Zotov Anatoly Fedorovich
Modern Western philosophy
Reviewers:
Institute of Man of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Director Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor of Philology, Prof. B.G. Yudin), P.P. Gaidenko, Corresponding Member. RAS, Doctor of Philology, Prof. (Institute of Philosophy RAS)
The proposed work is a fundamental work of a famous scientist and teacher, created on the basis of a lecture course taught by the author for many years at the Faculty of Philosophy of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov. It undertakes a historical and philosophical reconstruction of modern Western philosophy, ending in recent years XX century This job is not summary philosophical works, but preparation for reading them.
For undergraduates, graduate students and university teachers, for anyone interested in the history of philosophy.
Instead of introduction........................... 8
XIX CENTURY: THE FORMATION OF MODERN PHILOSOPHY......... 14
A. Schopenhauer (1788-1850) - the herald of a new philosophical paradigm.................................... 29
"A radical revolution in philosophy" and its main participants....... 35
Kierkegaard........................ 37
Young Hegelians........................ 41
Marx and Marxism: philosophy takes new look.......... 45
Positivism is the philosophical paradigm of industrial society. "The First Positivism"............ 50
Opost Kont................................... 52
John Stuart Mill........................ 59
Herbert Spencer........................ 64
Natural-scientific materialism of the 19th century................... 70
Empirio-criticism (“second positivism”): theory of knowledge in the role of scientific philosophy........... 85
Empiriocritical concept of life................... 92
Ontology of empirio-criticism: the world as a set of “complexes of sensations”.................................... 99
The place of empirio-criticism in the history of Western philosophy........ 103
Pragmatism is an American synthesis of European philosophical ideas.... 105
Charles Pierce........................ 108
William James........................ 113
John Dewey........................ 117
Pragmatist concept of truth................................... 120
Neo-Kantianism: reduction of philosophy to methodology........... 125
Ways of education scientific concepts. "Sciences of nature" and "sciences of spirit"......................... 133
V. Dilthey (1833-1911): philosophical and methodological foundations of history as a science........... 146
"Critique of Historical Reason": the subject and method of history........ 149
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY IN THE XX CENTURY.................... 162
A New Idea of Truth........................ 166
A new concept of reality...................... 174
Specifics of British philosophy......................... 180
The crisis of European civilization as a philosophical problem....... 183
F. Nietzsche and the end of “grounding reason”. New philosophical paradigm................... 187
“Philosophy of Life” in France: A. Bergson................... 195
Neopositivism........................ 205
The formation of logical positivism................... 210
"Logical-Philosophical Treatise" by L. Wittgenstein............. 223
Vienna Circle........................... 240
Verification principle......................... 252
Verification and the “language of science”................................ 261
Ideas of the “late” Wittgenstein................................. 275
Psychoanalysis and its philosophical contexts................... 291
The first steps of psychoanalysis. "Freudianism" ............ 292
Psychoanalysis and “scientific psychology”.................................. 304
Psychoanalysis of K. Jung. The doctrine of the “collective unconscious”....... 308
Husserl's phenomenology.................................... 314
Life and work of the founder of modern phenomenology...... 314
Basic principles of Husserl's phenomenology and their evolution....... 332
Start. Husserlev "Philosophy of Arithmetic" and reduction as a methodological principle....... 336
Phenomenological self-criticism and criticism of psychologism. "Logical Investigations"......................... 348
"The Turn of 1907." The process of constitution and the problems of time. Phenomenological reduction as a method and phenomenology as a fundamental ontology........ 359
"Cartesian Meditations". Phenomenological reduction and constitution of the objective world................................. 366
Synthesis as the original form of cognitive activity........ 373
The problem of "other selves". Intersubjectivity......................... 380
"The Crisis of European Sciences". The problem of the fate of European culture. "Lifeworld" ............... 385
Philosophical heirs of Husserl................................. 405
M. Heidegger and his concept of phenomenological ontology....... 411
The question of being......................... 430
Existential analytics.......,............ 438
Time and Temporality........................ 453
The finitude of human existence................... 462
Ontology of historicity. Historicity and temporality.......... 466
"Turn"............................. 482
Sartre's existentialism.................................... 486
Phenomenological ontology......................... 490
Deduction of concepts of phenomenological ontology............ 507
Existential interpretation of time................... 520
Transcendence........................... 523
Freedom and factuality. Being in situations......................... 560
The place of death in existential ontology................................. 579
Existential psychoanalysis................... 596
Conclusion........................ 604
Structuralism: Western philosophy on the way to "postmodernity"....... 607
The first steps of structuralism. Structural linguistics......... 610
Lévi-Strauss and structural anthropology................... 613
M. Foucault and his “ontology of discourse”................................. 639
J. Deleuze and the philosophical appearance of “postmodernity”................................. 675
From the “crisis of objectivity” to the “crisis of subjectivity”......... 688
Ontology and “logic of meaning”................................697
The Quest for Synthesis: Paul Ricoeur....................... 742
Instead of a conclusion........................779
To my wife, faithful companion along the paths of life,
I dedicate to Natalya Mikhailovna Smirnova
Instead of introducing
The topic of modern Western philosophy in the course of the history of philosophy for a person of Russian culture presents considerable, and, moreover, specific, difficulties. An obvious and obvious difficulty is the great diversity of topics, points of view, schools, names and publications. Moreover, the latter are written in the most different styles- sometimes almost in the spirit of a mathematical treatise, using special symbols and diagrams, which requires prior familiarity with special terminology; the reader often has to look into special dictionaries, and not only philosophical ones. Sometimes the style is very artistic, but such a “dark” and metaphorical language that Heraclitus himself, whom his contemporaries called “dark,” and Hegel, whom many current students and lovers of serious philosophical reading consider “dark,” would envy it. Often, when reading such works, one gets the impression that the author did not even strive to ensure that the meaning of his work reached every reader. And this impression is not always deceptive, since from the point of view of many, if not most philosophers, reading philosophical literature is an elitist rather than a mass affair, and therefore presupposes that the reader has genuine interest and remarkable intellectual abilities.
There are also difficulties that do not lie on the surface: at first glance, everything in the text seems completely transparent, the only surprise is that the author writes about self-evident things, and his colleagues in the “philosophical workshop” begin to discuss these issues, and these discussions receive wide public response.
Zotov A.F. Modern Western philosophy: Textbook. - M.: Higher. school, 2001. - 784 p.
ISBN 5-06-004104-2
Federal Target Program for Book Publishing in Russia
Reviewers:
Institute of Man of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Director Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor of Philology, Prof. B.G. Yudin), P.P. Gaidenko, Corresponding Member. RAS, Doctor of Philology, Prof. (Institute of Philosophy RAS)
The proposed work is a fundamental work of a famous scientist and teacher, created on the basis of a lecture course taught by the author for many years at the Faculty of Philosophy of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov. It undertakes a historical and philosophical reconstruction of modern Western philosophy, ending with the last years of the 20th century. This work is not a summary of philosophical works, but a preparation for reading them.
For undergraduates, graduate students and university teachers, for anyone interested in the history of philosophy.
Educational edition
Zotov Anatoly Fedorovich
MODERN WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
Leading editor L.B. Komissarova. Artist V.N. Khomyakov. Art editor Yu.E. Ivanova. Technical editor L.A. Ovchinnikova. Proofreaders G.N. Bukhanova, O.N. Shebashova. Computer layout by E.A. Levchenko
LR No. 010146 dated 12/25/96. Ed. No. RIF-198. Delivered for recruitment on February 28, 2001. Subp. to print 05/21/2001
Format 60x88 1/16. Boom. offset. Times typeface. Offset printing. Volume: 48.02 conventional units. oven l.+
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Printed at the Federal State Unitary Enterprise IPK "Ulyanovsk Printing House". 432980, Ulyanovsk, st. Goncharova, 14
Instead of introduction........................... 8
XIX CENTURY: THE FORMATION OF MODERN PHILOSOPHY......... 14
A. Schopenhauer (1788-1850) - the herald of a new philosophical paradigm.................................... 29
"A radical revolution in philosophy" and its main participants....... 35
Kierkegaard........................ 37
Young Hegelians........................ 41
Marx and Marxism: philosophy takes on a new look.......... 45
Positivism is the philosophical paradigm of industrial society. "The First Positivism"............ 50
Opost Kont................................... 52
John Stuart Mill........................ 59
Herbert Spencer........................ 64
Natural-scientific materialism of the 19th century................... 70
Empirio-criticism (“second positivism”): theory of knowledge in the role of scientific philosophy........... 85
Empiriocritical concept of life................... 92
Ontology of empirio-criticism: the world as a set of “complexes of sensations”.................................... 99
The place of empirio-criticism in the history of Western philosophy........ 103
Pragmatism is an American synthesis of European philosophical ideas.... 105
Charles Pierce........................ 108
William James........................ 113
John Dewey........................ 117
Pragmatist concept of truth................................... 120
Neo-Kantianism: reduction of philosophy to methodology........... 125
Methods of forming scientific concepts. "Sciences of nature" and "sciences of spirit"......................... 133
V. Dilthey (1833-1911): philosophical and methodological foundations of history as a science........... 146
"Critique of Historical Reason": the subject and method of history........ 149
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY IN THE XX CENTURY.................... 162
A New Idea of Truth........................ 166
A new concept of reality...................... 174
Specifics of British philosophy......................... 180
The crisis of European civilization as a philosophical problem....... 183
F. Nietzsche and the end of “grounding reason”. New philosophical paradigm................... 187
“Philosophy of Life” in France: A. Bergson................... 195
Neopositivism........................ 205
The formation of logical positivism................... 210
"Logical-Philosophical Treatise" by L. Wittgenstein............. 223
Vienna Circle........................... 240
Verification principle......................... 252
Verification and the “language of science”................................ 261
Ideas of the “late” Wittgenstein................................. 275
Psychoanalysis and its philosophical contexts................... 291
The first steps of psychoanalysis. "Freudianism" ............ 292
Psychoanalysis and “scientific psychology”.................................. 304
Psychoanalysis of K. Jung. The doctrine of the “collective unconscious”....... 308
Husserl's phenomenology.................................... 314
Life and work of the founder of modern phenomenology...... 314
Basic principles of Husserl's phenomenology and their evolution....... 332
Start. Husserlev "Philosophy of Arithmetic" and reduction as a methodological principle....... 336
Phenomenological self-criticism and criticism of psychologism. "Logical Investigations"......................... 348
"The Turn of 1907." The process of constitution and the problems of time. Phenomenological reduction as a method and phenomenology as a fundamental ontology........ 359
"Cartesian Meditations". Phenomenological reduction and constitution of the objective world................................. 366
Synthesis as the original form of cognitive activity........ 373
The problem of "other selves". Intersubjectivity......................... 380
"The Crisis of European Sciences". The problem of the fate of European culture. "Lifeworld" ............... 385
Philosophical heirs of Husserl................................. 405
M. Heidegger and his concept of phenomenological ontology....... 411
The question of being......................... 430
Existential analytics.......,............ 438
Time and Temporality........................ 453
The finitude of human existence................... 462
Ontology of historicity. Historicity and temporality.......... 466
"Turn"............................. 482
Sartre's existentialism.................................... 486
Phenomenological ontology......................... 490
Deduction of concepts of phenomenological ontology............ 507
Existential interpretation of time................... 520
Transcendence........................... 523
Freedom and factuality. Being in situations......................... 560
The place of death in existential ontology................................. 579
Existential psychoanalysis................... 596
Conclusion........................ 604
Structuralism: Western philosophy on the way to "postmodernity"....... 607
The first steps of structuralism. Structural linguistics......... 610
Lévi-Strauss and structural anthropology................... 613
M. Foucault and his “ontology of discourse”................................. 639
J. Deleuze and the philosophical appearance of “postmodernity”................................. 675
From the “crisis of objectivity” to the “crisis of subjectivity”......... 688
Ontology and “logic of meaning”................................697
The Quest for Synthesis: Paul Ricoeur....................... 742
Instead of a conclusion........................779
To my wife, faithful companion along the paths of life,
I dedicate to Natalya Mikhailovna Smirnova
Instead of introducing
The topic of modern Western philosophy in the course of the history of philosophy for a person of Russian culture presents considerable, and, moreover, specific, difficulties. An obvious and obvious difficulty is the great diversity of topics, points of view, schools, names and publications. Moreover, the latter are written in a variety of styles - sometimes almost in the spirit of a mathematical treatise, using special symbols and diagrams, which requires prior familiarity with special terminology; the reader often has to look into special dictionaries, and not only philosophical ones. Sometimes the style is very artistic, but such a “dark” and metaphorical language that Heraclitus himself, whom his contemporaries called “dark,” and Hegel, whom many current students and lovers of serious philosophical reading consider “dark,” would envy it. Often, when reading such works, one gets the impression that the author did not even strive to ensure that the meaning of his work reached every reader. And this impression is not always deceptive, since from the point of view of many, if not most philosophers, reading philosophical literature is an elitist rather than a mass affair, and therefore presupposes that the reader has genuine interest and remarkable intellectual abilities.
There are also difficulties that do not lie on the surface: at first glance, everything in the text seems completely transparent, the only surprise is that the author writes about self-evident things, and his colleagues in the “philosophical workshop” begin to discuss these issues, and these discussions receive wide public response.
1 A very clear example of this can be the classical positivism of O. Comte and G. Spencer, as well as the natural-scientific materialism (it was often called “vulgar”) of Buchner, Vogt and Moleschott.
However, it is enough to turn to the historical and philosophical context of many such works, to the cultural situation of the time, and the essence of this strange situation becomes clear. To illustrate, let me remind you of the famous French Encyclopedia, a great monument of the European Enlightenment: after all, for the modern reader, most of its articles evoke a condescending smile, or even Homeric laughter. But if we understand that its historical significance is not in its transitory and obsolete content, but in the fact that behind this content there was a program for the destruction of the traditional ideas of man in feudal society, that it was preparing the birth of a new European society, then it will become clear to us that in You can look at science, history, and philosophy, but at the same time you can’t notice the most important thing, like the hero of Krylov’s famous fable, who didn’t notice the elephant in the museum of curiosities. Another difficulty of the same kind stems from an often unconscious premise - the uncritical acceptance of the “elementary” definition of philosophy as a special kind of science - for example, as the science of the most general laws of nature, society and thinking. If philosophy is a science, then it means that it is as impersonal and as international as any science in general - for example, mathematics or physics. And if this is so, then philosophers, just like mathematicians or physicists, ultimately constitute a single global professional community, since the subject of their research is the same; when discussing their professional topics, they understand each other well because they know what they are talking about; and also because they use the scientific, professional language accepted in this community, completely regardless of what country they live in and what language - Russian, English, German, French, or, say, Swahili - is their native spoken language.
1 Another question is that, say, as a result of certain specific historical circumstances, one or another of the “natural” languages, “living” like English or “dead” like Latin, can become the basis of a professional language, and then - due to others , equally specific circumstances, it includes terms and signs from other languages. Over time, an international “mixture” of signs and terms was formed - special symbols of physics and mathematics were borrowed partly from the Arabs, partly from ancient Greek, partly from Latin, partly from living European languages; It is not excluded in principle that other languages will make their contribution to the universal human language of science - but this language will remain the universal scientific language, the language of professionals.
In this regard, philosophy is apparently closer to being considered as a special cultural formation, specific to a certain people or a certain historical era, the essence of which is
It’s not about accumulating knowledge, comprehending natural and social realities more fully and deeply (although, of course, this point is not alien to her either). In a sense, it is closer to literature or painting, not to mention religion: just as the painting of Picasso did not send the paintings of Raphael into oblivion, and the novels of Leo Tolstoy - the poems of Homer, so the philosophy of Wittgenstein did not “bury” the philosophy of Aristotle . To this one could object that the names of the great scientists of the past and their discoveries have been preserved by history; we can say that these names and these discoveries also have lasting historical value. But having acquired historical value, today they have lost the main thing - “working” knowledge about reality, since modern scientific knowledge is more complete and more accurate than the scientific knowledge of past centuries. The average student of physics today has information about the world that is much more complete and accurate than what Newton had at his disposal. This means that in scientific knowledge the main thing is their “impersonal” component; therefore we have the right to talk about scientific progress, and even about the growth of knowledge. As soon as we turn to the history of science, this factor is replaced by a completely different one. However, works of art and literature created in past eras, and in their present modern existence, have cultural and artistic, and not only historical, not only “museum” value, and this hardly needs to be proven.
1 In this sense, Lomonosov’s words about the “increment of knowledge” remain true, although scientific revolutions also take place in the development of science, which Lomonosov could not yet know about.
Philosophical concepts also have specific cultural value, which is not “absorbed” by historical value. Here the same “increase in knowledge,” even if in philosophy it occurs to a greater extent than in art or literature, is not of decisive importance, although it is still possible to talk about progress in the field of philosophy - if only because there is a historical continuity of knowledge. But philosophy is not only knowledge, but first of all a worldview, which includes knowledge about the world, but is not limited to it; it also includes the value system that distinguishes a particular people.
As soon as we recognize the legitimacy of the term “Western philosophy,” then we already agree with the point of view that this philosophy forms part of a certain, still special, different culture. From here, at a minimum, it follows that for us (and we, judging by the centuries-old disputes that continue to this day, have still not decided whether we are Europeans or Asians, or both) will benefit from
to follow the genetic connections of modern “Western” philosophy with its immediate predecessors and sources, with the European cultural tradition. Then we will either understand that we were in vain to doubt our origins from the same tradition, since, despite our cheekbones, we are not “Scythians” at all, and therefore we have no need to “translate” the content (“meanings”) of modern “Western” philosophy into other “meanings” - the meanings of another, one’s own, native, Russian (or, if you like, Russian) culture; or we will understand something else - we spiritually do not belong to modern Europe, and we have to continue the work of Peter the Great and move from “cutting windows” to “building bridges”, and then to the elimination of borders (in any case, the “invisible” borders of cultural demarcation), until we ourselves finally feel like Europeans, and they, too, recognize us as “their own.” Or, on the contrary, we should stop the ongoing assimilation with Europe, where the threat to our national character comes from, return to the roots of our spirituality - and then, if we enter the “European home,” then in the same way as the Japanese enter world civilization - on the rights of a broad " autonomy" (or perhaps like the American Indians or the Eskimos into American culture? Today it seems that we would do the latter better). This is the justification of this chapter, and hence its content.
Although modern Western philosophy is naturally connected with the European culture that preceded it, from the depths of which it, one way or another, arose, nevertheless it is capable of giving the impression of a phenomenon of a culture that “has no ancestors.” Continuity in development has become implicit; it has to be proven, and it can only be shown as a result of special work to reconstruct the processes of its genesis.
1 Perhaps this circumstance constituted an important moment in the final stage of the process of transforming the former “mosaic” of national cultures of Europe into an integral multinational European culture, and to a large extent contributed to the transformation of European philosophy into “Western” - that is, at the supranational moment of the common culture of one of the three (maybe perhaps four) “worlds” that make up modern human civilization.
The main (more precisely, immediate) reason for the need for such work to reconstruct the genetic connection of the present with the past is that in place of the obvious continuity of the texts of European classical philosophy with ancient, ancient Greek sources in
In the 19th century, a kind of “negative” continuity came: philosophers began a new era of philosophical thought with fierce criticism of their predecessors. This period the “characters” themselves called either a “revolution”, or a “radical revolution in philosophy,” or even the time of “the end of philosophy in the previous sense of the word.” This transitional period is followed by another, when in “positive” philosophical developments even the mention of the great classical systems and the names of their creators almost completely disappears.
It follows from this that the question of periodization, in relation to modern philosophy, is something more than a question of the chronological division of material, and involves the solution of non-trivial methodological issues. The historical and philosophical reconstruction here is not a simple concise, without any philosophizing, description of the process of development of philosophical knowledge (which implicitly assumes a cumulative model of this development, which appears as the “accumulation of information”). The essence of the task is to identify something like “organisms of a higher order” that arise above the level of “empirical individuals” of culture (actually living philosophers and their works); these “organisms” can appear, in the simplest case, for example, philosophical schools, differing from each other not only in the “answer to the basic question of philosophy”, but also in many other parameters - the style of thinking, the content of almost all, and above all the main, concepts (starting with the concept of being), and even ideas about the meaning and purpose of philosophy.
There are many such “organisms of a higher order” - in any case, the simple and usual in the recent past dichotomous division of philosophers into two “camps”, the differences within which, in the figurative expression of V.I. Lenin, are no more significant than the difference between green and yellow line, in relation to modern philosophy does not lead to any interesting results for those who study the history of philosophy.
If at all it makes sense to talk about the progressive development of philosophical knowledge (or philosophical ideas), then in Europe it clearly does not appear as “linear”. There are obvious areas of "bifurcation" where one school of thought gives rise to a constellation of rather distinct research programs. The history of modern Western philosophy is truly a “drama of ideas,” and the attempt to tell the plot or present the scenario of this “drama” (naturally, while abandoning the obviously impossible - to present all its “characters”) requires a very risky (and generally doubtful, if we're talking about about historical objectivity) operations: engage in identifying trends synchronously with the presentation
We eat concepts, giving the first, in any case, no less importance than the second. This presupposes, for example, the possibility of using different terminology than that used in his writings by the philosopher whose concept is being discussed. Therefore, a work on the history of modern philosophy (including the textbook offered to the attention of readers) is not a brief summary of philosophical works, designed to save those who are interested in philosophy from the need to read voluminous “primary sources”, but rather a preparation for this work, inevitable for everyone who wants, if not to master, then at least to understand the ideas of modern Western philosophy and the trends of its development. And from this angle, the first question inevitably arises: where should we start? It is logical to assume that first we should identify the signs that would allow us to talk about modern philosophy as a special stage in the development of Western philosophical thought. So, where did modern Western philosophy begin?
XIX century: the formation of modern philosophy
The very language spoken by European philosophers of the mid-19th century forces us to date the beginning of modern philosophy to the post-Hegelian period. Both in form and content, the Hegelian philosophical system appears as the last classical philosophical concept. Everything that appeared immediately after it historical period, which we will discuss, looks either like a radical criticism of “Hegelianism”, after which this philosophical concept can only be discarded, or as an attempt to radically rework this philosophical construct, to “critically overcome” it. In both cases, one gets the impression that Hegel’s philosophical opponents seem to “shine with the reflected light” of Hegel’s ideas, if they do not appear as something like a “negative” of this philosophical system. One gets the impression that if there were no Hegel, the subject of their criticism, then they themselves would have no subject left for reflection.
But this impression is deceptive, since the essence of the matter is not in the confrontation of philosophical ideas, but in radical changes in society, in culture, in the worldview, which was expressed in this “conflict of generations” of European philosophers. This is evidenced by the “standard oppositions” that are discussed by all post-Hegelian philosophical schools: metaphysics - science; theory - practice; philosophy - life: this is nothing more than marking the border that divided two systems of ideological, cultural and ethical values, on one side of which were representatives of the new generation of philosophers, and on the other - the defenders of the classical philosophical tradition. Traditional, classical philosophy claimed to be precisely metaphysics, that is, knowledge, more
deeper than the most fundamental natural science (“physical”, in the broadest sense of the term) theories. She, like the ancient philosophers, placed “logic” above “physics,” theoretical truth above practical achievement, philosophy above everyday life. All this was to some extent characteristic of Hegelian philosophy, for which it was criticized.
However, Hegelian philosophy was already a “philosophy of transition.” Its basic principle of “absolute idealism” was intended, if not to eliminate, then to soften the confrontation between the poles of these oppositions: the “absolute idea” does not form in Hegel a special “kingdom” frozen in its own divine perfection and opposed to the sinful and changeable earthly world; it appears as an all-encompassing dialectical process, and Hegel interprets the entire universe, including man and his consciousness, as a moment in the process of self-development (self-knowledge) of the Absolute. Nature appears as the “other being” of the Spirit, as a passing moment in the development of the spiritual principle; the imperfect turns out to be a moment in the process of improvement; incomplete knowledge that includes errors is a moment of the cognitive process (for Hegel, truth itself is a process).
Hence the internal contradictions of Hegelian philosophy (for example, system and method), which its critics certainly pointed out, and the justification inherent in this philosophy itself of a special type of contradictions - dialectical. As a result, Hegelian philosophy appears as “weakened”, having lost its former purity, classical metaphysics having fallen into sin - as a “philosophy of compromise”, which could now be criticized from the “left” (for example, for its “excessive” commitment to the creation of universal explanatory systems), and “on the right” (for example, for the recognition of relative truth, which, of course, means nothing more than the imperfection of truth).
It is also important that Hegelian philosophy was an “official” philosophy - that is, a subject taught in the universities of a country that politically remained semi-feudal, which lagged behind other European countries that had significantly advanced along the path of creating an industrial (capitalist) society and corresponding to this society of democratic institutions. Philosophy curricula were approved in Germany by government officials; In order to take up a professorship, a decision from the state administration was required. It is clear that the philosophers who adhered to the new orientation were “dissidents,” to use the modern expression.
In terms of content, Hegel's philosophy, of course, was idealism; but in a number of significant moments, “absolute” idealism looked like “inverted” (in Marx’s words, “put on its head”) materialism! Hegelian philosophy was idealism, since its problematic was the study of the movement of the spiritual principle, which lies at the basis of the universe as its essence - the process of self-knowledge of the Spirit. The laws by which the thought process takes place, of course, are logical laws; therefore, logical laws in Hegel’s concept acquired the status of universal laws of the universe, both laws of being and laws of thinking. Consequently, Hegel’s philosophy can be called panlogism - logic here appears as the science of the most general laws of being and thinking, and nature is interpreted as “applied logic”. It is regarding this thesis, through which Hegel tried to soften and “remove” the opposition of “spirit” and “nature”, “philosophy” and “life” characteristic of previous metaphysics, that the main debates unfolded. And in order to understand many significant points in the movement of thought of Hegel’s critics, it will be useful to turn to some historical prerequisites for the emergence of the grandiose and complex Hegelian panlogistic construction.
In the philosophy of modern times, Leibniz laid the last stone in the foundation of this building - with his “law of foundation” (Nihil fit sine ratione), which he included in the laws of logic. But, since we can talk here both about the foundations of logical inference and about the causes of certain events occurring in nature or social life, it turns out that the entire complex of logical laws (since it includes the “law of foundation” as a full member ") can also be interpreted as the fundamental laws of all existence. Thus metaphysics became panlogism. In the fact that such a transformation in philosophy took place relatively easily, an important role was played by the ideology of the Enlightenment, with its inherent great trust in the human mind, especially in its refined form - the form of theoretical science, the conclusions of which are based on evidence, and the system of evidence is subject to the laws of logic. The fact that science has ceased to be the handmaiden of theology and the study of nature has become the main subject of science has not at all undermined confidence in logic: theoretical natural science, which has become “mathematical” (an example of this is Newton’s mechanics), is good evidence of this. But at the same time, it is important to keep in mind that the theoretical natural science of the Enlightenment, as well as metaphysics, was aimed at understanding the foundations of the universe: Newton’s mechanics was a “picture of the world,” and mechanism became a worldview. It happened,
1. XIX century - the formation of modern philosophy
2. A. Schopenhauer - the herald of a new philosophical paradigm
3. “A radical revolution in philosophy” and its main participants
Kierkegaard's philosophy
Young Hegelians
K. Marx and Marxism: philosophy takes on a new look
4. Positivism - the philosophical paradigm of industrial society
"First Positivism"
Auguste Comte
John Stuart Mill
Herbert Spencer
5. Natural scientific materialism of the 19th century
6. Empirio-criticism (“second positivism”): theory of knowledge in the role of scientific philosophy
Empiriocritical concept of life
Ontology of empirio-criticism: the world as a set of “complexes of sensations”
The place of empirio-criticism in the history of Western philosophy
7. Pragmatism - American synthesis of European philosophical ideas
Charles Pierce
William James
John Dewey
Pragmatist concept of truth
8. Neo-Kantianism: reduction of philosophy to methodology
Methods of forming scientific concepts. "Sciences of nature" and "sciences of spirit"
9. V. Dilthey: philosophical and methodological foundations of history as a science
“Critique of Historical Reason”: Subject and Method of History
10. Western philosophy in the 20th century
11. F. Nietzsche and the twilight of grounding reason. New philosophical paradigm
12. “Philosophy of Life” in France: A. Bergson
13. Neopositivism
The emergence of logical positivism
“Logical-Philosophical Treatise” by L. Wittgenstein
Vienna Circle
Verification principle
Verification and the language of science
Ideas of the late Wittgenstein
What is a "life form"? What is a "Language Game"?
Credibility
14. Psychoanalysis and its philosophical contexts
The first steps of psychoanalysis. Freudianism
Psychoanalysis and “scientific psychology”
Psychoanalysis of K. Jung. The doctrine of the collective unconscious
15. Husserl's phenomenology
Life and work of the founder of modern phenomenology
Basic principles of Husserl's phenomenology and their evolution
Start. Husserlev’s “Philosophy of Arithmetic” and reduction as a methodological principle
Phenomenological self-criticism and criticism of psychologism. "Logical Research"
“Turn” 1907. The process of constitution and the problems of time. Phenomenological reduction as a method and phenomenology as a fundamental ontology
"Cartesian Reflections". Phenomenological reduction and constitution of the objective world
Synthesis as the original form of cognitive activity
The problem of “other selves”. Intersubjectivity
"The Crisis of European Sciences". The problem of the fate of European culture. "Lifeworld"
Philosophical heirs of Husserl
16. M. Heidegger and his concept of phenomenological ontology
The Question of Being
Existential analytics
Time and Temporality
The finitude of human existence
Ontology of historicity. Historicity and Temporality
"Turn".
17. Sartre's existentialism
Phenomenological ontology
Deduction of concepts of phenomenological ontology. Nothing and freedom
The situationality of human existence. Existential Possibility
Existential interpretation of time
Transcendence
Being-for-others
Specific relationships with others
“Have”, “do” and “be” as basic categories of human reality
Freedom and factuality. Being in situations
The place of death in existential ontology
Existential psychoanalysis
“Want”, “have” and “be” as determinants of human existence
18. Structuralism: Western philosophy on the way to postmodernity
The first steps of structuralism. Structural linguistics
C. Lévi-Strauss and structural anthropology
M. Foucault and his “ontology of discourse”
19. J. Deleuze and the philosophical appearance of postmodernity
From the “crisis of objectivity” to the “crisis of subjectivity”
Ontology and “logic of meaning” by J. Deleuze
20. Search for synthesis: P. Ricoeur
Instead of a conclusion
Philosophy. Ed. Zotov A.F., Mironova V.V., Razina A.V.
6th ed., revised. and additional - M.: 2009. - 688 p.
The textbook was prepared by a team of teachers from the Moscow state university them. M. V. Lomonosov. The structure of the textbook is as close as possible to the philosophy course currently taught in most universities. The textbook presents: the history of philosophy, a presentation of philosophy in logical terms - as a system of ideas, and also examines certain areas of philosophical knowledge, demonstrating how philosophical methodology can be practically applied in the study of specific areas of reality. The authors sought to preserve the polemical nature of the presentation, revealing to the reader the variety of approaches presented in various philosophical schools and directions. For university students.
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CONTENT
SECTION I. INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY 3
SUBJECT OF PHILOSOPHY 5
1. Subject and object of philosophical knowledge 5
2. Philosophy and other forms of worldview 11
3. Functions of philosophy.
The place of philosophy in the cultural system 16
4. Methods of philosophical knowledge.
Philosophy as value knowledge 20
CONSCIOUSNESS 27
1. Consciousness as a quality of a highly organized subject 27
2. Consciousness in anthroposociogenesis 40
3. Levels of conscious organization, consciousness and subconscious 50
4. Social consciousness 56
SECTION II. HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY 63
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY 85
1. The mystery of ancient Greek civilization 65
2. Mythological thinking and the first philosophical ideas 68
3. Essence and appearance, contrast between the visible and the real 75
4. Man as the measure of all things 78
5. Democritus line and Plato line 81
6. Philosophy of Aristotle 93
7. Late antique philosophical teachings 97
MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY 107
1. Philosophy of the Middle Ages 107
2. Pre-scholastic period 108
3. Early scholasticism 114
4. High scholasticism 120
REVIVAL AND REFORMATION 133
1. Prerequisites for the emergence of capitalism and new thought paradigms 133
2. Revival 136
3. Reformation 146
PHILOSOPHY OF N0V0G0 TIME 153
1. “Knowledge is power” - the philosophy of F. Bacon and T. Hobbes 154
2. Cogito ergo sum: the philosophy of Cartesianism 157
3. Discussions about the innateness of knowledge. J. Locke and G. Leibniz 163
4. French Enlightenment 171
5. German Enlightenment 173
GERMAN CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY 175
1. Origins and background 175
2. Kant's philosophy 177
3. “Science” by Fichte and “natural philosophy” by Schelling 186
4. Hegel’s “Absolute Idealism” 191
5. Feuerbach's Anthropology 195
RUSSIAN PHILOSOPHY 107
1. The origin of Russian philosophy and its features 197
2. Philosophical thought of the Russian Enlightenment 200
3. The most important trends in philosophy of the 19th century 204
4. Russian philosophy of the end XIX - early XX century 219
SECTION III. PHILOSOPHY OF THE XX CENTURY 225
PRAGMATISM 227
1. Cultural and historical background for the development of American philosophy 227
2. Charles Pierce 231
3. William James 238
4. John Dewey 242
NEOPOSITIVISM 24B
1. general characteristics 246
2. The formation of logical positivism 252
3. “Logical-Philosophical Treatise” by L. Wittgenstein 268
4. Vienna Circle 287
5. Logical semantics 299
6. Ideas of the “late” Wittgenstein 304
PHENOMENOLOGY 311
1. Phenomenology as a method and as a philosophical doctrine 311
2. Husserlev “Philosophy of Arithmetic” and reduction as a methodological principle 315
3. “Logical Investigations” 324
4. The process of constitution and the problems of time. Phenomenological reduction as a method and phenomenology as a fundamental ontology 328
5. The problem of “other selves”. Intersubjectivity 334
6. The problem of the fate of European culture. "Life World" 339
SECTION IV. PHILOSOPHY AS A SYSTEM OF IDEAS 357
FORMATION OF ONTOLOGY AS A TEACHING ABOUT BEING 350
1. The emergence of a metaphysical attitude towards the world 359
2. Initial options for solving ontological problems 361
3. Determining the place of ontology in the structure of metaphysics (Aristotle) 370
ENVIRONMENT OF BEING AND VDRDVTY OVTODIGY 379
1. Being as existence 379
2. Ontological models of being as existence.. 381
3. The concept of substance and the substantiality of being 391
4. Crisis of ontology. Hierarchical models of existence.... 392
SHUIDDMAN PROPERTIES N DIALECTICS OF BUGNYA 338
1. Movement as a fundamental property of being... 398
2. Movement and development. Development models 404
3. Dialectics of being and universal laws of development... 408
4. Determinism and development 416
5. Systematicity of being 422
6. Space-time levels of existence 433
I™"1 COGNITIVE RELATIONSHIP OF PERSON AND THE WORLD 444
1. Concept, main problems and historical variants of epistemology 444
2. Subject and object of knowledge 460
3. Essence, dynamics and main characteristics of knowledge 465
4. The concept and basic concepts of truth 469
SECTION V. AREAS OF SHIDRRSHSINGO KNOWLEDGE 493
I™*1 SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY 495
1. Subject and method of social philosophy 495
2. Activity as a substance of the sociocultural world 502
3. The concept of social action. Subject and object. Needs and interests of a social person 509
4. Society as an organizational form of activity 520
PHILOSOPHY OF SHISHI 532
1. Political science as a science and area of philosophical knowledge 532
2. Prospects for the development of political science 539
3. Russia: search for civilizational identity... 542
1. Ethics as the science of morality 548
2. Ethics in historical development 555
3. Ethics as a system of ideas 558
4. Modern ethics 563
AESTHETICS 5M
1. Aesthetic value 574
2. Specifics of aesthetic judgment 584
3. National and universal in art 593
4. Aesthetics of postmodernism 598
PHILOSOPHICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 602
1. Ontology and anthropology 602
2. Man in the mode of positivity 608
3. Plesner. A person is not only a personality 616
4. Gehlen: Zero Anthropology 621
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE B24
1. The concept of philosophy of science 624
2. Logical positivism 628
3. Critical rationalism 634
4. Methodology of research programs
Imre Lakatos 642
5. Thomas Kuhn's paradigmatic philosophy of science... 647
6. Hermeneutic methodology humanities 652
PHILOSOPHY OF TECHNOLOGY 659
1. “Technology”: origins and evolution of the concept, modern interpretation 661
2. The nature of technical knowledge 664
3. Technology and art 666
4. “Technocratic concept” 667
5. Forecasts and warnings 670
Zotov Anatoly Fedorovich
Zotov Anatoly Fedorovich
Modern Western philosophy
Reviewers:
Institute of Man of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Director Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor of Philology, Prof. B.G. Yudin), P.P. Gaidenko, Corresponding Member. RAS, Doctor of Philology, Prof. (Institute of Philosophy RAS)
The proposed work is a fundamental work of a famous scientist and teacher, created on the basis of a lecture course taught by the author for many years at the Faculty of Philosophy of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov. It undertakes a historical and philosophical reconstruction of modern Western philosophy, ending with the last years of the 20th century. This work is not a summary of philosophical works, but a preparation for reading them.
For undergraduates, graduate students and university teachers, for anyone interested in the history of philosophy.
Instead of introduction........................... 8
XIX CENTURY: THE FORMATION OF MODERN PHILOSOPHY......... 14
A. Schopenhauer (1788-1850) - the herald of a new philosophical paradigm.................................... 29
"A radical revolution in philosophy" and its main participants....... 35
Kierkegaard........................ 37
Young Hegelians........................ 41
Marx and Marxism: philosophy takes on a new look.......... 45
Positivism is the philosophical paradigm of industrial society. "The First Positivism"............ 50
Opost Kont................................... 52
John Stuart Mill........................ 59
Herbert Spencer........................ 64
Natural-scientific materialism of the 19th century................... 70
Empirio-criticism (“second positivism”): theory of knowledge in the role of scientific philosophy........... 85
Empiriocritical concept of life................... 92
Ontology of empirio-criticism: the world as a set of “complexes of sensations”.................................... 99
The place of empirio-criticism in the history of Western philosophy........ 103
Pragmatism is an American synthesis of European philosophical ideas.... 105
Charles Pierce........................ 108
William James........................ 113
John Dewey........................ 117
Pragmatist concept of truth................................... 120
Neo-Kantianism: reduction of philosophy to methodology........... 125
Methods of forming scientific concepts. "Sciences of nature" and "sciences of spirit"......................... 133
V. Dilthey (1833-1911): philosophical and methodological foundations of history as a science........... 146
"Critique of Historical Reason": the subject and method of history........ 149
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY IN THE XX CENTURY.................... 162
A New Idea of Truth........................ 166
A new concept of reality...................... 174
Specifics of British philosophy......................... 180
The crisis of European civilization as a philosophical problem....... 183
F. Nietzsche and the end of “grounding reason”. New philosophical paradigm................... 187
“Philosophy of Life” in France: A. Bergson................... 195
Neopositivism........................ 205
The formation of logical positivism................... 210
"Logical-Philosophical Treatise" by L. Wittgenstein............. 223
Vienna Circle........................... 240
Verification principle......................... 252
Verification and the “language of science”................................ 261
Ideas of the “late” Wittgenstein................................. 275
Psychoanalysis and its philosophical contexts................... 291
The first steps of psychoanalysis. "Freudianism" ............ 292
Psychoanalysis and “scientific psychology”.................................. 304
Psychoanalysis of K. Jung. The doctrine of the “collective unconscious”....... 308
Husserl's phenomenology.................................... 314
Life and work of the founder of modern phenomenology...... 314
Basic principles of Husserl's phenomenology and their evolution....... 332
Start. Husserlev "Philosophy of Arithmetic" and reduction as a methodological principle....... 336
Phenomenological self-criticism and criticism of psychologism. "Logical Investigations"......................... 348
"The Turn of 1907." The process of constitution and the problems of time. Phenomenological reduction as a method and phenomenology as a fundamental ontology........ 359
"Cartesian Meditations". Phenomenological reduction and constitution of the objective world................................. 366
Synthesis as the original form of cognitive activity........ 373
The problem of "other selves". Intersubjectivity......................... 380
"The Crisis of European Sciences". The problem of the fate of European culture. "Lifeworld" ............... 385
Philosophical heirs of Husserl................................. 405
M. Heidegger and his concept of phenomenological ontology....... 411
The question of being......................... 430
Existential analytics.......,............ 438
Time and Temporality........................ 453
The finitude of human existence................... 462
Ontology of historicity. Historicity and temporality.......... 466
"Turn"............................. 482
Sartre's existentialism.................................... 486
Phenomenological ontology......................... 490
Deduction of concepts of phenomenological ontology............ 507
Existential interpretation of time................... 520
Transcendence........................... 523
Freedom and factuality. Being in situations......................... 560
The place of death in existential ontology................................. 579
Existential psychoanalysis................... 596
Conclusion........................ 604
Structuralism: Western philosophy on the way to "postmodernity"....... 607
The first steps of structuralism. Structural linguistics......... 610
Lévi-Strauss and structural anthropology................... 613
M. Foucault and his “ontology of discourse”................................. 639
J. Deleuze and the philosophical appearance of “postmodernity”................................. 675
From the “crisis of objectivity” to the “crisis of subjectivity”......... 688
Ontology and “logic of meaning”................................697
The Quest for Synthesis: Paul Ricoeur....................... 742
Instead of a conclusion........................779
To my wife, faithful companion along the paths of life,
I dedicate to Natalya Mikhailovna Smirnova
Instead of introducing
The topic of modern Western philosophy in the course of the history of philosophy for a person of Russian culture presents considerable, and, moreover, specific, difficulties. An obvious and obvious difficulty is the great diversity of topics, points of view, schools, names and publications. Moreover, the latter are written in a variety of styles - sometimes almost in the spirit of a mathematical treatise, using special symbols and diagrams, which requires prior familiarity with special terminology; the reader often has to look into special dictionaries, and not only philosophical ones. Sometimes the style is very artistic, but such a “dark” and metaphorical language that Heraclitus himself, whom his contemporaries called “dark,” and Hegel, whom many current students and lovers of serious philosophical reading consider “dark,” would envy it. Often, when reading such works, one gets the impression that the author did not even strive to ensure that the meaning of his work reached every reader. And this impression is not always deceptive, since from the point of view of many, if not most philosophers, reading philosophical literature is an elitist rather than a mass affair, and therefore presupposes that the reader has genuine interest and remarkable intellectual abilities.
