the only industry where manufactories operated.
The role and importance are increasing merchants in the life of the country. The constantly gathering fairs acquired great importance: Makaryevskaya (near Nizhny Novgorod), Svenskaya (in the Bryansk region), Irbitskaya (in Siberia), in Arkhangelsk, etc., where merchants carried out large wholesale and retail trade at that time.
Along with the development of domestic trade, foreign trade also grew. Until the middle of the century, foreign merchants derived enormous benefits from foreign trade by exporting timber, furs, hemp, etc. from Russia. The English fleet was built from Russian timber, and the ropes for its ships were made from Russian hemp. Arkhangelsk was the center of Russian trade with Western Europe. There were English and Dutch trading yards here. Close ties were established through Astrakhan with the countries of the East.
The Russian government's support for the growing merchant class is evidenced by the publication of the New Trade Charter, which increased duties on foreign goods. Policy mercantilism It was also expressed in the fact that foreign merchants had the right to conduct wholesale trade only in border trading centers.
In the 17th century the exchange of goods between individual regions of the country expanded significantly, which indicated the beginning the formation of the all-Russian market. The merging of individual lands into a single economic system began.
Social structure of Russian society. The highest class in the country was boyars(among them were many descendants of former great and appanage princes). About a hundred boyar families owned estates, served the tsar and held leadership positions in the state. There was a process of rapprochement with the nobility.
Nobles constituted the upper layer of the sovereign's service people in the fatherland. They owned estates based on the right of inheritance in the event that children continued to serve after their parents. The nobility significantly strengthened its position at the end of the Time of Troubles and became the pillar of royal power. This layer of feudal lords included persons who served at the royal court (stewards, solicitors, Moscow nobles, etc.), as well as city officials, i.e., provincial nobles.
The major feudal lords were clergy, which had large land holdings and monasteries.
The lowest stratum of service people included service people by appointment or recruitment. It included archers, gunners, coachmen, service Cossacks, government craftsmen, etc.
Categories of the peasant population:
- proprietary or privately owned, living on the lands of estates or
estates. They bore taxes (a set of duties in favor of the feudal lord). Close
Monastery peasants took their place among the privately owned peasants; - black-growing peasants. They lived on the outskirts of the country (Pomeranian
North, Ural, Siberia, South), united into communities. They had no right to leave their lands unless they found a replacement. They bore taxes for the benefit of the state. “Black lands” could be sold, mortgaged, passed on by inheritance (i.e., the situation was easier than that of privately owned lands); - palace peasants, serving the economic needs of the royal court. They had self-government and were subordinate to palace clerks.
The top urban population was merchants. The richest of them (there were approximately 30 such people in Moscow in the 17th century) were declared “guests” by royal command. Many wealthy merchants united in two Moscow hundreds - the living room and the cloth one.
The bulk of the urban population was called townspeople. They united into a draft community. In many Russian cities, military officials and their families predominated among the residents. The bourgeoisie in the cities has not yet developed.
Urban artisans were united along professional lines into settlements and hundreds. They bore taxes - duties in favor of the state, elected their elders and sotskys (black settlements). In addition to them, in the cities there were white settlements that belonged to boyars, monasteries, and bishops. These settlements were “whitewashed” (freed) from bearing city taxes in favor of the state.
Before Peter's times, both in cities and in rural areas there lived a significant number slave slaves. Complete serfs were the hereditary property of their masters. Layer bonded slaves was formed from among previously free people who fell into a state of slavery (bondage - a receipt or promissory note). Bonded slaves served until the death of the creditor, unless they voluntarily accepted a new bondage in favor of the heir of the deceased.
Free and walking people(free Cossacks, children of priests, servicemen and townspeople, hired workers, wandering musicians and buffoons, beggars, vagabonds) did not end up in estates, estates or city communities and did not bear the state tax. From among them, service people were recruited according to the instrument. However, the state tried in every possible way to bring them under its control.
Thus, the 17th century. was an important stage in the socio-economic development of Russia. Both in agriculture and in industry especially (the emergence of manufactories) serious changes took place. However, there is no reason to talk about the emergence of capitalist relations in the country, the main feature of which is an increase in the share of free wage labor in the economy. The development of commodity-money, market relations, the growth of the number of manufactories (among the workers of which peasants dependent on the landowner or the state predominated) were observed in Russia in the conditions of the progressive movement of the feudal economy and the formation of the social structure of society. Formation of a single national market, First stage which dates back to the 17th century, occurred in the absence of elements of a capitalist economy based on undeveloped capitalist production.
Anti-state protests. The development of the country's economy was accompanied by large social movements. The 17th century is not named by chance "rebellious age" It was during this period that two peasant “unrest” took place (the uprising of I. Bolotnikov and the Peasant War led by S. Razin) and a number of urban uprisings in the middle of the century, as well as the Solovetsky riot and two Streltsy uprisings in the last quarter of the century.
The history of urban uprisings opens Salt riot 1648 in Moscow. Various segments of the capital’s population took part in it: townspeople, archers, nobles, dissatisfied with the policies of B.I. Morozova. By decree of February 7, 1646, a high tax on salt was introduced. And salt was the product that people of the 17th century refused to eat. There was no way they could. It was impossible to prepare food for future use without salt. In 1646-1648. salt prices increased 3-4 times. The people began to starve, while thousands of pounds of cheap fish rotted on the Volga: fish farmers, due to the high cost of salt, were unable to salt it. Everyone was unhappy. Less expensive salt was sold than before, and the treasury suffered significant losses. At the end of 1647, the salt tax was abolished, but it was too late...
The reason for the speech was the dispersal by the archers of a delegation of Muscovites who were trying to submit a petition to the tsar at the mercy of the officials. Pogroms began at the courts of influential dignitaries. The Duma clerk Nazariy Chistoy was killed, and the head of the Zemsky Prikaz, Leonty Pleshcheevider, was given over to the crowd. The Tsar managed to save only Morozov, urgently sending him into exile to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery.
The Moscow Salt Riot responded with uprisings of 1648-1650. in other cities. The most persistent and lengthy uprisings in 1650 were in Pskov and Novgorod. They were caused by a sharp increase in bread prices as a result of the government's commitment to supply grain to Sweden.
In 1662, the so-called Copper riot caused by the protracted Russian-Polish war and the financial crisis. Monetary reform (minting depreciated copper money) led to a sharp drop in the exchange rate of the ruble, which primarily affected the salaries of soldiers and archers, as well as artisans and small traders. Streltsy and “foreign order” regiments loyal to the tsar suppressed the rebellion. As a result of the brutal massacre, several hundred people died and 18 were publicly hanged.
The urban uprisings of the mid-century turned out to be a prelude to the Peasants' War led by S. T. Razina 1670-1671 This movement originated in the villages of the Don Cossacks. The Don freemen attracted fugitives from the southern and central regions of the Russian state. Here they were protected by an unwritten law - “there is no extradition from the Don.” The government, needing the services of the Cossacks for the defense of the southern borders, paid them a salary and put up with the self-government that existed there.
Stepan Timofeevich Razin, raising the people against the “traitor boyars,” spoke on behalf of Alexei (the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich), who had already died. The peasant war engulfed vast areas of the Don, Volga region, and Urals, and found a response in Ukraine. The rebels managed to capture Tsaritsyn, Astrakhan, Saratov, Samara and other cities. However, near Simbirsk, Razin was defeated, and then handed over to the “household” Cossacks and executed.
The social crisis was accompanied by an ideological crisis. Let's take the rum of the development of religious struggle into social is Solovetsky uprising 1668-1676 It began with the fact that the brethren of the Solovetsky Monastery flatly refused to accept the corrected liturgical books. The government decided to tame the rebellious monks by blockading the monastery and confiscating its land holdings. High thick walls and rich food supplies extended the siege of the monastery for several years. The Razinites, exiled to Solovki, also joined the ranks of the rebels. Only as a result of betrayal was the monastery captured; of its 500 defenders, only 60 remained alive.
In general, popular uprisings of the 17th century. had a dual significance for the development of the country. Firstly, they partly played the role of limiting the exploitation and abuse of authorities. And secondly, they further pushed for centralization and strengthening of the state apparatus.
Evolution of the state-political system. The beginning of the reign of the Romanov dynasty was the heyday of the class-representative monarchy. Under the young king Mikhail Fedorovich(1613-1645) the Boyar Duma seized power into its own hands, in which the relatives of the new tsar - the Romanovs, Cherkasskys, Saltykovs - played a significant role.
However, to strengthen centralized power in the state, the constant support of the nobility and the top of the urban settlement was required. Therefore, the Zemsky Sobor met almost continuously from 1613 to 1619. The role and competence of the Zemsky Sobors undoubtedly increased (under Tsar Michael the cathedral met at least 10 times), the elected element gained numerical dominance over the official ones. Nevertheless, the cathedrals still did not have independent political significance, therefore it is hardly appropriate to assert that in Russia there was a classical estate-representative monarchy of the Western model, even in relation to the 17th century, but we can talk about the elements of estate representation: Zemsky Sobor And Boyar Duma.
The point is that active work Zemsky Sobors was due to the temporary need of the new government to overcome the consequences of the Troubles. Those elected at the council were, as a rule, only required to express their opinion on a particular issue; it was the prerogative of the supreme authority to decide. The composition of the cathedral was changeable and lacked a stable organization, so it cannot be called an all-class body. Gradually, by the end of the 17th century. cathedral activities ceased.
In 1619, the father of Tsar Michael returned from Polish captivity Filaret (Fedor Nikitovich Romanov), at one time a real contender for the royal throne. In Moscow, he accepted the patriarchal rank with the title of “great sovereign” and became the de facto ruler of the state until his death in 1633.
The new Moscow government, in which the Tsar’s father, Patriarch Filaret, played a primary role, restoring the state after the Time of Troubles, was guided by the principle: everything should be as of old. The ideas of an electoral and limited monarchy, which matured in the era of unrest, did not take deep roots. To calm society and overcome devastation, conservative policies were necessary, but the Troubles introduced social life There were many such changes that, in fact, government policy turned out to be reformist (S. F. Platonov).
Measures are being taken to strengthen the autocracy. Huge lands and entire cities are transferred to large secular and spiritual landowners. Most of the estates of the middle nobility are transferred to the category of estates, new land plots are “complained” “for the service” of the new dynasty.
Changing appearance and meaning Boyar Duma. Due to the Duma nobles and clerks, its number increases from 35 people in the 30s. to 94 by the end of the century. Power is concentrated in the hands of the so-called Middle Duma, which at that time consisted of four boyars related to the tsar by family ties (I. N. Romanov, I. B. Cherkassky, M. B. Shein, B. M. Lykov). In 1625, a new state seal was introduced, and the word “autocrat” was included in the royal title.
With the limitation of the powers of the Boyar Duma, the importance of orders - their number constantly grew and at times reached fifty. The most important of them were the Local, Ambassadorial, Discharge, order of the Big Treasury, etc. Gradually, the practice of subordinating several orders to one government person in the state was established - in fact head of government. Thus, under Mikhail Fedorovich, the orders of the Great Treasury, Streletsky, Inozemny and Aptekarsky were in charge of the boyar I.B. Cherkassky, and from 1642 he was replaced by Romanov’s relative, F.I. Sheremetyev. Under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, these orders were administered first by B.I. Morozov, then by I.D. Miloslavsky, the Tsar’s father-in-law.
IN local or management changes occurred that testified to the strengthening of the centralization principle: zemstvo elected bodies, which appeared in the middle of the 16th century, began to be gradually replaced by stricter control from the center through voivode In general, a rather contradictory picture emerged: while the zemstvo electors were called upon from the districts to decide issues of higher government alongside the boyars and metropolitan nobles, the district voters were given over to the power of these boyars and nobles (voevoda) (V. O. Klyuchevsky).
Under Filaret, she restored her shaky position church. With a special letter, the tsar transferred into the hands of the patriarch the trial of the clergy and monastery peasants. The land holdings of the monasteries expanded. Patriarchal judicial and administrative-financial orders appeared. The Patriarchal court was structured according to the royal model.
Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov died in June 1645. The issue of succession to the throne had to be decided by the Zemsky Sobor, because in 1613 it was not the Romanov dynasty that was elected to the kingdom, but Mikhail personally. According to the old Moscow tradition, the crown was given to the son of Mikhail Fedorovich Alexey, who was 16 years old at the time. The Zemsky Sobor took him to the throne. Unlike his father, Alexey did not undertake any written obligations to the boyars, and formally nothing limited his power.
Into Russian history ALexey Mikhailovich Romanov(1645-1676) entered as Ageksey the Quiet. Gregory Kotoshikhln called Alexei “much quiet,” and the foreigner Augustin Mayerberg was surprised that the tsar, “who had unlimited power over a people accustomed to complete slavery, did not encroach on anyone’s honor and property.”
The point, of course, was not only the balanced character of Alexei the Quiet. By the middle of the 15th century. the centralization of the Russian state increased noticeably. After the shocks of the Time of Troubles, central and local authorities had already been restored, and extreme measures were not required to govern the country.
Alexei Mikhailovich's domestic policy reflected the dual nature of his time. The quiet king wanted to observe the customs of Old Moscow Russia. But, seeing the successes of Western European countries, he simultaneously sought to adopt their achievements. Russia balanced between paternal antiquity and European innovations. Unlike his decisive son, Peter the Great, Alexei the Quiet did not carry out reforms that would break “Moscow piety” in the name of Europeanization. Descendants and historians assessed this differently: some were indignant at the “weak Alexei,” others saw in him the “true wisdom of the ruler.”
Tsar Alexei strongly encouraged reformers such as A. P. Ordin-Nashchokin, F. M. Rtishchev, Patriarch Nikon, A. S. Matveev and etc.
In the first years of Alexei's reign, the Tsar's educator enjoyed special influence. Boris Ivanovich Morozov. A powerful and intelligent man, Morozov promoted the penetration of European achievements into Russia, encouraged the printing of translations and European books in every possible way, invited foreign doctors and craftsmen to the Moscow service, and loved theatrical performances. Not without his participation, the reorganization of the Russian army began. The noble cavalry and people's militia were gradually replaced regiments of the new formation- a regular army, trained and equipped in a European manner.
One of the main achievements of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich was the adoption Cathedral Code(1649). This is grandiose for the 17th century. code of laws for a long time played the role of the All-Russian Legal Code. Attempts to adopt a new Code were made under Peter I and Catherine II, but both times were unsuccessful.
Compared to its predecessor - the Code of Law of Ivan the Terrible (1550), the Council Code, in addition to criminal law, also includes state and civil law, therefore it is therefore not
What is surprising is not only the completeness, but also the speed of adoption of the code. This entire extensive vault in the project was developed by a commission of the prince specially created by royal decree Nikita Ivanovich Odoevsky, then discussed at a specially convened Zemsky Sobor in 1648, corrected on many articles, and adopted on January 29. Thus, all discussion and acceptance
The code of almost 1000 articles took only a little more than six months - an unprecedentedly short period even for a modern parliament!
The reasons for such rapid adoption of new laws were as follows.
Firstly, the very alarming atmosphere of that time in Russian life forced the Zemsky Sobor to hurry. Popular uprisings in 1648 in Moscow and other cities forced the government and elected representatives to improve the affairs of the court and legislation.
Secondly, since the time of the Code of Law of 1550, many private decrees have been adopted for various cases. Decrees were collected in orders, each with its own type of activity, and then recorded in Decree books. These latter were guided by the clerks along with the Code of Law in administrative and judicial matters.
Over the course of a hundred years, a great many legal provisions have accumulated, scattered under different orders, sometimes contradicting each other. This complicated the administration of the order and gave rise to a lot of abuses from which the petitioners suffered. It was required, according to the successful formulation of S. F. Platonov, “instead of a mass of separate laws, to have one code.” Thus, the reason that stimulated legislative activity was the need to systematize and codify laws.
Thirdly, too much has changed and moved in Russian society after the Time of Troubles. Therefore, not a simple update was required, but legislative reform, bringing it into line with new living conditions.
Cathedral Code examined public service and public life in the following main areas:
- interpreted royal power as the power of God's anointed;
- first introduced the concept of “state crime.” Such
all acts directed against the king and his family were announced, criticism
government. The death penalty was imposed for a state crime
(the theft of the sovereign's property was punished just as severely); - provided for punishment for crimes against the church and the patriarch;
- regulated relations between the population and local authorities through many articles. Disobedience to authorities was punishable, but punishments were also imposed for
governor and other officials for extortion, bribes and other abuses; - attached townspeople to the suburb; ,
- imposed a tax on “white landowners” - residents of settlements owned by monasteries and private individuals;
- protected the interests of rich townspeople - merchants, guests (merchants) - by declaring severe punishments for encroaching on their
goodness, honor and life; - announced an “indefinite” search for peasants and their return to their estates.
Thus, the final step was taken - serfdom became complete. True, the custom was still in force - “there is no extradition from the Don.” It could be
hide in Siberia, from where neither the government nor the owners had the opportunity to return the fugitive.
A legislative monument that surpassed the Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in completeness and legal elaboration - Code of Laws Russian Empire in 15 volumes - appeared only in 1832 under Nicholas I. And before that, the Code remained a code of Russian laws for almost two centuries.
The monarchy of Alexei Mikhailovich still retained the features of an estate-representative one, but the autocratic power of the tsar increased. After the council of 1654, which decided the issue of reunification with Ukraine, Zemsky Sobors did not meet until the end of Alexei’s reign. The system of government bodies with orders and the Boyar Duma that had developed under the last Rurikovichs remained unshakable. But partial changes took place in it, which contributed to greater centralization and the creation of a complex state administrative apparatus with a huge number of officials - clerks and clerks.
Separated from the Boyar Duma Neighborhood Council And execution chamber, resolving current judicial and administrative cases.
Not wanting to completely depend on the Boyar Duma and the leadership of the orders, Alexei Mikhailovich created a kind of personal office - Order of secret affairs(he stood above everyone else, since he could interfere in the affairs of all government institutions).
Localism gradually became a thing of the past. Increasingly, “thin people” were appointed to important government positions.
Thus, in the second half of the 17th century. the formation of basic elements begins absolute monarchy. Absolutism- a form of government when legislative, executive and judicial power is completely concentrated in the hands of the monarch, and the latter relies on a ramified bureaucratic apparatus appointed and controlled exclusively by him. An absolute monarchy presupposes the centralization and regulation of state and local government, the presence of a permanent army and security service, and a developed financial system controlled by the monarch.
After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich in 1676, his eldest son became king Fedor- a sickly boy of 14 years old. In fact, his maternal relatives seized power Miloslavsky And sister Sophia, characterized by strong will and energy. Ruling circle under the princess it was headed by an intelligent and talented prince V.V. Golitsyn - favorite of the princess. The course towards the rise of the nobility and the creation of conditions for the merger of the nobility and boyars into a single class was continued. A strong blow to the class privileges of the aristocracy, in order to weaken its influence, was dealt in 1682 with the abolition of localism. Now, when making official appointments, the principle of personal merit came to the fore.
With the death of the childless Fyodor Alekseevich in 1682, the question arose about the heir to the throne. Of his two brothers, the weak-minded Ivan could not occupy the throne, but Petru- the son from his second marriage turned 10 years old. At court, a struggle broke out between the relatives of the princes on the side of their mothers.
Behind Ivan stood Miloslavsky led by Princess Sophia, followed by Peter - Naryshkins, who were supported by Patriarch Jokim, who replaced Nikon. At a meeting of the Consecrated Council and the Boyar Duma, Peter was proclaimed tsar. However, on May 15, 1682, the Streltsy rebelled in Moscow, incited by the head of the Streletsky Prikaz, Prince I. A. Khovansky. All prominent supporters of the Naryshkins were killed. At the request of the archers, both princes were placed on the throne, and Princess Sophia became their ruler. With the coming of age of Peter in the summer of 1689, Sophia's regency lost its foundation. Not wanting to voluntarily give up power, Sophia, relying on her protege, the head of the Streletsky order F. Shaklovity, expected support from the Streltsy, but her hopes were not justified. palace coup failed. Sophia was deprived of power and imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent, her closest supporters were executed or exiled.
In general, at the end of the 17th century. the country was on the verge of decisive changes, already prepared by previous developments. The overdue reforms could be carried out by reducing state pressure on society while simultaneously encouraging private initiative and gradually weakening class unfreedom. Such a path would be a continuation of the reform activities of A.P. Ordin-Nashchokin and V.V. Golitsyn. The other path assumed an even greater tightening of the regime, an extreme degree of concentration of power, strengthening of serfdom and - as a result of an excessive strain of forces - a reformation breakthrough. The traditions of despotic state power in Russia and the character of the reformer who appeared at the end of the century made the second option more likely.
Russian foreign policy. Development of Siberia and the Far East. Russian foreign policy during the 17th century. was aimed at solving the following problems:
- achieving access to the Baltic Sea;
- ensuring the security of the southern borders from Crimean raids
khanates; - the return of territories seized during the Time of Troubles;
- development of Siberia and the Far East.
For a long time, the main knot of contradictions was relations between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The efforts of the government of Patriarch Filaret in the 20s and early 30s. were aimed at creating an anti-Polish coalition consisting of Sweden, Russia and Turkey. The course for war with Poland, proclaimed by the Zemsky Sobor in 1622, was expressed for 10 years in economic assistance to the opponents of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Denmark and Sweden. In June 1634, an agreement was signed between Russia and Poland Polyanovsky world.
In 1648, the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people against the Polish lords began under the leadership B. Khmelnitsky. The Zemsky Sobor in 1653 decides to reunite Ukraine with Russia. In its turn Pereyaslav Rada in 1654 unanimously supported the entry of Ukraine into Russia. The outbreak of war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth lasted 13 years, from 1654 to 1667, and ended with the signing Truce of Andrusovo(1667),
the terms of which were fixed in 1686 "The World of War". The Smolensk region, Left Bank Ukraine and Kiev were ceded to Russia. Belarus remained part of Poland. In addition, the agreement provided for joint actions of Russia and Poland against possible Turkish-Crimean aggression.
From 1656 to 1658 it was war between Russia and Sweden. Russia's attempt to seize the coast of the Gulf of Finland ended unsuccessfully. In 1661 it was signed World of Kardas along which the entire coast remained with Sweden.
In 1677 the Russian-Turkish-Crimean war began, ending in 1681 Bakhchisarai truce, under the terms of which Turkey recognized Russia’s rights to Kyiv (not long before, Turkey managed to recapture Podolia from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and it began to lay claim to Right Bank Ukraine). In 1687 and 1689 Prince V.V. Golitsyn led the campaigns to the Crimea, but both ended unsuccessfully.
Thus, Russia was never able to gain access to the seas, and in this regard its foreign policy tasks remained the same. The Crimean campaigns did not bring Russia any major military successes or territorial transformations. However, the main task "Holy League"(Austria, Poland, Russia - 1684) was fulfilled - Russian troops blocked the forces of the Crimean Khan, who was unable to provide assistance to the Turkish troops, who were defeated by the Austrians and Venetians. In addition, the inclusion of Russia for the first time in the European military alliance significantly increased its international prestige.
Among the successes of Russian foreign policy are development of Siberia and the Far East. In the 16th century Russian people conquered Western Siberia, and by the middle of the 16th century. conquered a significant part of Eastern Siberia. A gigantic space from the Yenisei to Sea of Okhotsk was “passed” by the pioneer Cossacks in 20 years.
From the interfluve of the Ob and Yenisei, Russian explorers moved southeast to the Baikal region, to the Amur and southern Far Eastern lands, as well as to the east and northeast to the Lena River basin - to Yakutia, Chukotka and Kamchatka.
Between the Ob, Yenisei and Lower Tunguska in those days they lived Nenets(which the Russians called Samoyeds), Khanty (Ostyaks), Mansi (Voguls) And Evenks (Tungus). These peoples began to pay tribute to Russia.
Since 1632, Russia began to pay yasak Yakutia, conquered with the help of arquebuses and cannons. Russian Cossacks who founded Yakutsk, became the new masters of the region.
Buryat tribes became part of Russia in the early 50s. XVII century The main city of the Baikal region, where the Buryat tribute was brought, was built in 1652. Irkutsk The capital of all Russian possessions in Western and Eastern Siberia remained Tobolsk
The establishment of Russians in the middle of the century on the Lena River and in the Baikal region opened up the possibility of movement of pioneers and settlers further to the east, northeast and southeast (expeditions S. I. Dezhneva to Chukotka, E. P. Khabarova in the Amur region). The Amur region became part of Russia, which displeased the rulers of Manchuria. Treaty of Nerchinsk 1689 established the border between the possessions of China and Russia along the Amur and its tributaries.
Moscow established its power in Siberia quite firmly. Siberia, according to the historian A. A. Zimin, was a kind of valve into which the forces of an unreconciled and unconquered people went. Not only merchants and service people flocked here, but also runaway slaves, peasants, and townspeople. There were no landowners or serfdom here. Tax oppression in Siberia was milder than in the center of Russia.
Russian settlers received bread, gunpowder, lead and other aid from the governors appointed by the tsar and maintained order. The settlers paid taxes to the treasury, and the indigenous people paid a fur tribute. And it was not in vain that Moscow encouraged the work of explorers and industrialists: in the 17th century. income from Siberian furs accounted for a quarter of all government revenues.
Church reform. The Russian Orthodox Church occupies a significant place in the history of the Russian state. Orthodoxy determined the ethnic self-awareness of the Russian people during the struggle against the Mongol-Tatar yoke, which, together with the all-Russian church organization and along with socio-economic factors, contributed to the political unification of the lands and the creation of a single Moscow state.
In the XVI-XVII centuries. the church, relying on the state, suppressed numerous heresies that penetrated into the upper layers of the administrative apparatus and had a fairly broad social base. In historical science, this struggle was seen as the suppression of free thought, currents of social thought similar to the Western Reformation. Church history interprets the defeat of heresies as a defense of faith, the Orthodox identity of the Russian people and Russian statehood, and the scope and cruelty of the fight against heresies in Russia exceeded the activities of the Inquisition or Protestant churches.
The church and monasteries had significant economic power, a developed and efficient economy, and were cultural centers. Monasteries were often built in strategically important places and were of great importance in the defense of the country. The church was able to exhibit up to 20 thousand. warriors These circumstances created the material basis for the authority of the church (a kind of state within the state), which, nevertheless, was not used in opposition to secular power.
The consecrated cathedral, as a body of church government, took an active part in the work of Zemsky Sobors. During the Time of Troubles, the patriarchate (established in 1589), despite some hesitations, played a big role in the fight against impostors and the Polish-Swedish intervention (the tragic fate of Patriarch Hermogenes, the death of monks while defending Orthodox shrines, material support for the militia, etc. ). Patriarch Filaret actually ruled Russia, being a co-ruler of Tsar Mikhail Romanovich, strengthened the autocracy and a new dynasty, on the one hand, and the role of the church, on the other.
In the middle of the 17th century. a reorientation begins in the relationship between church and state. Researchers assess its causes differently. In historical literature, the prevailing point of view is that the process of formation of absolutism inevitably led to the deprivation of the church of its feudal privileges and subordination to the state. The reason for this was the attempt of Patriarch Nikon to place spiritual power above secular power. Church historians deny this position of the patriarch, considering Nikon a consistent ideologist "symphonies of power". They see the initiative in abandoning this theory in the activities of the tsarist administration and the influence of Protestant ideas.
An important fact of Russian history of the 17th century. was church schism,
resulting from church reform Patriarch Nikon.
There are two main traditions in understanding schism in literature. Some scientists - A. P. Shchapov, N. A. Aristov, V. B. Andreev, N. I. Kostomarov - are inclined to see in him socio-political movement in religious form.
Other researchers see the schism and Old Believers primarily as religious-church phenomenon. Among historians, such an understanding of the schism is typical for S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky, E. E. Golubinsky, A. V. Kartashev, among Russian thinkers - for V. S. Solovyov, V. V. Rozanov, N. A. Berdyaev, Archpriest Georgy Florovsky. Modern researchers A.P. Bogdanov, V.I. Buganov, S.V. Bushuev do not deny socio-political aspirations, but consider them not the main and determining ones, but subordinate to the topic of schism.
Reasons for carrying out church reform:
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church reform was dictated by the need to strengthen discipline, order, and moral principles of the clergy;
- the introduction of identical church rituals throughout the Orthodox world was required;
- the spread of printing opened up the possibility of unifying church books.
At the end of the 40s. XVII century In Moscow, a circle of zealots of ancient piety was formed. It included prominent church figures: the royal confessor Stefan Vonifatiev, the rector of the Kazan Cathedral on Red Square John, the royal bed-guard F. Rtishchev, outstanding church leaders from Nizhny Novgorod Nikon and Avvakum, etc.
Son of a Mordovian peasant Nikon(in the world Nikita Minov) made a rapid career. Having taken monastic vows on the Solovetsky Islands, Nikon soon became the abbot (head) of the Kozheozersky monastery (Kargopol region). Nikon had an acquaintance and friendship with Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, whose support he enjoyed for a long time. Nikon becomes archimandrite of the Moscow Novospassky Monastery - the family tomb of the Romanovs. After a short stay as Metropolitan of Novgorod (just during the Novgorod uprising of 1650), Nikon was elected Moscow Patriarch in 1652.
It was Patriarch Nikon who began the reform to unify rituals and establish uniformity in church services. Greek rules and rituals were taken as a model.
The most significant of the innovations adopted by Patriarch Nikon and the church council in 1654 were the replacement of baptism with two fingers with three fingers, pronouncing the praise to God “Hallelujah” not twice, but three times, and moving around the lectern in the church not in the direction of the Sun, but against it.
Then the patriarch attacked the icon painters who began to use Western European painting techniques. In addition, following the example of the Eastern clergy, churches began to read sermons of their own composition. Here the tone was set by the patriarch himself. Russian handwritten and printed liturgical books were ordered to be taken to Moscow for viewing. If discrepancies with the Greek ones were found, the books were destroyed, replaced by printing and sending out new ones. And although all the changes were purely external and did not affect the Orthodox doctrine, they were perceived as an attack on the faith itself, because they violated traditions (the faith of the fathers and their ancestors).
Nikon fought against innovations, but it was his reforms that were perceived by part of the Moscow people as innovations that encroached on faith. The church split into Nikonians(the church hierarchy and most of the believers who are accustomed to obey) and Old Believers.
Archpriest becomes an active opponent of Nikon and one of the founders of the Old Believer movement Habakkuk- one of the most prominent personalities in Russian history. A man of enormous spiritual strength, which fully manifested itself during his persecution, from childhood he was accustomed to asceticism and mortification of the flesh. He considered aversion from the world and the desire for holiness to be so natural for a person that he could not get along in any parish because of his tireless pursuit of worldly pleasures and deviations from the customs of the church. Many considered him a saint and miracle worker. He participated with Nikon in correcting liturgical books, but was soon removed due to ignorance of the Greek language.
Adherents of the old faith - the Old Believers - saved and hid the “wrong” liturgical books. Secular and spiritual authorities persecuted them. From persecution, zealots of the old faith fled to the forests, united into communities, and founded monasteries in the wilderness. The Solovetsky Monastery, which did not recognize Nikonianism, was under siege from 1668 to 1676, until the governor Meshcheryakov took it and hanged all the rebels (out of 600 people, 50 remained alive).
Leaders of the Old Believers, archpriests Habakkuk and Daniel They wrote petitions to the Tsar, but, seeing that Alexei did not defend the “old times,” they announced the imminent arrival of the end of the world, because the Antichrist had appeared in Russia. The king and the patriarch are “his two horns.” Only the martyrs - the defenders of the old faith - will be saved. The preaching of “purification by fire” was born. The schismatics locked themselves in churches and burned themselves alive.
The Old Believers did not disagree with the Orthodox Church on any point dogma(the main tenet of the doctrine), but only in some rituals that Nikon abolished, therefore they were not heretics, but only schismatics.
The schism united a variety of social forces that advocated preserving the integrity of the traditions of Russian culture. There were princes and boyars, such as noblewoman F.P. Morozova and princess E.P. Urusova, monks and white clergy who refused to perform the new rituals. But there were especially many ordinary people: townspeople, archers, peasants, who saw in the preservation of old rituals a way of fighting for the ancient folk ideals of “pride” and “freedom”. The most radical step of the Old Believers was the decision taken in 1674 to stop praying for the health of the Tsar. This meant a complete break between the Old Believers and the existing society, the beginning of the struggle to preserve the ideal of “truth” within their communities.
Holy Cathedral 1666-1667 He cursed the schismatics for their disobedience. The zealots of the old faith ceased to recognize the church that excommunicated them. The split has not been overcome to this day.
The leaders of the Old Believers, Avvakum and his associates, were exiled to Pustoozersk, in the lower reaches of Pechora, and spent 14 years in an earthen prison, after which they were burned alive. Since then, Old Believers often subjected themselves to “fiery baptism” - self-immolation.
The fate of the main enemy of the Old Believers, Patriarch Nikon, was also tragic. Having achieved the title of “great sovereign”, His Holiness Patriarch clearly overestimated his strength. In 1658, he defiantly left the capital, declaring that he did not want to be a patriarch in Moscow, but would remain the patriarch of Rus'.
In 1666, a church council with the participation of the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, who had powers from two other Orthodox patriarchs - Constantinople and Jerusalem, removed Nikon from the post of patriarch. The place of his exile was the famous Ferapontov Monastery near Vologda. After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, Nikon returned from exile and died (1681) near Yaroslavl. He is buried in the Resurrection New Jerusalem Monastery near Moscow (Istra).
Thus, church reform and schism were a major social and spiritual revolution, which not only reflected trends towards centralization and a certain unification of church life, but also entailed significant sociocultural consequences. It stirred the consciousness of millions of people, forcing them to doubt the legitimacy of the existing world order, and created a split between the official secular and spiritual authorities and a significant part of society. Having violated some traditional foundations of spiritual life, the schism gave impetus to social thought and prepared the way for future transformations.
In addition, the church schism, which weakened the church in the 15th century, served as a prerequisite for the subsequent subordination of the church to state power, turning it into an ideological appendage of absolutism.
Mercantilism- economic policy early capitalism (the era of the so-called primitive accumulation of capital), expressed in the active intervention of the state in economic life. It consists of protectionism, encouraging the development of domestic industry, especially manufacturing, and supporting the expansion of commercial capital.
Morozov Boris Ivanovich(1590-1661) - boyar, statesman, in the middle of the 17th century. headed the Russian government.
"Symphony of Power" - Byzantine-Orthodox theory, which assumed a dual unity of independently existing secular and ecclesiastical authorities, but jointly defending Orthodox values.
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The reign of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (1613-1645)
On July 11, 1613, the first Russian tsar from the Romanov dynasty, Mikhail Fedorovich, was crowned king. In the conditions of a devastated country, the young and inexperienced king needed support. The first ten years of his reign, Zemsky Councils met almost continuously, where the decisive role was played by the tsar's mother and his maternal relatives - the Saltykov boyars. Since 1619, the tsar’s father, Patriarch Filaret, who had returned from Polish captivity, became the de facto ruler of Russia with the title “great sovereign.” The main content of domestic policy in these years was the strengthening of the principles of autocracy. To this end, the authorities took the following measures:
The transfer of large lands and cities into the possession of secular and church landowners was widely practiced.
The nobility received land and privileges as a reward for their service.
There was a process of further assigning peasants to their owners.
The social composition of the Boyar Duma expanded: the representation of nobles in it increased due to the granting of the ranks of Duma nobles and clerks to them.
At the same time, the circle of people who had real power was narrowing: the Near Duma was created from four boyars - relatives of the tsar.
There was an increase in the number of orders.
Changes in the local government system also served to strengthen the centralization of the state - gradually power was concentrated in the hands of the governor. The introduction of a new state seal and the inclusion of the concept of “autocrat” (1625) in the royal title were supposed to increase the authority of the central government. After the defeat of Russian troops near Smolensk (1634), the government of Mikhail Fedorovich conceived a military reform. The formation of infantry and cavalry formations began according to Western European models. These units - “regiments of the new system” - were armed with Western weapons and acted according to the tactical methods accepted at that time in Western European countries. In Moscow, the number of foreigners invited to Russian service increased significantly: mercenary officers, artisans, doctors; A special German settlement arose outside the city limits.
Signs of an absolute monarchy.
The main trend in the internal political development of Russia in the 17th century. was the formation of absolutism - a form of government in which power belongs entirely to the monarch; public participation in legislation and control over the governance of the country is minimal or non-existent.
Signs of the beginning of the formation of absolutism in Russia:
The decline of the role of Zemsky Sobors.
The decline of the role of the Boyar Duma and the expansion of its social composition at the expense of the nobility and merchants.
Growth of the state apparatus and bureaucracy.
Replacement of locally elected zemstvo bodies with appointed governors.
Increasing the number of standing army (“regiments of the new system”).
According to many historians, the 17th century is the first stage in the formation of absolutism in Russia. An absolute monarch rules based on a bureaucratic apparatus, a standing army, and the church as an ideological force is subordinate to him. However, the absolute monarchy that developed in Russia, due to specific historical conditions, was quite effective. Therefore, already at the end of the 17th century. There was an urgent need to reform public administration institutions.
Control system
At the initiative of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, changes in the management system continued:
An order of Secret Affairs was created, personally subordinate to the king, and an Accounting Order that united the financial management of the country;
From ser. 50s of the 17th century. By recruiting peasants and townspeople, “regiments of the new system” were formed (according to Western European models), while the importance and number of noble cavalry decreased.
In the 17th century The power and influence of orders - institutions involved in solving military, financial, land and foreign policy problems - increased.
Reign of Alexei Mikhailovich. (1645-1678)
Alexei Mikhailovich ascended the throne as a sixteen-year-old youth. He was a fairly well-educated, well-read man, distinguished by good health, a calm, cheerful character and unfeigned piety. For his gentle disposition he was nicknamed the Quietest.
Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov became the Russian Tsar at a difficult time (Diagram 82). The Troubles led Russia to complete economic collapse. Political stability was not immediately established; the system of government in the center and locally was destroyed. The main tasks of the young king were to achieve reconciliation in the country, overcome economic devastation and streamline the management system. The first six years of his reign, Mikhail ruled, relying on the Boyar Duma and Zemsky Councils. The latter actually did not stop working from 1613 to 1619. In 1619, the Tsar’s father Fyodor Nikitich (in monasticism Filaret) Romanov returned from Polish captivity. Filaret, who accepted the patriarchal rank, actually ruled the country until his death in 1633. In 1645, Mikhail Romanov also died. His son Alexei Mikhailovich became the Russian Tsar (diagram 83).
By the middle of the century, economic devastation had been overcome. Economic development of Russia in the 17th century. characterized by a number of new phenomena in economic life (Diagram 84). The craft gradually developed into small-scale production. More and more products were produced not to order, but for the market. Economic specialization of individual regions took place. In Tula and Kashira, for example, metal products were produced. The Volga region specialized in leather processing. Novgorod and Pskov were centers of flax production. The best jewelry was created in Novgorod, Tikhvin and Moscow. In the same era, centers of artistic crafts began to emerge (Khokhloma, Palekh, etc.).
The development of commodity production led to the emergence of manufactories. They were divided into state-owned ones, i.e. state-owned (for example, the Armory Chamber), and privately owned. The latter arose mainly in metallurgy. Such enterprises were located in Tula, Kashira and the Urals. The growth of productive forces contributed to the development of trade and the emergence of an all-Russian market. Two large all-Russian fairs arose: Makaryevskaya on the Volga and Irbitskaya in the Urals.
In the 17th century final legal registration took place in Russia serfdom. By this term, historians understand the most severe form of peasant dependence on the landowner, whose power extended to the person, labor and property of the peasants belonging to him.
In historical literature, there are two main concepts of enslavement of the Russian peasantry. According to the concept of "mandatory" enslavement, serfdom was introduced at the initiative of the state authorities to maintain the country's defense capability and ensure the service class. This point of view was shared by historians N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Soloviev, N.I. Kostomarov, S.B. Veselovsky and B.D. Grekov, as well as modern historian R.G Skrynnikov. In the works of V.O. Klyuchevsky, M.P. Pogodin and M.A. Dyakonov defends the “undecided” concept, according to which serfdom was a consequence of the real living conditions of the country, only legally formalized by the state (Diagram 86).
In 1649, the Council Code was adopted - a code of domestic feudal law that regulated relations in the main spheres of social life (Diagram 87). In July 1648, the Zemsky Sobor considered the petition of servicemen and merchants for the adoption of a new code of laws. To develop it, a special commission was created headed by boyar N.I. Odoevsky. Already in the fall of the same year, the draft Code was presented to the tsar. At the beginning of 1649, the Code was approved by the Zemsky Sobor. Soon it was published in a circulation of 1,200 copies. The Code is divided into chapters, and chapters into articles. In total, the Council Code contains 25 chapters and 967 articles.
The code of laws begins with the chapter “On blasphemers and church rebels,” which prescribes that any blasphemy, heresy, or rebellion against church authorities should be punished by burning at the stake. The next two chapters regulate the status of the king. The very title of one of them is indicative: “On the sovereign’s honor and how to protect his sovereign’s health.” The Council Code prescribes cruel punishments not only for rebellion against the Tsar or insulting the head of state, but even for fights and riots in the Tsar’s court. Thus, the legislative consolidation of the absolute monarchy took place.
The Council Code formalizes the social structure of society, since it regulates the rights and responsibilities of all classes. The most important chapter was Chapter 11, “The Court of Peasants.” It was in it that the indefinite search for fugitive peasants was indicated, which finally consolidated serfdom. According to the Council Code, city residents were assigned to their place of residence and "tax", i.e. carrying out government duties. A significant part of the Code is devoted to the procedure of legal proceedings and criminal law. Laws of the 17th century look too harsh. Legal historians have counted 60 crimes for which the death penalty is provided for in the Council Code. The Code also regulates the procedure for military service, travel to other states, customs policy, etc.
Political development of Russia in the 17th century. characterized by the evolution of the state system: from estate-representative monarchy to absolutism. A special place in the system of class-representative monarchy was occupied by Zemsky Sobors (Diagram 88). The Zemsky Sobor included the highest clergy (the “consecrated cathedral”), the Boyar Duma and the elected part (the “curia”). The elected delegates of the Council represented the Moscow nobles, the administration of the orders, the district nobility, the top of the "tyaglovy" settlements of the Moscow suburb, as well as the Cossacks and Streltsy ("service people according to the apparatus"). The black-nosed peasants were represented only once - at the Zemsky Sobor in 1613.
As already indicated, the first Zemsky Sobor in the history of Russia was convened by Ivan IV in 1549 (Cathedral of Reconciliation) (Diagram 89). Cathedrals of the 16th century resolved questions about continuation Livonian War and the election of a king. A special role in Russian history was played by the Council of 1613, which elected Mikhail Romanov to the throne. In the first years of the reign of the young tsar, the Zemsky Sobors worked almost continuously and helped Michael in governing the state. After the return of Mikhail Fedorovich Filaret Romanov's father from Polish captivity, the activities of the Councils became less active. Basically they resolved issues of war and peace. In 1649, the Zemsky Sobor adopted the Council Code. The last Zemsky Sobor, which worked in 1653, resolved the issue of reunification of Ukraine with Russia. Subsequently, zemstvo activity fades away. In the 1660-1680s. Numerous class commissions were assembled. All of them were predominantly boyars. The end of the work of the Zemsky Sobors actually meant the completion of the transition from an estate-representative monarchy to absolutism.
The Boyar Duma retained a significant role in the system of state power and administration bodies. However, in the second half of the 17th century. its value falls. The so-called Near Duma, consisting of persons especially devoted to the tsar, stands out from the composition of the Duma.
High development in the 17th century. reaches the order control system (diagram 90). Permanent orders dealt with individual branches of public administration within the country or were in charge of individual territories. The defense of the country and the affairs of the service class were in charge of the discharge, streltsy, Pushkar, foreign and Reitar orders. The local order formalized land plots and conducted judicial investigations in land matters. The ambassadorial order carried out the foreign policy of the state. Along with permanent orders, temporary orders were also created. One of them was the order of secret affairs, led personally by Alexei Mikhailovich. The order was responsible for supervising the activities of higher government institutions and officials.
The main administrative-territorial unit of the state was the county. Local government system in the 17th century. was built not on the basis of elected bodies, but on the power of governors appointed from the center. Zemstvo and provincial elders were subordinate to them.
Social structure of Russian society in the 17th century. was deeply classed (diagram 91). The term "estate" means a social group that has rights and obligations enshrined in custom or law and inherited. The privileged class were secular and spiritual feudal lords. Secular feudal lords were divided into ranks. In the 17th century this concept reflected not so much official position as belonging to a certain group of the feudal class. Its top were the Duma ranks: boyars, okolnichy, there were Moscow ranks - officials, solicitors, Moscow nobles. They were followed by the lower categories of the privileged class - city officials. These included provincial nobles, who were called "children of the boyars."
The majority of the dependent population were peasants. Personally, free members of the community were called black-growing peasants. The rest of the peasants were either privately owned, i.e. belonging to landowners, or palace, or appanage, belonging to the royal family. Serfs were in the position of slaves. Residents of cities - artisans and merchants - were assigned to their duties. The richest merchants were called "guests". The dependent classes also included “service people according to the instrument”: archers, gunners and Cossacks.
The Time of Troubles has always caused controversy among historians. A number of researchers believe that some episodes of the Time of Troubles concealed opportunities for alternative development for Russia (for example, the beginnings of contractual relations between the tsar and his subjects when Vasily Shuisky and Prince Vladislav were called to the throne). Many historians point out that the national consolidation that made it possible to repel foreign invasions was achieved on a conservative basis, which long delayed the modernization the country desperately needed.
Socio-economic and political development of Russia under the first Romanovs
a) Socio-economic development
Agriculture
The events of the Time of Troubles led to the ruin and devastation of a large part of Russia, especially its central regions. Since the 20s. XVII century the process of economic restoration began. It was mostly restored by the 40s. XVII century However, this process proceeded at different rates in different regions of the country. The southern regions, where there were fertile lands, were restored faster. The economic recovery took place more slowly in the central regions of Russia, which suffered most during the Polish intervention and the peasant war. For example, in 14 central counties in the 70th year of the 17th century. plowed land accounted for 60% of previously cultivated land.
Agriculture remained the main sector of the Russian economy, where the three-field farming system continued to dominate. The main agricultural crops were rye and oats. Wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat, peas, and industrial crops such as flax and hemp were also grown. Gardening and horticulture developed. The main tools of labor remained the plow, harrow, sickle, and scythe; the plow was slowly introduced. In agriculture, land cultivation methods traditional for the previous time remained routine, but in the 17th century. in general, compared to the 16th century, more agricultural products were produced in Russia, primarily due to the development of new sown areas in the south of Russia, the Volga region, and Siberia. The development of the fishing industry is observed.
The farms of large patrimonies and monasteries were drawn into market relations. The intensive involvement of privately owned peasant farms in commodity production was hampered by their complete subordination to the power of feudal lords, the inability to freely dispose of their labor, and the growth of proprietary and state duties.
Craft and industry
In the 17th century The share of handicraft production in the country's economy increased. The division of labor deepened. The largest centers of handicraft production were Moscow, Ustyug Veliky, Yaroslavl, Novgorod, Tula and others. Handicraft centers in the 17th century. There were also some villages in which the peasants completely or partially broke with agriculture. For example, commercial and industrial villages in the Volga region - Pavlovo, Lyskovo, Murashkino.
In the development of handicraft production in the 17th century. there is a clear tendency to transform it into small-scale production. If earlier artisans mainly worked to order, then in the 17th century the number of artisans working for the market increased. During this period, commodity specialization of individual regions clearly began to manifest itself. Leather production was actively developing in Yaroslavl and Kazan, metal was brought from Tula and Ustyuzhna Zhelezopolskaya, metal products were brought from Ustyug and the Urals, flax was brought from Pskov and Rzhev, salt was brought from Totma and Staraya Rusa.
The development of small-scale crafts and the growth of commodity specialization prepared the ground for the emergence manufactory Their creation was accelerated by state needs. Manufacturing production took shape in places where commodity production developed. If Western European manufacturing operated on the basis of civilian labor, Russian manufacturing was based on the labor of serfs, since the market for civilian labor in Russia, where serfdom prevailed, was practically absent.
In the 17th century There were 30 manufactories in Russia. The first manufactory was created in 1631 in the Urals - the Nitsinsky copper smelter. The ironworks of Vinnius and Wilkinson operated near Tula. Several metallurgical plants built by S. Gavrilov operated in the Olonets region. Leather manufacturing developed in Yaroslavl and Kazan. The treasury owned manufactories - Coin, Printing, Khamovny (linen) yards.
Trade
In the 17th century Trade developed intensively in Russia. Several regional shopping centers were formed: Moscow, Ustyug Veliky, Yaroslavl, Vologda, Kostroma. The Volga was a busy trade artery, where the cities of Astrakhan, Kazan, and Nizhny Novgorod developed as large shopping centers. Fairs played a major role in the development of trade: Makaryevskaya, Svenskaya, Tikhvinskaya, Irbitskaya, Solvychegodskaya. The number of local rows and markets grew.
But there were significant obstacles to the development of trade and merchants. The issue of access to the seas was acute, the absence of which hampered the development of trade. Foreign capital sought to capture Russian markets, which led to a clash with the interests of Russian merchants. The Russian merchants demanded that the state protect them from competition with foreign traders. Trade charter 1653 established a single ruble duty for merchants and abolished a number of internal duties. In 1667 it was adopted New trading charter, according to which foreign merchants were prohibited from retail trade in Russia.
Thus, in the Russian economy of the 17th century. The feudal structure occupied a dominant position. At the same time, early bourgeois elements began to emerge in the country, which were subject to the deforming effects of the feudal system.
In Soviet historiography of the 17th century. was called the beginning new period of Russian history. To this time, a number of historians attribute the beginning of the decomposition of feudalism and the emergence in its depths of the capitalist structure of the economy. Issues related to the genesis of capitalism in Russia remain controversial. The question of whether the new phenomena in the country's economy were bourgeois in nature is controversial.
b)Popular movements. Approval of serfdom
Urban uprisings
The state was faced with the task of returning lands seized during the years of intervention. For this, funds were needed to maintain the army. The financial situation of the state was extremely difficult. The feudal state shifted the entire burden of eliminating the consequences of the intervention onto the masses. In addition to the land tax, they resorted to emergency monetary collections - “five-day money”, which were collected seven times from 1613 to 1633. The population resisted the collection of emergency taxes in every possible way. The heaviest direct tax on the maintenance of troops - "streltsy money" - has increased significantly.
Since each townsman community was given a total tax amount for the year, the city elite had the opportunity to shift the entire burden of the tax to ordinary townsman tax-payers. Large arrears arose, which the state extorted in 1646-1647. the most severe methods.
There was one more circumstance that worsened the situation of simple townsman tax-payers - the penetration of feudal land ownership into the cities. Settlements in cities that belonged to feudal lords were called white, and them the population was exempt from paying state taxes. Many posad drafters went to white settlements, fleeing from state taxes, and the share of taxes that fell on those who left was distributed to the remaining population. The townspeople demanded the destruction of white settlements. Contradictions between. the urban poor and feudal nobility, as well as the merchant elite adjacent to them, continuously increased.
This led to a series of urban uprisings.
Having failed to collect arrears of direct taxes in 1646, the government of boyar B.I. Morozov established an indirect tax on salt. The people were unable to buy salt at the new prices. Instead of replenishing the treasury, there was a reduction in cash income. In 1647 The state abolished the salt tax. Then Morozov, who was at the head of the government, tried to reduce monetary expenses by reducing the salaries of the archers, gunners, and order officials. This led to an unprecedented scale of bribery and embezzlement, dissatisfaction with the archers and gunners, who, in their position, were increasingly close to the townspeople's tax people.
The activities of the Morozov government caused powerful
urban uprisings. In 1648, uprisings occurred in Kozlov, Voronezh, Kursk, Solvychegodsk and a number of other cities. The most powerful uprising was in Moscow in the summer of 1648. The reason for the uprising was an attempt to file a petition demanding the liquidation of white settlements, protection from the unjust judges of the Zemsky Prikaz (Morozov and Pleshcheev), and a reduction in taxes. The people who tried to present the petition to the king were dispersed. The next day, the opposition of the boyars and officials surrounding the tsar embittered the settlement even more. The townspeople destroyed the palaces of Morozov, Pleshcheev, and the merchant Shorin. Streltsy joined the uprising. The rebels demanded the extradition of the hated boyars. The crowd tore Pleshcheyev to pieces on the spot. Morozov was exiled. The city fell into the hands of the rebels. Peasants from surrounding villages joined the uprising.
The nobles took advantage of the turbulent events of the June days to force the weakened government of the boyar aristocracy to satisfy their demands.
On June 10, a meeting of Moscow and provincial nobles and merchant elites took place. The meeting participants demanded the convening of a Zemsky Sobor to discuss the pressing problems of noble land ownership. Under the influence of a wave of urban uprisings, the government immediately agreed.
Cathedral Code 1649 G.
On September 1, 1648, the Zemsky Sobor began its work, and in January 1649 it adopted the Council Code.
The Council Code was serf-based in its content and reflected the victory of the nobility. This document proclaimed the abolition of “lesson years” and the establishment of an indefinite search for fugitive peasants and townspeople. Not only the peasant and his family, but also his property became the property of the feudal lord.
The Council Code completed the long process of the formation of serfdom, which went through a number of stages. Since the times of Kievan Rus, there have been various categories of unfree peasants (zakup, ryadovichi). Code of Law 1497 limited the transition of peasants to other lands to two weeks a year (before and after St. George’s Day), and introduced payment “for the elderly.” which the peasant, upon leaving, had to pay to the feudal lord. IN 1581 “reserved summers” were first introduced, when the transition was unconditionally prohibited. IN 1592 The compilation of scribe books was completed. IN1597 a five-year period was introduced for the search for peasants who fled after1592 city B 1607 a fifteen-year period of investigation was introduced. Finally, in1649 serfdom was finally formalized. As stated above, serfdom - This is the dependence of the peasant on the feudal lord (or on the feudal state) in personal, land, and property. in legal terms, based on the attachment of the peasant to the land.
The Code recognized the right of a nobleman to transfer an estate by inheritance, provided that his sons would serve like their father. Thus; two forms of feudal property - patrimony and estate - were moving closer together. Church land ownership was limited. The creation of the Monastic Order placed church land ownership under state control. White settlements were liquidated. Their population is obliged to pay taxes. Posad people are also attached to the community, like a peasant to a feudal lord. Service people according to the instrument - archers and others - were required to pay state taxes from their trades and trades.
The adoption of the Council Code, directed against the working people of the city and countryside, intensified the class struggle. In 1650, uprisings of citizens broke out in Pskov and Novgorod. The state needed funds to maintain the state apparatus and troops (Russia fought a war with Sweden in 1656-1661 and with Poland in 1654-1667). Up to 67% of government funds were spent on maintaining the troops. In an effort to increase treasury revenues, in 1654 the government began minting copper coins instead of silver coins at the same price. Over the course of eight years, so many of them (including fake ones) were produced that they simply became worthless. This led to rising prices. Silver money disappeared, and the state accepted taxes only with it. Arrears grew. Price gouging led to famine. The desperate townspeople of Moscow rebelled in 1662 (Copper Riot). The uprising was brutally suppressed, but copper money was no longer minted.
Peasant war led by Stepan Razin
The uprising of 1662 became one of the harbingers of the impending peasant war, led by Ataman S.T. Razin. The norms of the Council Code of 1649 sharply aggravated class antagonism in the village. The development of commodity-money relations led to increased feudal exploitation, which was expressed in the growth in the black soil regions of corvée and monetary dues in places where the land was infertile. The deterioration of the situation of peasants in the fertile lands of the Volga region, where land ownership of the Morozov, Mstislavsky, and Cherkasy boyars was growing rapidly, was felt with particular acuteness. The specificity of the Volga region was that there were lands nearby where the population had not yet experienced the full weight of feudal oppression. This is what attracted the Trans-Volga steppes and the Don to runaway slaves, peasants, and townspeople. The non-Russian population - Mordovians, Chuvash, Tatars, Bashkirs were under double oppression - feudal and national. All this created the preconditions for the development of a new peasant war in this area.
The driving forces of the peasant war were peasants, Cossacks, serfs, townspeople, archers, and non-Russian peoples of the Volga region. Razin’s “charming (from the word “to seduce”) letters” contained a call for a campaign against the boyars, nobles, and merchants. They were characterized by faith in a good king. Objectively, the demands of the rebel peasants boiled down to the creation of conditions in which peasant farming could develop as the main unit of agricultural production.
The harbinger of the peasant war was the campaign of Vasily Usa from the Don to Tula (May 1666). During its advance, the Cossack detachment was replenished with peasants who destroyed estates. The uprising covered the territories of Tula, Dedilovsky and other districts. The government urgently sent the noble militia against the rebels. The rebels retreated to the Don.
In 1667-1668. Cossack bastards, alien slaves and peasants made a campaign in Persia. It was called the “zipun trek.” The Don Golytba had made such attacks before, but this campaign amazes with its scope, thoroughness of preparation, duration and enormous success.
During the “campaign for zipuns,” the differences devastated not only the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea, defeated the Persian army and navy, but also opposed government troops. They defeated a detachment of Astrakhan archers, destroyed a caravan of ships belonging to the Tsar, the Patriarch, and the merchant Shorin. Thus, already in this campaign, features of social antagonism appeared, which led to the formation of the core of the future rebel army.
In the winter of 1669-1670. upon returning from the Caspian Sea to the Don, Razin is preparing for a second campaign, this time against the boyars, nobles, merchants, on a campaign for all the “rabble,” “for all the enslaved and disgraced.”
The campaign began in the spring of 1670. Vasily Us joined Razin with his detachment. Razin's army consisted of golutvenny Cossacks, runaway slaves and peasants, archers. The main goal of the campaign was to capture Moscow. The main route is the Volga. To carry out the campaign against Moscow, it was necessary to provide the rear - to take the government fortresses of Tsaritsyn and Astrakhan. During April-July the differences took hold of these cities. The courtyards of the boyars, nobles, and clerks were destroyed, and the archives of the voivod's court were burned. Cossack administration was introduced in cities.
Leaving a detachment led by Usa and Sheludyak in Astrakhan, Razin’s rebel detachments took Saransk and Penza. A campaign against Nizhny Novgorod was being prepared. The actions of peasant detachments turned the Volga region and surrounding areas into a hotbed of the anti-feudal movement. The movement spread to the Russian North (there were differences in Solovki), to Ukraine, where a detachment of Frol Razin was sent.
Only by exerting all its forces, by sending numerous regiments of government troops, did tsarism by the spring of 1671. was able to drown the peasant movement in the Volga region in blood. In April of the same year, Razin was defeated and was handed over to the government by the homely Cossacks. On June 6, 1671, Razin was executed in Moscow. But Razin's execution did not mean the end of the movement. Only in November 1671 government troops captured Astrakhan. In 1673-1675. Rebel detachments were still active on the Don, near Kozlov and Tambov.
The defeat of the peasant war led by Stepan Razin was predetermined by a number of reasons. The main one was that the peasant war was of a tsarist nature. The peasants believed in the “good king”, because due to their position they could not see the true reason for their
oppression and develop an ideology that would unite all oppressed sections of the population and raise their to fight the existing feudal system. Other reasons for the defeat were spontaneity and locality, weak weapons and poor organization of the rebels.
Schism in the Russian Orthodox Church
A church schism took on the character of a broad popular movement. In 1653, Patriarch Nikon, wanting to strengthen the position of the church, whose authority in the 17th century. fell
like never before, he began to carry out church reform. Its essence was the unification of the norms of church life and the Orthodox Church. The correction of the rituals of liturgical books according to Greek models violated the established traditional Russian forms of church rituals and caused discontent among part of the clergy and secular nobility. Archpriest Avvakum became the recognized leader of Nikon's opponents. The speeches of the zealots of the old faith found support in different layers of Russian society, which led to a movement called schism. The widespread participation of the peasantry and other sections of the exploited population in this movement gave it a social character. In their minds, the deterioration of the situation caused by the formalization of serfdom was associated with changes in faith. Speaking in defense of the old faith, the masses protested against increasing exploitation.
c) Domestic policy
Transition to absolutism
In the second half of the 17th century. in Russia there is a developing trend of transition from an estate-representative monarchy to an absolute monarchy. The power of the king is strengthening in the country. This was expressed both in the appearance of the word “autocrat” in the royal title, and in the change in the social composition of the Boyar Duma towards strengthening the representation of the nobility there. In 1678-1679 in the Duma there were 42 boyars, 27 okolnichys, 19 Duma nobles and 9 Duma clerks. It is characteristic that the number of Duma clerks began to include people from the “trading people”, i.e. merchants.
In 1682, localism was abolished (the principle of holding a public office depending on the nobility of the family and the official position of the ancestors). To strengthen the power of the parish, centralize and overcome fragmentation in management, the Order of the Great Sovereign for Secret Affairs was formed in 1654, to whose jurisdiction a number of important state affairs were transferred from the Boyar Duma. The tendency towards establishing the autocratic power of the tsar was also manifested in the victory of Alexei Mikhailovich over Patriarch Nikon, who sought to actively intervene in the management of state affairs.
The tendency towards strengthening autocratic power was also manifested in a number of other events. Beginning in 1653, the convening of Zemsky Sobors practically ceased. The orders were merged and reorganized, subordinating them to one person. For example, the king’s father-in-law I.D. Miloslavsky supervised the work of five orders, and the Ambassadorial Order was subordinate to 9 orders that were in charge of the annexed territories. The government tried to reorganize local government as well. Russia was divided into 250 districts, headed by governors. In the second half of the 17th century. some counties began to be united under the authority of one governor into so-called categories: Ryazan, Ukrainian, Novgorod, etc. Since 1613, 33 Russian cities received voivodeship administration. Administrative, judicial and military power, supervision over the collection of taxes and duties were concentrated in the hands of the governors appointed by the government.
In the 17th century The question of reforming the Russian armed forces became acute. The combat effectiveness of the Streltsy army was falling. The Sagittarius did not receive a salary from the state for many years. The source of life for them and their families was trade and craft activities, which were allowed to them back in the 16th century. Military service distracted the archers from their activities. In addition, the archers paid state taxes on their trades and trades, which brought them closer in interests to the townspeople population of the cities. Regimental commanders often used archers to work on their farms. All this made military service a burdensome task for the archers.
The noble militia served on the same basis as in the 16th century. But if in the 16th and first half of the 17th centuries. military service nevertheless was an incentive for the nobility, then by the end of the 17th century. it has become quite burdensome for most. They avoided service in every possible way. In addition, the nobles were poorly trained in the conduct of military operations. One of his contemporaries described the military training of the nobles as follows: “they don’t have training for battle and don’t know any formation.”
Already in the first half of the century, in connection with this, the formation of regiments of a new system began - Reitar and Dragoon regiments. They were formed on the basis of the forced recruitment of “dacha people”, when from 100 households one person was taken for lifelong service in these regiments. By the end of the XVI century. regiments of the new system began to play a significant role in the Russian armed forces.
Russian foreign policy inXVI–XVIIcenturies
FOREIGN POLICY IN THE XVI CENTURY
Main tasks in the field of Russian foreign policy in the 16th century. were: in the west - the need to have access to the Baltic Sea, in the southeast and east - the fight against
Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the beginning of the development of Siberia, in the south - the defense of the country from the raids of the Crimean Khan.
Annexation and development of new lands
Causes. The Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, formed as a result of the collapse of the Golden Horde, constantly threatened Russian lands. They controlled the Volga trade route. Finally, these were areas of fertile land (Ivan Peresvetov called them “sub-heaven”), which the Russian nobility had long dreamed of. The peoples of the Volga region - the Mari, Mordvinians, and Chuvash - sought liberation. The solution to the problem of subjugation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates was possible in two ways: either to plant your proteges in these states, or to conquer them.
After a number of unsuccessful diplomatic attempts to subjugate the Kazan Khanate in 1552, the 150,000-strong army of Ivan IV besieged Kazan, which at that time represented a first-class military fortress. To facilitate the task of taking Kazan, a wooden fortress was built in the upper reaches of the Volga (in the Uglich area), which, disassembled, was floated down the Volga until the Sviyaga River flows into it. The city of Sviyazhsk was built here, which became a stronghold in the struggle for Kazan. The work on the construction of this fortress was headed by the talented master Ivan Vyrodkov. He also supervised the construction of mine tunnels and siege devices.
Kazan was taken by storm 2 October 1552 G . As a result of the explosion of 48 barrels of gunpowder placed in the tunnels, part of the wall of the Kazan Kremlin was destroyed. Russian troops broke into the city through breaks in the wall. Khan Yadigir-Magmet was captured. Subsequently, he was baptized, received the name Simeon Kasaevich, became the owner of Zvenigorod and an active ally of the tsar.
Four years after the capture of Kazan in 1556 G. was annexed Astrakhan . Chuvashia and most of Bashkiria voluntarily became part of Russia. The Nogai Horde recognized its dependence on Russia. Thus, new fertile lands and the entire Volga trade route became part of Russia. The Russian lands were freed from the invasions of the Khan's troops. Russia's ties with the peoples of the North Caucasus and Central Asia have expanded. The annexation of Kazan and Astrakhan opened up the opportunity for advancement in Siberia . Rich merchant-industrialists the Stroganovs received charters from Ivan the Terrible to own lands along the Tobol River. Using their own funds, they formed a detachment of 840 (according to other sources 600) people from free Cossacks, led by Ermak Timofeevich. In 1581, Ermak and his army penetrated the territory of the Siberian Khanate, and a year later defeated the troops of Khan Kuchum and took his capital Kashlyk (Isker).
The annexation of the Volga region and Siberia was generally positive meaning for the peoples of this region: they became part of a state that was at a higher level of economic and cultural development. The local ruling class eventually became part of the Russian one.
In connection with the beginning of development in the 16th century. territory of the Wild Field (fertile lands south of Tula), the Russian government was faced with the task of strengthening the southern borders from the raids of the Crimean Khan. For this purpose, Tula (from the middle of the 16th century) and Belgorod (in the 30s - 40s of the 17th century) were built. serif strokes- defensive lines, consisting of forest rubble - notches, in the gaps between which wooden fortresses - forts - were placed, closing the passages in the notches for the Tatar cavalry.
Livonian War(1558-1583)
Trying to reach the Baltic coast, Ivan IV fought the grueling Livonian War for 25 years. The war with Livonia was caused by the need to establish close ties with Western Europe, which could most easily be achieved through the seas, as well as by the need to defend Russia's western borders. Russian nobles were interested in this war: it opened up the possibility of acquiring new economically developed lands. The war, thus, was determined by the objective needs of the development of Russia at that time.
Occasion The war was triggered by the Livonian Order's delay of 123 Western specialists invited to Russian service, as well as Livonia's failure to pay tribute for the city of Yuryev and its adjacent territory over the past 50 years. The Livonian ambassadors who came to Moscow for negotiations were unable to give a satisfactory explanation of the reasons for the failure to pay the tribute on time. When the ambassadors were invited to a feast, they saw empty dishes in front of them. This was an unheard of insult and practically meant war. In 1558, Ivan IV moved troops to Livonia.
Beginning of the war characterized by the victories of Russian troops who took Narva and Yuryev. A total of 20 cities were taken. Russian troops fought successful battles and advanced towards Riga and Revel (Tallinn). In 1560, the Order's troops were defeated, and its master was captured. This entailed the collapse of the Livonian Order (1561), whose lands came under the rule of Poland, Denmark and Sweden. The new Master of the Order, G. Ketler, received Courland as his possession and recognized dependence on the Polish king. The last major success of the Russians at the first stage of the war was the capture of Polotsk in 1563.
The war took protracted character. Several European powers were drawn into it. Contradictions within Russia have intensified. Among those Russian boyars who were interested in strengthening the southern Russian borders, resistance to the continuation of the Livonian War grew. The figures surrounding the tsar, A. Adashev and Sylvester, also showed hesitation. This led to the cessation of the activities of the Elected Rada back in 1560. Ivan IV took a course towards strengthening his personal power. In 1564, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, who had previously commanded the Russian troops, went over to the side of the Poles. This was not dissatisfaction with the actions of the tsar, but an act of treason. In these difficult circumstances for the country, Ivan IV decided to introduce oprichnina (1565-1572).
In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into one state - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The troops of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as Sweden, who captured Narva, conducted successful military operations against Russia. Only the defense of the city of Pskov in 1581, when its inhabitants repulsed 30 assaults and made about 50 sorties against the troops of the Polish king Stefan Batory, allowed Russia to conclude a truce in Yam Zapolsky, a town near Pskov in 1582. A year later, the Plyusskoe truce with Sweden was concluded . The Livonian War ended in defeat.
The failure of the Livonian war ultimately came a consequence of economic backwardness Russia , which could not successfully withstand a long struggle with strong opponents. The ruin of the country during the war years only made matters worse.
FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA IN THE XVII CENTURY.
International position of Russia in the 17th century. was difficult. The country faced a number of foreign policy problems that needed to be solved. One of them was the need to return the Western Russian lands with Smolensk, seized by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth under the Deulin Truce of 1618. In 1632, having decided to take advantage of the “kinglessness” that occurred in Poland after the death of the Polish king Sigismund, by decision of the Zemsky Sobor, Russia began a war for the return of Smolensk. Due to the economic ruin of the country and the backwardness of the state and military organization, Russia was defeated in this war, and on May 17, 1634, a Polyanovsky world, according to which the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth returned only the city of Serpeisk and recognized Tsar Michael as the sovereign of “all Rus'”. Vladislav renounced his claim to the Russian throne.
The failure in the Smolensk War was also caused by the raid of the Crimean Tatars at its most decisive moment, which once again reminded the Russian government of the acute and tense relations with Turkey and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate.
In the 30s of the 17th century. work began on the construction of a new line of fortifications - the Belgorod abatis line. In 1646, it extended far to the south and stretched from Akhtyrka through Belgorod to Tambov. The old Tula serif line was rebuilt and strengthened. It went from the headwaters of the Zhizdra River through Tula to Ryazan and became the second line of defense against Tatar raids; in the rear, abatis along the river were fortified. Okay. In the fight against Turkish-Tatar aggression, the Don Cossacks played a prominent role, not only repelling raids, but also often going on the offensive. But ensuring security from the attacks of the Crimean Tatars was not completely achieved. The fight in the south against Turkish-Tatar aggression continued to occupy important place in Russian foreign policy and in the second half of the 17th century.
Reunification of Ukraine with Russia
In the 17th century Ukrainian lands were under the rule of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. According to the Union of Lublin in 1569, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which included
Ukrainian lands united with Poland. After the union, Polish magnates and gentry began to settle on Ukrainian lands. Feudal oppression intensified in Ukraine. Ukrainian peasants and urban artisans were ruined by rising taxes and duties. The regime of severe oppression in Ukraine was also aggravated by the fact that back in 1557 the lords received from the royal authorities the right death penalty towards his serfs. Along with the strengthening of feudal oppression, the population of Ukraine experienced national and religious oppression.
The strengthening of feudal, national and religious oppression in Ukraine by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the reason for the rise of the national liberation movement. Its first wave occurred in the 20-30s. XVII century, but was brutally suppressed by the Polish lords. A new stage of the national liberation movement occurred in the late 40s - early 50s. Its center became the Zaporozhye Sich, where the free Cossacks were formed. An outstanding statesman and commander led the struggle of the Ukrainian people
Bohdan Khmelnytsky. His will, mind , courage, military talent, devotion to Ukraine, created for him enormous authority among wide sections of the Ukrainian population and, above all, the Cossacks. The driving forces of the national liberation movement in Ukraine were the peasantry, Cossacks, petty bourgeois (city dwellers), and small and middle Ukrainian gentry.
The uprising in Ukraine began in the spring of 1648. The rebels that year inflicted defeat on the Poles at Zheltye Vody, Korsun and Pilyavtsy. At the same time, Khmelnitsky turned to Russia with a request to accept Ukraine “under the hand of Moscow” and jointly fight against Poland. The government of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was unable to satisfy his request. Russia was not ready for war with Poland: popular uprisings were raging in the country. Russia, closely monitoring the course of events in Ukraine, provided it with diplomatic, economic and military support.
After the battle of Zbarazh, in the summer of 1649, where the rebels were victorious, Poland and Ukraine began negotiations for peace. On August 8, 1649 it was signed Zborovsky world. According to its terms, Bohdan Khmelnitsky was recognized by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as hetman, the number of registered Cossacks (who received a salary) was determined at 40 thousand. The Polish government recognized the self-government of the Cossack army, to which the Kiev, Chernigov and Bratslav voivodeships were assigned. The presence of Polish troops and Jesuits on their territory was prohibited, but Polish feudal lords could return to their possessions in these voivodeships. In Poland, this peace was regarded as a concession to the rebels and caused discontent among the magnates and gentry. Ukrainian peasants greeted the return of the Polish feudal lords to their possessions with hostility. Further continuation of the struggle in Ukraine was inevitable.
Military operations resumed in the spring of 1650. The decisive battle took place in June 1651 near Berestechko. An ally of the Ukrainians, Khan Islam-Girey, bribed by the Poles, withdrew his cavalry, which largely predetermined the defeat of the rebels and the advance of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth troops into Ukraine. He was stopped only in September 1651 under the white Church, where peace was concluded. Its conditions were difficult. The register of Cossacks was reduced to 20 thousand. Only the Kiev Voivodeship was left in Cossack self-government. The hetman was deprived of the right to independent foreign relations. The Polish lords were given back full power over the dependent population. The response to this was new performances in the Dnieper region. In 1652, near Batog, the rebels defeated the Polish army. However, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, having gathered an army of 50 thousand, launched an attack on Ukraine, the situation of which was becoming increasingly dangerous. In April 1653, Khmelnitsky again turned to Russia with a request to accept Ukraine into its composition.
On May 10, 1653, the Zemsky Sobor in Moscow decided to accept Ukraine into Russia. Buturlin's Russian embassy went there. On January 8, 1654, the Great Rada of Ukraine in Pereyaslavl decided to reunite Ukraine with Russia, which became part of it with broad autonomous rights. In Ukraine, the election of the hetman was preserved. Local government bodies, class rights of the nobility and Cossack elders were recognized. The hetman had the right of foreign relations with all countries except Poland and Turkey. The Cossack register was established at 60 thousand.
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth did not agree with the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. In 1654, a war began that lasted until 166.7. It ended with the signing Truce of Andrusovo January 31, 1667, on the basis of which a peace treaty was to be prepared. Russia received Smolensk, Dorogobuzh, Belaya Tserkov, Seversk land with Chernigov and Starodub. Poland recognized the reunification of Left Bank Ukraine with Russia. Right-bank Ukraine and Belarus were still part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Zaporizhian Sich remained under the joint administration of Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. These conditions were finally consolidated in 1686. Eternal peace with Rzeczpospolita. According to this world, Russia and Poland united against Turkish-Tatar aggression. The terms of the Perpetual Peace forced Russia to terminate the agreement concluded in 1681. Bakhchisarai.peace by Turkey, according to which both sides agreed to a twenty-year truce.
Simultaneously with the Russian-Polish War (1654-1667), Russia in 1656-1658. waged a war with Sweden for the return of the Baltic coast, which went to Sweden in the Treaty of Stolbovo in 1617. The war ended unsuccessfully. In 1661 Cardisse(between Yuriev and Revel) a peace was signed, dictated by Sweden. The lands at the mouth of the Neva, as well as the Livonian lands conquered during the war, remained with Sweden.
Despite the successes achieved in relations with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia at the end of the 17th century. continued to fight Tatar aggression and prepare the necessary foreign policy prerequisites for the transition to the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea.
