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Moscow
GREAT RUSSIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA

1993-1999

FROM THE EDITORIAL BOARD

The Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia is a reference publication aimed at presenting as complete a set of generalized and systematized information in the field of theory and practice of education as possible in modern conditions. This publication is intended for practicing teachers of all specialties, researchers and students who feel the need for reliable and objective information on theory, history, methodology, methods of psychological pedagogical sciences and across various educational systems. Since many pedagogical phenomena and patterns are interdisciplinary in nature, the encyclopedia is largely focused on specialists in related fields - psychology, philosophy, sociology, etc. At the same time, readers (and primarily parents and educators of children of any age) who are interested in problems of education and development individuals will find here a variety of materials on these problems.
Our country has experience in publishing such works. However, the Pedagogical Encyclopedia, published in 1927-29 in 3 vols. edited by A.G. Kalashnikov today is more of a historical and scientific source than a reference source. To a certain extent, the same can be said about the two-volume Pedagogical Dictionary (1960-61) and the four-volume Pedagogical Encyclopedia (1964-1968).
The creators of the encyclopedia are aware that not a single scientific reference publication, especially in the humanities, can claim to be considered completely independent of the ideological trends of its time, scientific traditions, and sometimes emotional predilections. Similar publications from past years bear the imprint of their era. In recent decades, and especially in the last few years, in the field of psychological and pedagogical knowledge there has been a revaluation of many theories and facts that previously seemed unconditional. Considerable experience has also been accumulated - both positive and, it must be admitted, negative - in the field of education.
The Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia strives to reflect as objectively as possible the current level of development of domestic pedagogical science and practice. A complex and contradictory stage in the life of the state and society cannot but affect the state of pedagogy and the education system. Therefore, the material presented in the encyclopedia bears the imprint of those social trends that, even if not fully formed, now determine the development of pedagogical science and practice.
Our ingrained perception of encyclopedic literature is characterized by its assessment by the reader as a normative source. From modern positions, this view cannot be considered justified, since in the field of humanitarian knowledge in general and pedagogy in particular, a monopoly on truth does not serve the cause. creative approach to the topic under consideration. Of course, the factual material presented in the encyclopedia has been carefully checked. As for the definitions given to this or that concept, as well as scientific interpretations of various phenomena and facts, the editorial board abandoned attempts to formulate them in the final version. IN modern science a number of concepts have many definitions that are not always consistent with each other. Scientific interpretation of certain phenomena is also carried out from different positions. Therefore, in most cases, the content of a problematic article reflects mainly the position of the specialist who wrote it. In this regard, the text of encyclopedia articles cannot and should not serve as an indisputable argument in scientific discussion. In particular, the bibliography of articles includes sources that reflect approaches to the problem other than the author’s. This partly reveals one of the goals of the encyclopedia - to stimulate scientific thought and creative search.
The unifying core of the various author's approaches was the general trend - the humanization of pedagogical science and practice, especially teaching and upbringing in a modern school.
In light of emerging trends in modern pedagogy, the content of the encyclopedia has undergone significant changes in comparison with previous publications of a similar profile. The creators of the encyclopedia sought to free the text from ideological cliches and attitudes that had dominated Russian pedagogy for decades. Material dedicated to domestic and foreign scientists and their views, as well as foreign teaching experience, is presented as objectively as possible, without unambiguous evaluation. Critical analysis of various theories and approaches gave way to exposition and commentary. The information presented in this way in the encyclopedia is sufficient for the reader to identify a rational grain in a particular position and make his own assessment.
In general, the unifying position of numerous authors of the encyclopedia was the recognition of childhood as an intrinsically valuable, unique stage in a person’s life, as well as the affirmation of the right of every child to a full-fledged education in accordance with his abilities and inclinations. The main emphasis is placed on the obvious advantages of democratic forms of education and training over authoritarian approaches. The authors also sought to emphasize the idea of the necessary continuity of positive historical and national traditions in education and upbringing.
The formation of personality is not a narrowly pedagogical, but a universal human problem. It attracted the attention of thinkers from different eras, including those who are not traditionally classified as teachers, but whose reasoning about human nature played an important role in the development of pedagogical thought. In the encyclopedia, separate articles are devoted to some of these major figures, which do not reflect the entirety of the views of this or that scientist or writer, but are focused on presenting his concept in accordance with the specifics of this publication.
Certain concepts are included in the pedagogical encyclopedia for the first time. This is a series psychological concepts, which have previously received insufficient attention, but which are of fundamental importance for pedagogy. These are also some concepts of philosophy and ethics, without understanding which judgments about the humanization of education lose scientific ground. Information from the field of medicine, physiology, anatomy, morphology, etc. is presented quite succinctly, since it is only indirectly related to pedagogical issues and can be gleaned from other sources.
Material in Russian pedagogical encyclopedia presented in the form traditionally accepted in domestic encyclopedic publications. Articles are arranged in alphabetical order. Terms consisting of two or more words are placed in such a way that the first place is taken by the word that carries the logical emphasis (for example, Age-related crises), with the exception of cases of established phrases (for example, Developmental psychology). In some cases, inversion is allowed (for example, the Peoples of the North Institute). If necessary, etymological information is provided. Connections between different articles are established using references (the title of the corresponding article in the text of another article is given in italics). For the sake of compactness of presentation, abbreviations accepted in the encyclopedia were used, a list of which is given on p. 7-8.
The editorial board expresses gratitude to all organizations and individuals who took part in the creation of the Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia.

RUSSIAN

PEDAGOGICAL
ENCYCLOPEDIA

IN TWO VOLUME

VOLUME I
(A-L)

Editor-in-Chief V. G. PANOV
Deputies editor-in-chief: V. I. BORODULIN, A. P. GORKIN, A. A. GUSEV, N. M. LANDA

Moscow
Scientific publishing house " THE GREAT RUSSIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA"
1993

Editor-in-Chief V.V. DAVYDOV
EDITORIAL TEAM

I. Y. LERNER, A. V. MUDRIK, B. M. YEMENSKY,

VOLUME II
(M-Z)

Chairman of the Scientific Editorial Board of the Publishing House A. M. PROKHOROV
Editor-in-Chief A. P. GORKIN
Deputy editors-in-chief: V. I. BORODULIN, V. M. KAREV, N. M. LANDA

Moscow
Scientific publishing house "GREAT RUSSIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA"
1999

EDITORIAL TEAM
V. V. DAVYDOV (editor-in-chief),
E. D. DNEPROV (deputy editor-in-chief),
V. P. ZINCHENKO, I. S. KON, V. Y. LAKSHIN,
I. Y. LERNER, A. V. MUDRIK, B. M. NEMENSKY,
A. V. PETROVSKY, M. A. PROKOFIEV,
M. N. SKATKIN, N. M. SHAHMAEV.

UDC 37(03) BBK 74 ya2 P 76
Head Edited by D. V. IGNATIEV,
leading scientists editors L. S. GLEBOVA, O. D. GREKULOVA,
scientific editors S. S. STEPANOV, A. O. TOLSTIKHINA,
editor N.V. LARIONOVA.
Continuous reading – Doctor of Geography. Sciences A. P. GORKIN, Candidate of Philosophy Sciences H. M. L AND A.
Editorial staff of illustrations - chief artist of the publishing house A. V. AKIMOV, leading artist. editor N.I. KOMISSAROVA, artist B.K. MIROSHIN.
Literary control editorial office - head. Edited by T. N. PARFYONOVA, editors S. L. LAVROVA, N. G. RUDNITSKAYA.
Bibliography group - group leader T. N. KOVALENKO, editors G. A. SADOVA, N. K. TOLMACHYOVA.
Transcription and Etymology Group - group leader, Ph.D. Sciences Yu. F. PANASENKO, editor M. S. EPITASHVILI.
Technical edition - head. Edited by O. D. SHAPOSHNIKOV, tech. editor T. F. ALEXANDROV.
Production department - head. department of I. A. VETROV, leading process engineer G. N. ROMANOVA, process engineer V. F. KASYANOVA, leading specialist G. S. SHUR-SHAKOVA.
Proofreading department - head. proofreader Zh. A. ERMOLAEV, art. proofreaders L. S. VAINSHTEIN, V. N. IVLEVA, E. A. KULAKOVA, S. F. LIKHACHEVA, A. V. MARTYNOVA, L. A. SELEZNEVA, A. S. SHALAEVA, M. D. STRAMEL, proofreader A. A. VOLCHENKOVA.
Department of reading and production of typesetting original - head. Department N.V. SHEVERDINSKAYA, Art. proofreaders O. V. GUSEVA, T. B. SABLINA, I. T. SAMSONOVA, V. I. CHUVILEVA, G. B. SHIBALOVA.
Manuscript Reprinting Department - Head. Department of L. P. GORYACHEV, L. A. MALTSIN.
Commercial department - head. Department of I. N. DANILOV.
Chief Economist A.I. SOLODOVNIKOV A.
First Deputy Director N. S. ARTEMOV.
Deputy Director for Commercial Affairs I. Z. NURGALIEV.
Federal book publishing program of Russia.
ISBN 5-85270-286-2
© Scientific publishing house "Big Russian Encyclopedia", 1999.

37(03) P76
Editorial Board of Pedagogy and Public Education
Head Edited by Yu. H. KOPOTKOB, D. V. IGNATIEV,
leading scientists editors L. S. GLEBOVA, O. D. GREKULOVA, S. R. MALKINA.
scientific editors S. S. STEPANOV, A. O. TOLSTIKHINA, I. V. SHADRINA,
editor N.V. LARIONOVA.
The following took part in the preparation of the publication:
Deputy editor-in-chief of the publishing house, doctor of geogr. Sciences A. P. GORKIN.
Consultant A.I. FOTEEVA.
Leading scientist editor of the Scientific Editorial Council, candidate of philology. Sciences G. V. YAKUSHEVA.
Head by the editors of philosophy, candidate of philosophy. Sciences N. M. LANDA.
Group of Medicine – scientific. editor candidate of biology Sciences N. E. VESENINA.
Editorial board of the dictionary – scientific. editors T. A. SVIRIDOVA, L. P. SIDOROVA.
Literary control test - head. edited by G. I. ZAMANI, T. N. PARFYONOVA, art. editor I. I. PETROVA, editors G. I. LEMESHONOK, N. G. RUDNITSKAYA.
Bibliography group – Art. scientific editor V. A. STULOV, senior editors 3. S. IZMAILOVA, T. N. KOVALENKO.
Transcription and Etymology Group – scientific. editors E. L. RIF, N. K. TOLMACHEVA, M. S. EPITASHVILI.
Fact verification and comparison group - group leader T. V. ZHUKOVA, scientific. editor, candidate of art history M. V. ESIPOVA, editors E. V. ADAMOVA, N. I. RODINA, I. S. RYAKHOVSKAYA, G. F. SERPOVA.
Control and dispatch service - head G. S. SHURSHAKOVA, editors T. I. KRASOVITSKAYA, A. V. SAVINA.
Technical edition - head. Edited by R. T. NIKISHINA, technical. editor T. F. ALEXANDROV.
Production department - deputy. head department of V. N. MARKIN, process engineers M. N. ANDREEVA, V. F. KASYANOVA.
Proofreading department - head. proofreader Zh. A. ERMOLAEV, art. proofreaders S. N. BUTYUGIN, V. N. IVLEVA, S. F. LIKHACHEVA.
Department of reading and production of typesetting original, head. Department N.V. SHEVERDINSKAYA, Art. proofreaders T. B. SABLINA, I. T. SAMSONOVA, E. E. TRUBITSYNA.
Manuscript Reprinting Department - Head. Department of L. A. MALTSIN.
Editing of illustrations - head. edited by A. V. AKIMOV, artist. editors G. A. ZHURAVLEVA, M. K. MOREINIS.
Artist B.K. MIROSHIN.
Deputy production director N. S. ARTEMOV.
Deputy Director for Commercial Affairs Yu. I. ZAVEDETSKY.
4303000000-021 007(01) – 93
ISBN 5-85270 140-8 (vol. 1) 5-85270-114-9
© Scientific publishing house "Big Russian Encyclopedia", 1993

LIST OF BASIC ABBREVIATIONS

abs. – absolute
Aug. – August
auto – autonomous
adm. – administrative
Asian. – Asian
acad. – academician
AKB - Academy of Communist Education named after. N. K. Krupskaya
alm. – almanac
AMS – Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR
AN – Academy of Sciences
antique – antique
AON – Academy of Social Sciences
APN – Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
arch. – archival, architect
architect – architectural
ace. – assistant
ACS – Automated control system
AH – Academy of Arts
B. – Big
b. year - no year
b. m. - no space
b. h. – most of, for the most part
bib. – bibliography, bibliographic
biol. – biological
b-ka - library
Bl. East – Middle East
nerd. – botanical letters. - literally being. – former bulletin. – Bulletin V. – East
V. – century, issue
including – including
VASKHNIL - All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences named after. V. I. Lenina
centuries – centuries
Vel. Otech. war – Great Patriotic War 1941-45
vet. – veterinary
VKIP - Higher Communist Institute of Education
on – inclusive
VKP(b) – All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)
Komsomol – All-Union Leninist Communist Youth Union
chvnesh. – external
external – extracurricular
GNP – gross national product
internal – internal
military – military
eastern – eastern
VS – Supreme Council
All-Russian – All-Russian
All – All-Union
entry – introductory
university – higher education institution
higher – highest
g. – year. city
gas. - newspaper
GBL - State. Library of the USSR named after. V. I. Lenina
gg. – years, cities
gene. - general, general
geogr. – geographical
geol. – geological
Ch. – chief, head
Ch. arr. - mainly
mountains – urban
state – state
state - state
citizen – civil
lips – province
GUS – State Scientific Council
D. East - Far East
d.ch. – full member
democr. – democratic
dep. – deputy, department
village - village
det. – children's
diss. – dissertation
doc. – documentary
Dokl. – Reports
docs - documents
add. - additional, addition
doshk. – preschool
doctor - doctor
Dr. - Ancient
other - other
Youth Sports School - Children's Youth Sports School_
European – European
units – unit
monthly – monthly
and. d. – Railway
railway – railway
wives - female
magazine - magazine
3. – west
head – manager
deputy – deputy
Zap. – Notes
zap. – western
zarub. – foreign
honorable activities - Honored Worker
zool. – zoological
fav. – favorites
Izv. - famous, famous
ed. – edition
publishing house - publishing house
ill. – illustrations
them. – name
imp. - emperor, imperial
industr. – industrial
Eng. – engineering
INO – Institute of Public Education
insp. – inspector
int - institute
information – informational
IPAN – Institute of Psychology of the USSR Academy of Sciences
IPK – Institute for Advanced Studies
art - art
research - study
ist. – historical
source – sources
IUU – Institute for Teacher Development
Ph.D. – candidate
Ph.D. diss. - PhD thesis
department – department
class - Class
k.-l. – any
book - book
Ph.D. - some
qty – quantity
coll. – collective
column – colonial
Colkh. – collective farm
coma – Komsomol
con. - end
conf. – Conference of the CPSU – Communist Party Soviet Union
to-ry - which
committee - committee
cult.-enlightenment – cultural and educational
LSPI - Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after. A. I. Herzen
Leningrad State University - Leningradsky State University
Linen. Ave. – Lenin Prize
leningr. – Leningradsky
treat – medicinal
lit. – literary
lit-ra - literature
LIFLI – Leningrad Institute of Philosophy, Literature, History
Max. – maximum
MAPRYAL – International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature
math. – mathematical
materials - materials
mash.-builds. – mechanical engineering
IBE – International Bureau of Education
MVTU - Moscow Higher Technical School named after. N. E. Bauman
MGZPI – Moscow State Correspondence Pedagogical Institute
MGPDI – Moscow State Pedagogical Defectological Institute
MGPI - Moscow State Pedagogical Institute named after. V. I. Lenina
Moscow State Pedagogical Institute named after. Potemkin – Moscow City Pedagogical Institute named after. V. I. Potemkina
MSU – Moscow State University
honey. – medical, medal
international - international
month - month
method. – methodical
min – minute
min. – minister
min-in - ministry
min. – minimal
MIFLI – Moscow Institute of Philosophy, Literature and History
ml. - Jr
million – million
billion – billion
pl. – many
MNP – Ministry of Public Education
MOIP – Moscow Society of Natural Scientists
MOPI named after. Krupskaya – Moscow Regional Pedagogical Institute named after. N. K. Krupskaya
mor. – sea
washers – Moscow
MP – Ministry of Education
husband. – male
music – musical
Muslim – Muslim
N. ST. - A NEW STYLE
n. e. - our era
called - called, called
name - Name
max. - most, greatest
name – name, smallest
eg - For example
adv. – folk
us. - population
present - real
people's commissar - people's commissar
Narkompros – People's Commissariat of Education
scientific – scientific
national - National
beginning – beginning, initial, chief
week - week
unknown - unknown, unknown
some – some
several - some
n.-i. – research
Research Institute - Research Institute
Research Institute of Defectology - Research Institute of Defectology of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Research Institute of Far East - Research Institute of Preschool Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Research Institute of Computer Science - Research Institute of Informatics and Computer Science of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
Research Institute OOV – Research Institute general education adults APN USSR
Research Institute of EPP - Research Institute of General and Pedagogical Psychology of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Research Institute of EP - Research Institute of General Pedagogy of the Academy of Pedagogics of the USSR
Research Institute of OPV – Research Institute common problems Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Scientific Research Institute Pryansh - Scientific Research Institute for Teaching the Russian Language at the National School of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Research Institute of PTP - Research Institute of Vocational and Technical Pedagogy of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Research Institute SIMO - Research Institute of Contents and Methods of Teaching of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Research Institute TOP - Research Institute of Labor Training and Career Guidance of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Research Institute UENO - Research Institute of Management and Economics of Public Education of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
Research Institute of Physiology of Children and Adolescents of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Scientific Research Institute of Art and Culture - Scientific Research Institute of Artistic Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Scientific Research Institute SHOTSO - Scientific Research Institute of School Equipment and Technical Means of Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
O. - island
society - society
region – region, regional
OK. - near
env. – district
ONO – Department of Public Education
UN – United Nations
publ. - published, published
org. - organized, organized
org-tion - organization
orig. – original
basic – founded, main
resp. - responsible
dept. – separate, department
father – domestic
official – official
desk – party
ped. – pedagogical
lane - translation
rename – renamed
Petersburg – St. Petersburg
Petrograd – Petrogradsky
pl. - square
floor. – half
polygraph. – printing
Polytechnic – Polytechnic
pom. – assistant
village - village
having eaten - dedicated
fast. - decree, staging, permanent
honor h. – honorary member
etc. – bonus, etc.
pr-vo - government
prev – chairman
preface – preface
Prez. - the president. Presidium
preim. – mainly
approx. - approximately
adj. - application
approx. – note
province - "province"
prod. - work
production - production
prom. – industrial
industry - industry
prof. – professor, professional
prof.-tech. – vocational and technical
pseudo. – pseudonym
psychol. – psychological
Vocational school - vocational school
publ. – publication
R. - river, born
section - chapter
section – various
RANION – Russian Association of Research Institutes of Social Sciences
RAO – Russian Academy education
roar – revolutionary
ed. – editor, editors
dir. - director
religious – religious
rep. – republican
ref. - abstract
rec. – review
Rome. – Roman
rice. - drawing
district - district
genus. - was born
grew up – Russian
pp. – rivers
RTO – Russian Technical Society
N. – north
s – second
With. – village, page
rank – sanitary
With. farming - agriculture
Sat. - collection, collections - collections
St. - from above
Social-Democrats – social democrat, social democratic
north – northern
sat down – rural, village
ser. – middle, series
Sib. – Siberian
track. - next
see - look
SM – Council of Ministers
al. – co-author
Council of People's Commissars, Council of People's Commissars - Council of People's Commissars
collection - meeting
collection Op. – collected works
own – actually
owls – Soviet
joint - together, joint
modern - modern
abbr. - abbreviation, abbreviated
Op. - composition
specialist. - special
sport. – sporty
SPTU – secondary vocational school
Wed – compare, average
Middle-century – medieval
Art. – article, station, senior
stlb. – column
poem. - poem
building - construction
agricultural – agricultural
SH – Union of Artists
t. – volume
i.e. – that is
since - since
so-called - so-called
That. - Thus
table - table
t-vo - partnership
text. – textile
terr. – territorial, territory
tetr. - notebook
tech. – technical
technol. – technological
t-p – theater
tr. – works
TSO – technical means training
vol. – volumes
TU - technical school
thousand - thousand, millennium
Youth Theater - theater for young spectators
u. – county
UVK – educational and educational complex
univ - university
UPK – training and production plant
conventional – conditional
outdated – outdated
uch. – educational
studying - students
school - school
fam. - surname
fash. – fascist
feud. – feudal
FZD - factory nine-year plan
FZO - factory training
FZS - factory seven-year plan
FZU - factory apprenticeship
physical – physical
physics and mathematics – physical and mathematical
physiol. – physiological
fi lol. – philological
Philosopher – philosophical
finance - financial
fp. – piano
FPK – Faculty of Advanced Training
faculty - faculty
farming - farming
chem. – chemical
household – economic
Christ – Christian
artist – artistic
church – church
Central Committee - Central Committee
CEC – Central Executive Committee
CNS - central nervous system
h – hour
h. – part
people - Human
Thursday - quarter
member – member
h.-k. – corresponding member
school – school
ShKM -_ school of peasant youth, school of collective farm youth
ShSM – school rural youth
SHRM – school for working youth
PC. - state, thing
COMPUTER - electronic computer
copy – instance
econ. – economic
let's experiment – experimental
ethnographic – ethnographic
Yu - south
South Africa - South African Republic
south – southern
UNRSCO – Organization
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Affairs
legal – legal
language - language
Note. 1. Abbreviations of words denoting state, language or nationality (for example, English - English, Russian - Russian), names of months (for example, April - April, April) are used. 2. In adjectives and participles, it is allowed to cut off endings and suffixes: “alny”, “annay”, “elny”, “elsky”, “enny”, weighty”, “ionic”, etc. (for example, central, foreign. , means., published, natural, practical, demonstrative, etc.).
Abbreviations in the names of common scientific periodicals of the USSR"
VLU – “Bulletin of Leningrad State University”
VMU – “Bulletin of Moscow State University”
VP – “Questions of Psychology”
VF – “Questions of Philosophy”
VYa – “Issues of Linguistics”
DAN – “Reports of the USSR Academy of Sciences”
IAN – “Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences” UZ – “Scientific Notes”
PZh – “Psychological Journal” CHIDR – “Readings in the Society of History and
TODRL - “Proceedings of the Department of Old Russian Antiquities at the Moscow University of Literature of the Institute of Russian Literature”
Abbreviations in the names of pedagogical periodicals
BS – “Biology at school”
BBIII – “Bulletin of Higher School”
VS – “Education of schoolchildren”
GS – “Geography at school”
DV – “Pre-school education”
ZhMNP – “Journal of the Ministry of People’s
enlightenment"
IAPN – “News of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences” ILS – “Foreign languages at school”
LS – “Literature at school”
MS – “Mathematics at school”
NO – “Public Education”
NS – “Primary School”
PISH – “Teaching History at School”
VET – “Vocational and technical education”
RYANSH - “Russian language in the national school”
RYASSH - “Russian language in the Soviet school”
RYAS – “Russian language at school”
SP – “Soviet pedagogy”
SSO – “Secondary Specialized Education”
Secondary school – “Family and school”
UG - "Teacher's Newspaper"
FS – “Physics at school”
HS – “Chemistry at school”
SHIP – “School and production”
City name abbreviations
In Russian
A.-A. – Alma-Ata Ash. – Ashgabat B. – Baku V. – Vilnius G. – Bitter Shower. – Dushanbe Er. – Yerevan K. – Kyiv Kaz. – Kazan Kish. – Chisinau L. – Leningrad M. – Moscow
Mn. – Minsk
Novosib. – Novosibirsk
Od. – Odessa
P. – Petrograd (St. Petersburg)
R. – Riga
SPB – St. Petersburg
Tal. – Tallinn
Tash. – Tashkent
Tb. – Tbilisi
Fr. – Frunze
On foreign languages
V. – Berlin
Bdpst – Budapest
Brat. – Bratislava
Brux. – Bruxelles
Buc. – Bucuresti
Camb. – Cambridge
Fr./M. – Frankfurt am Main
Gen. – Geneve
Gott. – Gottingen
Hamb, – Hamburg
Hdeb. – Heidelberg
L. – London
Lpz. – Leipzig Mil. – Milano Munch. – Munchen N.Y. – New York Oxf. – Oxford P. – Paris Stockh. – Stockholm Stuttg. – Stuttgart W. – Wien Warsz. – Warszawa Z. – Zurich.

Publisher:

Moscow, “Great Russian Encyclopedia”, 1993

From the editorial board

Our country has experience in publishing such works. However, the Pedagogical Encyclopedia, published in 1927-29 in 3 vols. edited by A.G. Kalashnikov today is more of a historical and scientific source than a reference source. To a certain extent, the same can be said about the two-volume Pedagogical Dictionary (1960-61) and the four-volume Pedagogical Encyclopedia (1964-1968).

The creators of the encyclopedia are aware that not a single scientific reference publication, especially in the humanities, can claim to be considered completely independent of the ideological trends of its time, scientific traditions, and sometimes emotional predilections. Similar publications from past years bear the imprint of their era. In recent decades, and especially in the last few years, in the field of psychological and pedagogical knowledge there has been a revaluation of many theories and facts that previously seemed unconditional. Considerable experience has also been accumulated - both positive and, it must be admitted, negative - in the field of education.

The Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia strives to reflect as objectively as possible the current level of development of domestic pedagogical science and practice. A complex and contradictory stage in the life of the state and society cannot but affect the state of pedagogy and the education system. Therefore, the material presented in the encyclopedia bears the imprint of those social trends that, even if not fully formed, now determine the development of pedagogical science and practice.

Our ingrained perception of encyclopedic literature is characterized by its assessment by the reader as a normative source. From modern positions, this view cannot be considered justified, since in the field of humanities in general and pedagogy in particular, a monopoly on truth does not at all serve the cause of a creative approach to the topic under consideration. Of course, the factual material presented in the encyclopedia has been carefully checked. As for the definitions given to this or that concept, as well as scientific interpretations of various phenomena and facts, the editorial board abandoned attempts to formulate them in the final version. In modern science, a number of concepts have many definitions that are not always consistent with each other. Scientific interpretation of certain phenomena is also carried out from different positions. Therefore, in most cases, the content of a problematic article reflects mainly the position of the specialist who wrote it. In this regard, the text of encyclopedia articles cannot and should not serve as an indisputable argument in scientific discussion. In particular, the bibliography of articles includes sources that reflect approaches to the problem other than the author’s. This partly reveals one of the goals of the encyclopedia - to stimulate scientific thought and creative search.

In light of emerging trends in modern pedagogy, the content of the encyclopedia has undergone significant changes in comparison with previous publications of a similar profile. The creators of the encyclopedia sought to free the text from ideological cliches and attitudes that had dominated Russian pedagogy for decades. Material dedicated to domestic and foreign scientists and their views, as well as foreign teaching experience, is presented as objectively as possible, without unambiguous evaluation. Critical analysis of various theories and approaches gave way to exposition and commentary. The information presented in this way in the encyclopedia is sufficient for the reader to identify a rational grain in a particular position and make his own assessment.

In general, the unifying position of numerous authors of the encyclopedia was the recognition of childhood as an intrinsically valuable, unique stage in a person’s life, as well as the affirmation of the right of every child to a full-fledged education in accordance with his abilities and inclinations. The main emphasis is placed on the obvious advantages of democratic forms of education and training over authoritarian approaches. The authors also sought to emphasize the idea of the necessary continuity of positive historical and national traditions in education and upbringing.

The formation of personality is not a narrow pedagogical, but a universal human problem. It attracted the attention of thinkers from different eras, including those who are not traditionally classified as teachers, but whose reasoning about human nature played an important role in the development of pedagogical thought. In the encyclopedia, separate articles are devoted to some of these major figures, which do not reflect the entirety of the views of this or that scientist or writer, but are focused on presenting his concept in accordance with the specifics of this publication.

Certain concepts are included in the pedagogical encyclopedia for the first time. This is a series of psychological concepts that have previously received insufficient attention, but which are of fundamental importance for pedagogy. These are also some concepts of philosophy and ethics, without understanding which judgments about the humanization of education lose scientific ground. Information from the field of medicine, physiology, anatomy, morphology, etc. is presented quite succinctly, since it is only indirectly related to pedagogical issues and can be gleaned from other sources.

The material in the Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia is presented in the form traditionally accepted in domestic encyclopedic publications. Articles are arranged in alphabetical order. Terms consisting of two or more words are placed in such a way that the first place is taken by the word that carries the logical emphasis (for example, Age-related crises), with the exception of cases of established phrases (for example, Developmental psychology). In some cases, inversion is allowed (for example, the Peoples of the North Institute). If necessary, etymological information is provided. Connections between different articles are established using references (the title of the corresponding article in the text of another article is given in italics). For the sake of compactness of presentation, abbreviations accepted in the encyclopedia were used, a list of which is given on p. 7-8.

The editorial board expresses gratitude to all organizations and individuals who took part in the creation of the Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia.

JABLONSKIS(Jablonskis) Jonas, lit. linguist, educator, teacher. Graduated from History and Philology. faculty Moscow University with a degree in classical studies. philology". Student of F. E. Korsh (candidate of university, 1888). From 1890 he taught at gymnasiums in Mitava (Jelgava), Revel (Tallinn), etc., at the teacher's seminary in Panevezys and at the Voronezh Teachers' Institute. In 1902-03 for involvement in Lithuania. foreign press was sent to Pskov. Prof. at Kaunas University (1922-26). With its linguistic works written under the influence of Russian. Philol. schools (F.F. Fortunatov and others), contributed to the formation of litas norms. lit. language. “Grammar of Lithuania. language" Ya. (1901) was a generalization of this process and after the official. permission to teach the native language (1905) became the first manual for teaching this subject in Lithuania. schools. Author of the first program (1906) and a number of studies. benefits in Lithuania language. I streamlined the spelling of litas. language adopted in the 20s. Compiled one of the first schools. Lithuanian anthology. literature (parts 1-2, 1916-35). He was the author of a method and manuals for teachers. Contributed to the development of the curriculum. terminology for a number of school subjects. courses: chemistry, mathematics, geography, etc., as well as linguistics. Translated into Lithuanian. language some artists works by I. A. Krylov and other Russians. authors, books by J. Sand and others; uch. manuals on arithmetic by A.P. Kiselyov, on geography by S.P. Mech, etc. For the first time he published op. Chew.

Op. in Lithuanian language: Collection cit., vol. 1-5, Kaunas, 1932-36; Favorite cit., vol. 1-2, Vilnius, 1957-59; Letters, Vilnius, 1985; Articles and letters, Vilnius, 1990.

Lit. in Lithuanian language: Pirochkinas A.M., At the origins of lit. language, Vilnius, 1977; him, I. Yablonsky and lit. lit. language, Vilnius, 1978. A. M. Pirochkinas.

YAVORSKY Boleslav Leopoldovich, musicologist, composer, pianist, teacher, society, activist; der art history (1941), prof. Kyiv (1916) and Moscow. (1938) conservatories. Graduated from Moscow. Conservatory (1903) in composition class. Student of S.I. Taneyev. From 1906 he took part in the organization and taught in the first Moscow Moscow. adv. Conservatory, prepared a teacher for her. plans, programs, method, materials. Organizer "Muz. exhibitions." Considered the people. the conservatory as a school, which is capable of introducing people to the music.

culture of the general population. Since 1917, director of the Kyiv People's Republic. Conservatory (KNK). Organizer and director of music training courses. teachers from students and graduates of KNK. Compiled a program for music groups. education - children and adults. Contributed to the opening of 35 children in Kyiv. music schools and classes in education. institutions for sick children, including, for example, in the “House of the Blind”.

From 1921, at the invitation of A. B. Lunacharsky, he was in charge of music. Department of the People's Commissar of Millet. Under the leadership of Ya., the reorganization of music was carried out. education and related institutions, programs were revised and a unified educational system was created. plan. In 1921-31 he taught at the 1st Moscow. music technical school The first children's room was opened in 1922. music school, which worked according to the Ya system as the first stage of prof. music education.

Contributed to the creation of the foundations of mass music. education in the country. The purpose of music education considered the development of the child’s intellectual and creative qualities, contributing to the formation of an artist. and music thinking. Ya believed that internal. artist The child’s potency is awakened by “listening to the sounds of nature, to the sound of the human voice, to the direct intonations of humanity - people. the song in its entirety..." Attaching importance to the educational environment as the initial stimulus for creativity, Ya. already in his early works pointed out that the acquisition of knowledge and skills is not a brake on the intensity of education. work. According to Ya., music. art acts in a trinity: composer - performer - listener. Perception, or, according to Ya., listening to music, is the most active form of music. activities.

Combining the formation of an aesthetically prepared listener with the development of personal qualities, Ya. brought to the fore the formation of creative abilities. Used movement, choral singing, performing activities, drawing, storytelling, etc. Music. images gave birth to literary, visual and vice versa. Developing associative thinking, various skills. types of art activities, Ya. sought to stimulate the music through them. creation. The process of its formation covered, but in Ya’s opinion, the accumulation of impressions, their spontaneous, sensory-motor, visual and speech manifestations, improvisation, the creation of orig. compositions.

The basis of the YA teaching system is the “expansion method”, which pursues the goals of revealing and developing artistic and musical skills. child's talents; important had the children's initiative. Ya. associated the solution to this problem with the selection for study and performance of works marked by vivid images, conveying deep feelings, evoking an emotional response in children.

Works: Selected works, vol. 2, part 1, ed. D. D. Shostakovich, M, 1987.

Lit. B. Yavorsky. Articles, memoirs, correspondence, vol. l, M, 19722; Morozova S., From the history of mass music. education. B. L. Yavorsky, “Muz. education at school", 1977, c. 12; s e, Far-close. (B. L. Yavorsky about musical education of children), ibid., 1985, century. 16.

WITH. N Morozova.

YAGAWA TOKUMITSU(1900, Nagasaki, - 14.7.1983, Tokyo), Japanese. teacher Graduated from Kyoto University. Prof. a number of high fur boots in Japan. In the 30s published in a journal. “New Pedagogy” articles about Sov. school and pedagogy. After World War II, in the works “Critique of the New Education” (1950), “The Crisis of the Japanese. education" (1953), "Nar. pedagogy" (1957) contrasted the ideas of people. pedagogy new education. In the book "Development of owls. pedagogy" (1950), "Modern. owls pedagogy" (1955) Ya. T. covered the basics. ideas of owls pedagogy, theory and practice A. S. Makarenko, gave an interpretation of polytechnic. training in Soviet school. Ya. T. was a member of the Society for the Democratization of the People. education, since 1960 previous Society for the Study of Owls. pedagogy, created on his initiative. Translated into Japanese. language ped. Op. N.K. Krupskaya, A.V. Lunacharsky, A.S. Makarenko, a number of textbooks and monographs by Sov. teachers.

In the works “On methodological. the meaning of determinism in the Soviet Union. pedagogy" (1961), "Search for people. education" (1962), "What is education" (1970), etc. Ya. T. formulated his own concept of personality, considering the child as an "object-subject" of education.

M L Rodionov.

YAGODIN Gennady Alekseevich (b. June 3, 1927, village of Bolshoy Vyas, now in the Penza region), educator, chemist, teacher, member of the faculty. RAS (member of the USSR Academy of Sciences since 1976), academician. RAO (1992), der chem. Sciences (1967), prof. (1967). Graduated from Moscow. chemical technology Institute named after D. I. Mendeleev (Moscow Chemical Technology Institute, 1950), subsequently taught there (from 1966 dean of the faculty; in 1974-86 rector). Author of works and inventions in chemistry and technology, inorganic. materials of nuclear technology. State USSR Ave. (1985). In 1963-1965 deputy gene. Director of the IAEA (Vienna).

Since 1985 min. higher and middle specialist. formation of the USSR, in 1987-91 before. State Institute of the USSR according to folklore education. One of the initiators of the first Congress of Education Workers in the USSR (1988), at which he received society support for the course towards the humanization of teaching and education. process and democracy

tization of account management establishments. Ch. considered the path of reform to be the promotion of the student’s personality to the center of pedagogy. work will be formed. institutions, transforming the school from a purely state institution into one managed with broad participation of the public, parents and students themselves, restoring the principles of internal autonomy and economics independence of universities (book “Through humanization and democratization to a new quality of education”, 1988). Since 1991 rector of International University (Moscow), one of the first in Russia. Federation of non-state univ.

In the field of scientific Ya.'s interests - environmental problems. education. At the Moscow Chemical Technology Institute he organized the department of industrial engineering. Ecology (1966), which for the first time began to produce engineers of this profile. Head (since 1988) of the Environmental Center. education in Moscow. Author and co-author of many others. books on this issue, including those addressed to schools. teachers (“Problems of environmental education”, Kaz., 1990). Ed. Ya. published in Russian. translation of T. Miller's textbook “Life in the Environment” (1993-95).

Works: Continuous ecology. preparation of students, M., 1984 (co-author); About ecology training of process engineers, M., 1985 (co-author); Nar. education in the USSR on the threshold of the 21st century: the course of perestroika and renewal, M., 1988; Some recommendations for creating a continuous environmental system. Education, M., 1995.

YAGODOWSKY Konstantin Pavlovich, methodologist-naturalist. Graduated from St. Petersburg. University (1901), taught natural science in schools in Orenburg and St. Petersburg. From 1916 he headed the teachers' institute in Glukhov (now in the Sumy region of Ukraine). After 1919, Ya. opened a school in Glukhov. an institution of a new type, in which the ideas of a labor school were put into practice. In 1923-43 he worked in pedagogy. universities and research institutions in Leningrad, Moscow, Sverdlovsk. Works on the methods of natural science in the beginning. school, in which mainly attention was paid to guiding the process of formation and development of concepts. Developed the content and methodology of practical training. and laboratory work in natural science, botany, anatomy and physiology, sought to give them a research character, taking into account the interests and capabilities of students. Author pl. visual aids.

From: Lessons on natural science in the beginning. school, parts 1-2, P., 1916; the same, parts 1-2, [M.], 1921; A living corner at school and at home. Plants, M.-L., 1927; Questions of general methods of natural science. Entry article by M. N. Skatkin, M., 1936; M., 19542.

Lit.. Raikov B. E., Ways and methods of naturalistics. education, M., I960.

3. A. Klepinina.

LANGUAGE OF TRAINING, language in which education is carried out. process in this formation. institution (i.e. the language of communication between the teacher and students in the classroom, the language of programs and textbooks, etc.). In a number

legal documents (for example, in the Law “On the languages of the peoples of the RSFSR”) the concept “language of education and training” is also used, which is not clearly defined.

In the mononational gos-vakh Ya. o., as a rule, serves as the state language, which is also the native language for most students.

The problem of Ya. o. is much more complex. in a multinational state-wahs, where, along with majoritarian (i.e. predominant) there are so-called. minority languages (minority languages). Free choice by the student (or his parents) of one or another self. is one of the fundamental linguistic human rights (along with the right to choose native language). The right to such a choice is secured by a number of international, regional, and legal documents. Yes, in Europe. Charter on Regions, Languages and Minority Languages, adopted by the Council of Europe on 5 November. 1992, provides for the obligations of the parties to “make accessible” preschool, beginning, middle, technical. and professional, university and other higher education in the region, languages and minority languages “in accordance with the situation of each of these languages and without prejudice to teaching official language", as well as take measures to provide courses for adults and continuing education courses where teaching is carried out in Ch. arr. or entirely in a region, languages or minority languages.

The UN Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to Nationalities. or ethnic, religious. and Linguistic Minorities (18 Dec. 1992), contains more cautious language: “States shall take appropriate measures to ensure that, where feasible, persons belonging to minorities have adequate opportunities to learn their mother tongue or be taught in their mother tongue "(Article 4.4).

In this regard, the legislation of the Russian Federation corresponds to global and European legislation. level. In the current Law on the Languages of the Peoples of the RSFSR (October 1991) in Art. 8 provides for the right to freely choose the language of education and training, state. ensuring the creation of an education system. institutions in the languages of the peoples of Russia, the right of choice by parents will be formed. institutions with one or another language of education and training, as well as state assistance “in organizing various forms of education and training in their native language” for Russian citizens living outside their national state. and national-territorial formations, as well as those without them, for representatives of small peoples and ethnic groups. In the Law of the Russian Federation on Education, the right to choose Y. o. given to the founder of the formation. institutions. These rights in practice are limited by objective conditions, for example, the lack or absence of trained teachers, textbooks and other educational materials. materials, the lack of written language

new form, lack of scientific development. and socio-political. terminology, etc.

Most laws on languages of the republics within the Russian Federation copy the structure and reproduce the wording of the federal law. One of the exceptions is the language law in force in Tuva, which emphasizes, in particular, the importance of “continuity and continuity of education and training in the native language.”

Ya o. in a multinational (multilingual) state language often changes during the transition from one level of education to another. Thus, in the Russian Federation, along with languages used at all levels of education from primary to higher education (for example, Bashk., Tat., Russian), there are languages that are Ya. o. only for starters and Wed education, or Ya. o. only for starters schools (Avar, Dargin, Komi-Zyrian, etc.) or even only in grades 1-2. (Kalmyk, Karelian). In the future, this language usually continues to be studied as a subject, and as a language. Russian is used. language Ya o. V higher school most often is Russian, other languages are used like Ya. only when training specialists in a given language, literature and culture; so Bashkir is Yao. only on the head. philology and journalism Bashk. un-ta, f-tah bashk. philology and beginning classes Bashk. ped. Institute and similar departments of the Sterlitamak Pedagogical University. in-ta.

Among the “minority” languages of the Russian Federation there are many unwritten or written, but limited in their social functions mainly everyday communication and not used in the education system. In these cases, from the very beginning I. o. serves as an international language. communication. A necessary condition for this is massive bilingualism, taking place, for example, among the Khants, Kets (with the Russian language), among a number of small peoples of Dagestan (with the Avar language). However, in practice, not all children with a native unwritten language are sufficiently proficient in the international language. communication, which sharply reduces the effectiveness of learning on it.

According to the decree “On schools for national minorities”, adopted by the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR in 1918, all peoples of Russia had the right to organize schools. training in their native languages; this right was actively implemented in the 20s. Hence the increased attention of the authorities to training

in your native language. So, in 1922, the Yakut language was introduced into Yakut schools as Ya. o., and from 1929 it became compulsory in the Yakut national language. schools. In 1926 in the USSR it was approx. 86 thousand schools with one Ya. o. (in 57.5 thousand of them it was Russian), approx. 2.6 thousand - with two and about the same number of “mixed” schools with Russian language. and the study of other languages as subjects. In con. 90s in the Russian Federation schools with Russian Ya. o. OK. 58 thousand, with other Ya. o. - OK. 6.2 thousand, bilingual - approx. 4.3 thousand, mixed about 1.5 thousand. In bilingual schools, languages were often used in which there was no monolingual teaching, for example, Abaza, Karelian, Vepsian, Karachay, Teleut, Khakass.

In 1934 in the USSR there were 104 Ya. O., in 1988 - 44. In the schools of the RSFSR by the middle. 80s used 23 Ya. o. The reduction in their number in the previous period was influenced by objective factors associated with the involvement of the masses of the non-Russian population in households. and political processes where the Russian language predominated. In the USSR in the 50-70s. There has been a tendency to turn Russian into a second native language for many people. ethnic groups. This led to the displacement of the native language itself from the variety. spheres of its functioning, including education. On the individual, motivation in choosing Ya. influenced the quality of education. training, higher for students of schools with Russian language, and the opportunity to continue their education in Russian-language technical schools and universities (hence, broader prospects for professional and social mobility).

Number of Ya. o. in Russia schools in the middle 90s amounted to St. 50. Harmonization of individual, ethnic. and national interests in solving problems Ya. o. depends on the sequence of national policies and further education reforms.

Lit.: National culture in Russia Federation. Information bulletin, in. 1-3, M., 1992-93; Dyachkov M.V., Problems of bilingualism (multilingualism) and education, M., 1991; his, The social role of languages in multiethnics. societies, M., 1993; B a t sy and V.K., Kuzmin M.N., Nat. problems of education in Russia. Federation, M., 1994; X p u s l o v G. V. (compiled), Linguistic rights ethnic. minorities in education, M., 1994; LeontyevA. A., Language human rights. Observer, 1994, No. 1; Red Book of Languages of the Peoples of Russia, M., 1944; State languages in Russia Federation, M., 1995; Skutnabb-Kan-g a s T, Language and literacy rights minorities, L., 1990; Linguistic Human Rights, B.-N. Y., 1994; Multilingualism for all, Lisse, 1995.

A. A. Leontyev.

JACOBSON(Jakobson) Carl Robert, est. teacher, writer, society, activist. He graduated from the Valga Teachers' Seminary (1859). Worked as a teacher. schools in Torma (1859-62) and Yamburg (1862-63), home teacher and gymnasium teacher in St. Petersburg (1864-71). Since 1878 editor of the newspaper. “Sakala”, the edge of the old

La leading body Est. national movements of the 70-80s. 19th century One of the initiators of the creation and since 1881 pres. About-va est. writers, who began actively publishing textbooks for schools. In his journalism he opposed the class privileges of the Baltic-German. landowners in the field of education, for the creation of a system of people. schools under the jurisdiction of the state. bodies, not parishes and churches. authorities, for the translation of education into the native language of Estonian. peasants

Author school textbooks for est. adv. schools. His “New ABC” (“Uus Aabit-saraamat”, 1867) established the sound method of teaching literacy and a new spelling. In the "Book for school" readings" (“Ko-oli lugemise raamat”, parts 1-3; 1867-76) along with the works of Estonian literature. Literary widely used information on natural science and history; applied lesson planning, the material was presented systematically, with fragments highlighted for repetition; in the appendix to the 2nd part he gave a brief grammar of Est. language. “The Book...” I went through 15 editions over 40 years and was the most popular est. a book of its time. Compiled and published a school. geography textbooks (1868; first developed the Estonian academic terminology for this course) and German. language (1878), school. geogr. atlas (1873), anthology for teaching girls “Beads” (“Helmed”, 1880), several. popular science books. Ya.’s activities contributed to the creation of an organization-ped. foundations of mass est. adv. schools.

As a writer, J. is known for his poems and the play “Arthur and Anna” (1872).

From: Valitud teosed, kd. 1-2, Tallinn, 1959.

Lit.: Jansen E., Pöldmae R., C. R. Jakobson, Tallinn, 1968. A. Yu. Elango.

YAKOVLEV Ivan Yakovlevich, Chuvash, educator, democratic teacher, writer. Genus. in a peasant family. Received by Prof. education. In 1867 he entered the gymnasium and organized a school for the Chuvash in Simbirsk (1868), with the support of I.N. Ulyanova was accepted for state content. St. taught at this school for 50 years, which became the center of the national school. Chuvash, culture. After graduating from Kazan University (1875), he headed the first school he organized, and was at the same time an inspector of the Chuvash schools of the Kazan school. districts (until 1903). Contributed to the spread of education among non-Russians. peoples of the Volga region: with his participation, St. 1200 schools. Expanded the training of Chuvash teachers, boys and girls.

Under the leadership of N.I. Ileminsky improved (together with philology student I.I. Belilin) the Chuvash alphabet in Russian. graphic basis, which began to be used for publishing various. books in Chuvash, language. Prepared and published

the first bilingual “Primer for the Chuvash...” (1872). With the participation of Ya., books were compiled for reading in the beginning. school that contained his orig. stories from folklore everyday life, creatively processed samples of folklore. In these studies manuals Ya. applied didactic. ideas of K. D. Ushinsky. For students goals translated into Chuvash language. books to read and “The New Alphabet” by L. N. Tolstoy. Translated the production. A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, N. A. Nekrasov and others. Ya.’s books contributed to the formation of modern. Chuvash, language and the formation of a distinctive Chuvash literature. Wrote “The Original Russian Textbook.” language for the Chuvash" (1892). It means that you have achieved success in spreading Russian. language among non-Russians students. In the methodology the beginning training paid special attention to the formation of active bilingualism. Contributed to the implementation of the school. education of Chuvash girls, created shelters for orphans. He provided method and assistance to teachers, organized teachers' congresses and courses.

S o h: Det. stories, [Cheboksary, 1968]; Memoirs, Cheboksary, 19832; Letters, Cheboksary, 1985.

Lit.: Spiridonov S.S., Worldview of I. Ya. Yakovleva, M., 1965; I. Ya. Yakovlev in the memoirs of contemporaries, [Cheboksary, 1968]; Volkov G.N., Ideas of interethnic commonwealth in society.-ped. activities of I. Ya. Yakovlev, SP, 1973, No. 6; Krasnov N. G., I. Ya. Yakovlev. Life. Activity. Ped. ideas. Essays, Cheboksary, 1976; Chernova G. M., Goltsman Yu. P. [comp.], I. Ya. Yakovlev - an outstanding educator of the Chuvash people (1848-1930). Index of literature, ChebEksary, 1960. G. Ya. Volkov

YAKUTIA, Republic of Sakha, part of Russia. Federation. Pl. 3103.2 thousand km2. Us. St. 1 million people (1994), including Yakuts (approx. 34%), Russians (approx. 50%), Ukrainians (approx. 7%). The capital is Yakutsk.

Per 1000 people The population aged 15 years and older in 1994 accounted for 911 people. with higher and secondary (complete and incomplete) education (in 1979 - 792 people). The branches of the economy employed St. 170 thousand specialists, including St. 70 thousand with higher and St. 71 thousand from avg. specialist. education.

First Russian schools (garrison) opened in 1730; in 1739 they were converted into navigation ones; after decomposition reorganizations, the Yakut school operated until 1783, the Okhotsk school until 1870. Since 1735, schools of the Department of Orthodox Faith appeared. Since 1808, district schools were opened (the first was in Yakutsk), and since 1812, parish schools of the MNP were opened. We worked at the beginning. Cossack schools. Enlightens, activist

The exiled Decembrists M.I. Muravyov-Apostol (since 1828 in Vilyuysk; compiled several handwritten teaching aids) and A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky were involved in much of this work.

The first brief grammar of the Yakuts. language published in 1858 in Moscow by D. V. Khitrov (alphabet on Russian graphic basis). In the 70s 19th century Russian began to open. beginning schools in uluses and villages, several appeared. private schools. Many people contributed to the education of the Yakuts. rus. watered, exiled. He opened a home school in 1882 in the village. Amga writer V. G. Korolenko, who used the method and techniques of K. D. Ushinsky and N. F. Bunakov in teaching practice. In 1869, a pro-gymnasium was founded on the basis of a district school in Yakutsk, which was reorganized into a gymnasium in 1890. In 1882 the women's office opened. pro-gymnasium (from 1900 a gymnasium). A teachers' seminary was organized in 1912. By 1917 there were 173 schools. institutions, including 164 one-class schools (4.6 thousand students in total), 5 advanced schools and 4 secondary schools. uch. establishments. School enrollment did not reach 10%. Literacy among the Yakuts by 1917 was 2%. Teaching in all schools institutions were conducted in Russian. language

Since 1920, the creation of owls began. schools To Yakut. The ASSR (since 1922) introduced the Yakut alphabet in Latvian. graphic basis and published an ABC book compiled by S. A. Novgorodov (one of the leaders of the Yakut province. ONO), as well as the first book for reading at school. In the 1923/24 school year. there were 132 schools (6.4 thousand students). The first children appeared. gardens. Work has begun to eliminate illiteracy. Already in 1921 St. 100 educational points. The society “Yras oloh” (“Down with illiteracy!”) was organized. The elimination of mass illiteracy was completed in the 40s.

From 1923/24 academic year. In schools with a predominant contingent of Yakut students, education in their native language was introduced. Boarding education for children also began to become a practice, which over time became widespread and disrupted the continuity of family traditions in the villages. peoples Since 1926 Yakut. state The publishing house launched the release of Yakut. uch. liters. Teachers have been trained as educators since 1920. courses (3 years of study), later - pedagogical. technical College.

In the 1931/32 academic year. the introduction of obligatory duties began. beginning training. The state made a significant contribution to its implementation. activist, scientist and writer P. A. Oyunsky and organizer of the people. education of S. N. Donskoy. In the 1931/32 academic year. there were St. 480 schools (38.2 thousand students). The creation of prof. uch. institutions (in 1934 there were 17 technical schools and educational institutions). The first FZO courses for training mechanics, mechanics, etc. were opened at the Communications College. Yakut was opened in 1934. ped. int. From 1934/35 academic year. school started training in the Evenki language, the first Evenki primer was published (author - G. M. Vasilevich). In con. 30s Yakut and Evenki writing were translated into Russian. graphic basis.

Since 1949/50 academic year. obligatory was introduced. 7 year training. In 1950/51 St. 630 schools, including 37 secondary schools (a total of 65.5 thousand students; more than half of them studied in 7-year schools). In the 1961/62 school year. 8-year comprehensive education was carried out. In 685 general education. schools taught St. 108 thousand students, St. 6.2 thousand teachers. In the 70-80s. a course towards universal Wed was carried out. youth education. At the same time, the sphere of education of the indigenous peoples of the North in their native language. was shrinking. As a result, trends emerged that meant that the masses of children were separated from the national population. traditions, loss of knowledge of the native language, culture, history.

In 1996 in 911 doshk. institutions brought up St. 67 thousand children. Coverage of children of the appropriate age preschool. institutions compiled by St. 68%. More than 500 institutions provided education. work in Yakut, Even, Evenki and other northern languages. peoples (approx. 30 thousand people).

In 1996, St. 700 full-time general education schools, including those run by the Ministry of Education - 380 secondary, 114 basic, St. 80 primary (total about 200 thousand students). In con. 80s work has begun to revive the Yakuts. language at school, to expand the teaching of Evenki and other languages. Various are being developed. national development options education systems. In 1992 the republic was introduced. basic education plan (16 options), in which the principles of differentiation and individualization of education and the development of bilingualism are implemented. 9 gymnasiums were created (over 2 thousand students). There are 4 negos. Wed schools. St. received education in 19 evening schools. 4 thousand people St. 80 ext. institutions covered St. 30 thousand students. In schools and other general education. institutions occupied by St. 18 thousand teachers and educators, including St. 70% from higher education. Advanced training is carried out by Yakut. rep. IUU (founded in 1939). There is a branch (founded in 1961) of car washes. Institute of National problems of education.

Vocational education is provided by 30 vocational schools (over 8 thousand students). Secondary specialized education is provided by 19 schools. institutions (total 10.5 thousand students). There are 4 ped., cultural-educational, music. and artist school At the Yakutsk University (founded in 1956 on the basis of the Pedagogical Institute; 10 faculty - in 1992) studies approx. 7 thousand students. Founded in 1987 Yakut. agricultural Institute (now Academy). In 3 universities - approx. 10 thousand students.

Since 1992 they have been published in Russian. and Yakut, journal languages. “Nar. education of Yakutia", gas. "Teacher's Bulletin". Produced children. periodicals, including magazines. “Chuoran-chik” (“Bell”, since 1987).

Lit.: Afanasyev V.F., School and pedagogical development. thoughts in Yakutia, Yakutsk, 1966; With about s and A. A., The flourishing of culture in Yakutia, [Yakutsk, 1972]; Zhirkov E.P., How to revive the national. school. Steps of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), M., 1992.

WITH. P. Vasilyeva, N. N. Vinokurova.

YAMAL-NENETS AUTONOMOUS DISTRICT, is part of Russia. Federation.

Pl. 750.3 thousand km2. Us. 488 thousand people (1996), including Nenets (18 thousand), Khanty (6.6 thousand), Selkups (1.8 thousand), Mansi (0.1 thousand). Center - Salekhard.

First Russian native school in 1850 in Obdorsk (now Salekhard). In con. 19th century A boarding school has been opened. In the 60s. In Obdorsk there were 2 private schools, a 2-grade school and an elementary school: a parish church and a missionary school with a boarding school for children of the Nenets, Khanty and Selkups. The training covered St. 150 students, including approx. 20 representatives of the indigenous population. Literacy of the indigenous population in the early 20th century was approx. 1%.

First National a school in Yamal was opened in 1921 by P. E. Khatanzeev. In 1928-31, cultural centers began to operate in Yar-Sale and Hammer-Sede for the Nenets and Selkups.

Based on the Unified North. The alphabet was first developed (1931) by Nenets and Khanty writing (since 1937 in Russian script). In the 20s In teaching, books compiled by V. G. Bogoraz and S. N. Stebnitsky were used. Primers were published for the Obdor Khanty - “Khanty Book” by Khatanzeev (1931) and for the Nenets - “New Word” by P. G. Prokofiev (parts 1-2, 1932-33, the first Nenets scientist A. took part in its compilation). P. Pyrerka).

Since the 30s. general beginning was introduced. education. By 1940, there were 46 schools (over 4.4 thousand students, including over 1.8 thousand - representatives of the indigenous population). 950 northern children were raised in 28 boarding schools. In con. 30s The literacy rate of the population was St. 60%.

Implementation of the beginning universal education and the elimination of illiteracy continued in the 50s. 7-year (1956) and 8-year (1962) universal education was introduced. From the 2nd half. 70s the course towards universal Wed was supported. youth education. One of the main difficulties in organizing training - multinational. student composition.

In 1996 at 265 units. There were 38 thousand pupils in institutions (over 62% of children of the corresponding age). There were 136 general education schools. schools (over 86 thousand students), including 112 secondary schools (about 85 thousand students). Ch. is taught in 35 schools. arr. representatives of the indigenous peoples of the North (over 6.5 thousand students). From 1st to 7th grade. They study Nenets, Selkup, Khanty (in 2 dialects) languages. Published accordingly. primers (authors S.I. Irikov, V.E. Anofriev, etc.). Learning your native language. organized for those living in the territory. district children

Tatars, Ukrainians, Moldovans, etc. 5.8 thousand teachers are employed in schools. Teachers are trained by the Salekhard pedagogical center. college (1994; founded in 1933 as a pedagogical school), universities in St. Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Omsk, Tyumen, etc.

Lit.: BazanovA. G., Essays on the history of missionary schools in the Far North (Tobolsk North), L., 1936; B a z a i o v A. G., Kazansky N. G., School in the Far North, L., 1939; Peoples of Siberia, M. - L., 1956; Khomich L.V., Nentsy, M. - L., 1966; New Life of the Peoples of the North, M., 1967; Revived Yamal, Tyumen, 1970; Omelchuk A.K., Salekhard, Sverdlovsk, 1978. N. I. Melyakov.

YANZHUL Ekaterina Nikolaevna, educator, journalist, pedagogical translator. liters. Wife and employee I.I. Yanzhula. She received her education in Dresden. Member Scientist at the MNP Department of Engineering. and prof. education (1900). Worked in the Post, technical commission. education Russian Technical Society(dealt with issues of women's vocational education). She became famous for the publication of articles (including in the magazines “Education”, “Russian School”, “Technical Education”, “Bulletin of Europe”, “Children's Help”, etc.) and books on history, modern history. state, problems and trends in the development of school and pedagogy in the West. Europe and America, which she studied during joint trips to foreign countries with Yanzhul. In 1896, in the “Bulletin of Education” she published a series of articles “What is the difference between Amer. school from the Russian” and published a book on their basis, supplemented with new materials. “Amer. school. Essays on Amer. methods. pedagogy" (1902; 19268). Ya.'s works are devoted to topical issues of the importance of school, education, literacy for societies, development, culture, and increasing labor productivity; problems of school organization and management. business; amateur activities of students; doshk. education, etc. Studied teaching methods in the beginning. school, and especially physical education. and manual labor of schoolchildren. I considered it necessary to introduce handicrafts as a subject in general education courses. schools. Introducing the ped. public with new trends in global ped. process, warned against immediate and thoughtless copying of knowledge and experience and called for understanding and discussion of common problems.

B 191<£-23 вела науч. и преподавательскую деятельность в Петрогр. ун-те и Педологич. ин-те дошк. воспитания. Привлекалась Наркомпросом как эксперт по вопросам заруб, образования. Продолжала науч. публикации в журн. «Работник просвещения» и др. Участвовала в пед. дискуссиях о методике обучения грамоте. Издала материалы по использованию за рубежом метода целых слов. Перевела труды У. Килпатрика, К. Уошберна и др.

Works: Leisure hours. Essays and pictures on lit. and econ. Issues, St. Petersburg, 1896 (jointly with I. I. Yanzhul); The influence of literacy on labor productivity, in the book: Econ. assessment adv. education, St. Petersburg, 1896; Manual labor in America school, M., 1900; Handicrafts as a subject of study in general education. school, St. Petersburg, 19102. Children's gardens in the Montessori system, K., 1912; Compare, essay on school systems. management in France, Germany, England and the United States, ZhMNP, 1917, No. 11-12; Labor beginning in European schools, M., 19183; Amer. det. the garden as a reconciler of school systems. education of Froebel and Montessori, “Ped. thought", 1923, No. 2; Practice of the project method in America. schools, L., 1925; NOT as applied to school. business. Scientific organization of labor in pedagogy USA, M., 1926; Amer. school of our time, M. - L. 1926; The latest trends in school organization. Affairs in the USA, L., 1927.

Lit.: Malinin V., The fate of one book, NO, 1975, No. 12.

E. G. Osovsky, N. I Enaleeva.

YANZHUL Ivan Ivanovich, economist and statistician, educator, Doctor of Ch. St. Petersburg. AN (1895), der law (1876). He received his education in Moscow (1862-69), Leipzig, Heidelberg, Zurich (1872-73) high school. From 1874 associate professor, in 1876-98 professor. Moscow University (department of financial law) At the same time, in 1882-87, the first factory inspector of Moscow. districts. In his reports he reflected the facts of exploitation of children. labor and imperfection of the apprenticeship system; contributed to the adoption of factory legislation (1884), which limited the working day of children 12-15 years old to 8 hours and obliged entrepreneurs to create schools for the children of workers. Member of the RTO.

Y. is a supporter of the ideas of “state. socialism”, attached great importance to the participation of the state in the development of culture and education. Emphasized the role of education, especially technical education, and the spread of literacy in improving the welfare of society, the efficiency of business and trade. Among the most important tasks of the state was the preparation of the working population of Russia for industrial conditions. production, raised the question of the universality and accessibility of education. Ya.'s activities contributed to the emergence of a people's economy in the country. education. Research was carried out under his leadership (jointly with A.I. Chuprov, E.N. Yanzhul, L.L. Gavrishev and others) the relationship between literacy, education, prof. training and quality of labor, their influence on the attitude of workers towards production. The results were heard at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Federation. figures in technology and prof. education (1895-96) and published by the department. ed. "Econ. assessment adv. education" (1896). He also dealt with pedagogical issues. sociology and statistics, social pedagogy, external education organization. education. The author is numerous. scientific and journalistic articles in periodicals publications (including in “Notes of the Fatherland”, “Bulletin of Education”, “Russian School”, etc.). His textbook for high school boots “Basic principles of financial policy. The Doctrine of State Revenues" (1893) was awarded by the Academy of Sciences

Greig Prize. Editor of a number of articles in Encyclopedic. Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron (since 1898).

Works: In search of a better future Social studies, St. Petersburg, 1893; The importance of education for the success of industry and trade,” Tekhn. education", 1896, No. 3; Statistical assessment of good and bad teacher influences within the walls of the school, Khar., 1901; Between this and then. Essays on issues of public education, economics. politics and societies, life, St. Petersburg, 1904; From the memoirs and correspondence of a factory inspector of the first convocation, St. Petersburg, 1907; Memories of what was experienced and seen in 1864-1809..., c. 1, St. Petersburg, 1910.

Lit.: Nebolsin A.G., Organization of courses for adult workers, St. Petersburg, 1897; Dyakonov M. A., I. I. Yanzhul, P., 1914; Bergman E., In memory of I. I. Yanzhula, P., 1914; Sudeikin V. G., I. I. Yanzhul, ZhMNP, 1915, January.

E. G. Osovsky, N. I. Enaleeva.

YANKOVICH DE MIRIJEVO[Mirijevski (Jankoviö Mirijevski)] Fedor Ivanovich, teacher, member. Russian Academy (1783). Serbian by origin. He received his education in law. Faculty of the University of Vienna. He took an active part in the reform of the people. education in Austria in 1774; in accordance with ped. ideas of I.I. Felbiger spread new teaching methods in Serbian schools. In 1782, at the invitation of Catherine II, he moved to Russia. Worked on the Commission on the Establishment of the People's Republic. school (1782-1801), drew up a school plan. system, enshrined in the Charter of 1786. Ch. He considered the structure of the people's system to be issues of reform. schools, teacher training and publication of good textbooks. Original J. de M.'s plan assumed the construction of 3 types of bunks. schools (small, medium and main) in Austria. sample. But after an experiment carried out in 1782-86 in St. Petersburg and the province, the middle ones were abolished. The law of 1786 approved the school. system in the form of main (in each provincial city) and small peoples. school Before the introduction of the reform, J. de M. supervised the training of teachers in St. Petersburg. main people school (1783-1785). His students became teachers in the first reformers. schools. For them, J. de M. joint. from Russian teachers compiled a “Guide for teachers of first and second grades. school Ros. empire" (1783). In the school organization attached great importance to rational teaching methods and friendly relationships

between teacher and students. Under the supervision and with the participation of J. de M., a set of textbooks for people was published. school; he owns the “Primer Book”, “Copybooks and Handwriting Guidelines for them”, “Rules for Students” (all - 1782), “World History” (parts 1-3, 1787-98) and other studies. benefits, including revision of the book. “The World of Sensual Things in Pictures” by Ya. A. Komensky - “The Spectacle of the Universe” (1788). On the initiative of J. de M. for the people. educational institutions were prepared by geogr. and ist. maps, atlases and other visual aids; introduced into Russian school use of blackboard and chalk.

J. de M. supervised the development of the teaching. plans for land, sea, artillery and military forces. cadet corps and other schools. establishments. Republished, with significant additions, “Compare, a dictionary of all languages and dialects...” (parts 1-4, 1790-91), compiled by P. S. Pallas. In 1802-04 member. Commission on schools of the Ministry of People's Republics. education (since 1803 the main board of the school).

Lit.: Voronov A., Fedor Ivanovich Yankovich de Mirievo, St. Petersburg, 1858; Rozhdestvensky S.V., Essays on the history of narrative systems. education in Russia in the XVIII-XIX centuries, St. Petersburg, 1912; Dodon L.L., Uch. Russian literature adv. schools 2nd half XVIII century and the role of F.I. Yankovic in its creation, UZ Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after. Herzen, 1955, t. 118; Povarova E.V., The Commonwealth of Glories and Peoples in the Development of Pedagogy in the 18th Century. Ped. activities of F. I. Yankovic, in the collection: Certain issues in the history of pedagogy, in 13, M, 1971 I. S. Vladimirov.

YANOVSKY Kirill Petrovich, scientist and teacher, honor. Part Petersburg AN (1891) and the Russian Academy of Arts, member. Society of lovers of natural science, anthropology and ethnography. Ped. started his activities as a student. years in the private boarding house of Geduin. After graduating from Physics and Mathematics. Faculty of Kyiv University taught mathematics at the Rivne gymnasium (1843-51). From 1851 he was a mathematics teacher at the 2nd Odessa gymnasium, and then a teacher of mathematics and physics at the Chisinau gymnasium, from 1856 an inspector, from 1862 the director of this gymnasium and the people's director. school in Bessarabian region. Since 1871 assistant trustee of St. Petersburg. uch. districts. In 1878-1900, trustee of the Caucasian School. districts. Under the leadership of Ya., a “Collection of materials for describing the localities and tribes of the Caucasus” (v. 1-21, 1884-96) was prepared - scientific. research in geography, natural history, ethnography, archeology and linguistics. Contributed to the expansion of the network of schools in the Caucasian district. district and proper organization of educational institutions. process. Was an opponent of the classic. education. The main thing in teaching and education. At work, he considered the diversified development of the individual and the connection between school and family. He paid great attention to improving teaching methods, organizing exemplary lessons, and equipping schools with visual aids. Actively collaborated in the journal. "Russian school".

From: Thoughts on education and training, St. Petersburg, 1900; Exchange and constant movement of matter as a condition of world life in general, in particular organic life, St. Petersburg, 1900.

Lit.: R. S. T., K. P. Yanovsky, trustee of the Caucasian school. districts, “Bulletin of Education”, 1895, No. 1; K. P. Yanovsky [Obituary], ibid., 1902, No. 6; Paskhalov Ya., Trustee-teacher, “Rus. school", 1901, No. 9; Gurevich Ya., K.P. Yanovsky [Obituary], ibid., 1902, No. 7-8; Dzhemardzhidze N., Memoirs of K.P. Yanovsky, ibid., 1904, No. 7-8. 3. G. Poluyaktova.

JAPAN(Nippon, Nihon), state in the East. Asia, located on the Pacific islands of Honshu, Hokkaido, Shikoku, Kyushu, etc. (total about 4 thousand). Pl. OK. 372.2 thousand km2. Us. St. 125 million people (1994), St. 99% Japanese. State language - Japanese. Basic religions: Shintoism (until 1945 it was the official religion), Buddhism. The capital is Tokyo.

The first schools appeared in the beginning. 7th century at Buddhist monasteries, which played the role of social and cultural centers. In the beginning. 8th century The first “Law on State” was adopted. schools,” on the basis of which officials were trained for the center and provincial apparatus. Young men from higher classes were studied by whales. classic literature, philosophy, laws, history, mathematics. From the 13th century large landowners began to create clan schools on their estates, where young men received a knightly education and studied military affairs, classical. literature, etiquette. The training of peasants and fishermen was reduced to the transmission of traditions. labor skills, education - to memorize Shinto prayers. The development of large settlements led to the creation in the middle. 17th century temple schools (te-rakoya) for the children of artisans, poor samurai and rich peasants, where they taught writing, reading, arithmetic and manual labor. For boys from noble classes there were private schools of an advanced type. In some they studied Confucianism and China. literature and history, in others - Japanese. literature and history; girls were educated at home or in special education. wives schools where they studied sewing, music, dancing, the art of arranging bouquets, and the rules of the tea ceremony. Will educate for formation. installations ch. Buddhist and Confucian ethics were influential.

After the reforms of the Meiji era (1867-1868), a law was passed (1872), which determined the creation of a unified centralization. education systems. State offices were opened. schools instead of temple and private ones. In 1890, the “Imperial Edict on Upbringing and Education” was published, which determined their basic principles. directions to mid. 20th century Were open Wed. schools of different types: male and female, general education. and professional (dead-end and preparing for further education). In addition to general education, they studied special education. items by department industries: industrial and agricultural manufacturing, commerce, maritime affairs, etc.

After World War II, the education system underwent significant restructuring. In 1947, the “Basic Law on Education” was adopted, which proclaimed equal access to education for

all citizens, 9 years of compulsory education (free), co-education of boys and girls, elimination of dead-end schools.

Modern education system. The current education system is determined by law (1947) (with numerous subsequent amendments and additions) and covers preschool. institutions for children 3-5 years old, 6-year-old primary, junior (3 years) and senior (3 years) Wed. school, prof. and higher education establishments. Shk. training starts at age 6. Beginning and younger Wed. schools constitute a compulsory system. education, to the middle. 90s 99% of children of this age attended. There are state, municipal, and private entities. institutions, part of which belongs to religions. org-tions. There are especially many private children. gardens (over 58%) and universities.

Account system management institutions are carried out by the Ministry of Education and local (prefectural and municipal) institutions. The Ministry of Defense is developing the foundations of the state. policies in education, school content. education, determined by the teacher. plans and programs for schools of all types. The Ministry has a number of advisory bodies, including the Center, the Education Council, and the Academic Council. programs, the Council for Private High School Uniforms, etc. The functions of the committees (over 3 thousand) include organizing, financing and monitoring the activities of local schools, publishing instructional materials taking into account specific conditions, hiring and firing teachers. Members of prefectural committees are appointed by the governor, and members of municipal committees are appointed by the local administration.

To finance education in the beginning. 90s stood out St. 7% national income (over 11% of the country’s state budget); The state's share of total expenses is 25%, the rest is covered from local funds. State schools are financed directly by the Ministry of Education, and prefectural and municipal schools are financed from local budgets, so the financial situation of schools depends on the degree of economics. well-being of the prefecture or municipality, which creates far from equal educational opportunities for students. Local education authorities spent on the obligation. schools at the beginning 90s St. 51% of funds for seniors schools - 16%, for higher schools - 11.7%.

Preschool education. The first preschools institutions appeared in Japan after 1872. Their activities were modeled after children’s institutions. gardens in the West Europe and America. In the 2nd half. 20th century The upbringing of children aged 3 to 5 years is carried out by a network of children. gardens In connection with attempts to switch to earlier school start dates. education (from 4 years old) there is a tendency towards full coverage of children

4-5 years with the goal of gradually creating a school for kids. K ser. 90s coverage of children children the gardens were made by St. 60% (over 2 million children). 77% of children were raised in private children. gardens

General education. Beginning School is a 6-year school, compulsory for children from 6 to 12 years old. Uch. the plan includes mother tongue, social studies, science, morality, mathematics, music, drawing, manual labor, physical education and starting from

5th grade home economics for girls and boys. The weekly workload is from 24 to 29 hours depending on the year of study. When learning to write, students master national. phonemic alphabet (kana), studied approx. 1 thousand hieroglyphs (to read a newspaper you need to know about 2.5 thousand). In social studies lessons, students receive information on geography, history, and rules of conduct in societies and places; in science lessons - basic information about living and inanimate nature and humans; In mathematics classes they study arithmetic. actions, basic information on geometry. In 1995, there were 9.6 million students in 24.8 thousand schools.

Modern Wed The school consists of 2 levels. Junior Wed. School - 3-year, compulsory for children 12-15 years old. Uch. the plan consists of obligations. subjects - native language, mathematics, social studies, natural science, morality, music, art, art, physical education, basics of production (for boys), home economics (for girls) and elective subjects - foreign. language, technology, home economics, complementary education, music courses, physical education, art. The weekly load is 30 hours. In native language lessons, students improve their literacy, practice in drawing up business documents, the number of hieroglyphs studied is not limited, but reaches only 2 thousand. Synthetic ones are studied. courses in natural sciences and social studies, which sometimes leads to schematism and fragmentation of knowledge in chemistry, physics, biology, history, etc. In 1995, 5.6 million people studied in 11 thousand junior schools.

Senior Wed. school - 3-year, for boys and girls 15-18 years old, paid, differentiated, divided into general education. and prof. departments. 29% of schools have departments of 2 profiles, 48% - only general education, 33% - only professional ones. To enter, you must pass the entry exam, which is passed by St. 90% of graduates are required. schools. Widespread distribution of the full Wed. education is explained by the high prestige of education in Japan. society, the needs of economic development, limited employment opportunities for persons,

having training only at the mandatory level. schools.

General education departments have different streams, including those aimed at preparing for admission to higher school. Within their framework, educational options are possible. plans with humanities or natural sciences. slope. Among the teachers subjects: Japanese language, classical literature, civics, economics, national and world history, geography, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, physical education, painting, art, music, foreign. language, basics of production (for boys), home economics (for girls). Weekly workload 34-36 hours Prof. departments have 5 streams: technology, agriculture, marine fishing, commercial, home economics. All streams (except commercial) have a narrow specialization (more than 90 different programs): in agriculture. stream - agriculture, livestock breeding, gardening, etc.; in technology - electrical engineering, metalworking, woodworking, etc. The choice of programs in each school is limited (2-3). 40% of the time is allocated to special activities. subjects, and general education subjects are given according to simplified programs. Graduation from Prof. department is not fixed by the assignment of qualifications or specialty and does not guarantee getting a job. All this led to a decline in the prestige of Prof. branches. The number of students in these departments is decreasing. Test results are taken into account when assigning students to streams and departments.

There are a small number of evening and correspondence schools, in which the number of students is only 6% of all high school students. schools In 1995 St.

5.5 thousand older avg. schools covered

5.6 million people

Vocational and technical education is provided by various schools. types (terms of study from several months to 1-2 years on the basis of compulsory school. 50% of students are girls), 97% of such schools are private, paid, and have a narrow specialization. In 1995, 442 thousand people studied in 3.5 thousand such schools. Since 1962, there have been 5-year (mostly state) technical courses. colleges on base are required. schools that provide training in engineering specialties. profile. In 1995, 51 thousand students studied in 62 colleges. Prof. schools have been operating since 1976. specialist. 2 types of training: 1-3 years at the compulsory base. schools and 1-2-year schools based on senior secondary education. schools. 87% of these schools are owned by private firms and corporations, which means that this largely affects the future employment of graduates. According to technol. 16% of students studied specialties, commercial - 11%, agricultural - less than 1%, home economics - 18%, general culture - 14%, etc. In 1995, there were 3.2 thousand schools (740 thousand students). Qualified workers are trained in school. centers in companies for a specific workplace or

operations through intensive individual and group training based on general education school training. Firms undertake personnel training.

Higher education is provided by Universities, Tech. and ml. colleges. The first high fur boots were opened after 1866. After the 2nd World War, the high fur boots were modernized, and the duration of training was reduced to 4 years (in medicine - 6 years). Modern high boots of 2 types: consisting of an arbitrary combination of various types. faculty and specialized (technol., med., ped., etc.). In 1995, 2 million students studied in 499 universities. 71% of universities are private, with high tuition fees (2 times higher than in public ones). 65 universities have evening departments. The largest state universities: Tokyo (founded in 1877; 11 faculty, 18 thousand students), in Kyoto (1897; 10 faculty, 15 thousand students), in Osaka (1931; 10 faculty, 12 thousand . students), Hokkaido University in Sapporo (1876; 11 departments, 11 thousand students), Tohoku University in Sendai (1907; 4 departments, 12 thousand students). The largest private universities: Nihon (founded in 1889; 13 faculty, 94 thousand students), Waseda (1882; 7 faculty, 41 thousand students), Chuo (1885; 5 faculty, 35 thousand . students), Meiji (1923; 8 faculty, 33 thousand students), Tokai (1946; 9 faculty, 27 thousand students) - all in Tokyo; Kansky University in Osaka (1886; 6 faculty, 23 thousand students). This means there are a number of universities with 1-2 faculty (200-300 students).

Since 1950, ml. have been functioning in the education system. colleges (2-3 years of study) based on Wed. schools. Legally they belong to the highest. education, but short training periods and actual training does not correspond to the generally accepted level of the highest. schools. OK. 84% ml. colleges - private, St. 90% of the students are girls. Half of the students (50.6%) study in the departments of home economics, general culture, and child care, 23.6% study in the departments of training child educators. kindergartens and teachers schools. In Japan, Jr. Colleges are seen as a special channel for wives. higher education. In 1994 in 584 ml. 460 thousand students studied in colleges.

Adult education is carried out by the so-called system. social education through the organization of various. short-term courses, lectures, seminars, consultations with prefectural and municipal people. homes" on general culture, aesthetics. education, home economics and family relations, p. x-wu, etc. In 1994, 17 thousand people worked in Japan. houses."

Teacher Education. After 1872, teacher schools were opened in Tokyo, Osaka, Hiroshima, Nagasaki and other cities. Traditionally, teacher training is carried out in pedagogy. f-tah un-tov and ped. departments ml. colleges. Students of other Faculty of Universities can also receive a teacher's diploma under the condition of a certain pedagogical education.

preparation. Out of 76 state Universities in 54 have faculty for training teachers, in private high fur boots it is insignificant. number. Ped. A relatively small number of students (7%) receive education in high fur boots. In ml. colleges on ped. departments that train teachers at the beginning. schools and children's teachers. kindergarten, 23.6% of students study. Uch. The teacher training plan consists of general education, psychology and pedagogy. and special cycles. Specialist. the cycle includes subjects that the teacher will teach at school; general education cycle - literature, geography, Japanese. and foreign languages, physics, chemistry, mathematics, biology. The student is offered a wide choice of not only the subjects themselves, but also program options in terms of complexity and with an emphasis on in-depth study of the department. sections. Ped. the cycle is presented as mandatory. subjects in pedagogy and psychology (principles and methods of teaching, moral education, history of pedagogical thought, pedagogical sociology, psychology, developmental psychology, psychological diagnostics, etc.), and elective subjects. The proportion between them is determined by the students themselves. institutions, but taking into account the standards for credit units established by the Ministry of Education. Ped. The practice is carried out in basic schools under the guidance of teachers from these schools and lasts 4-8 weeks; the duration of the practice is determined by each university independently.

Pedagogical scientific institutions. Scientific research work is concentrated in the State. in-te ped. research - coordinator of research in the field of pedagogy. This means that issues within the framework of the UNESCO program for Asian countries occupy a place in his work. Local education authorities in large cities have research. centers that combine research. work with work to improve the qualifications of teachers. Small research. There are centers in all prefectures, whose work is related to the detailed development of schools. programs in relation to local conditions. Scientific work in the field of pedagogy is also carried out in pedagogy. f-tah un-tov, in ped. colleges and many ped. about-wah. M. L. Rodionov. YARMACHENKO Nikolay Dmitrievich (b. 6.9.1928, Cheremoshnya village, Kyiv region), teacher, foreign. member RAO (1995; academician of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR since 1982), der ped. Sciences (1969), prof. (1970). Upon completion of the defectology Faculty of Kyiv Pedagogical University Institute named after A. M. Gorky (1951) was retained in his teaching position (in 1959-70, head of the department of defectology and deaf pedagogy, in 1968-73 vice-rector). Since 1973, director of the Scientific Research Institute of Pedagogy of the Ukrainian SSR. Since 1992 pres. APN of Ukraine. Prev. Ped. association of Ukraine (since 1974). Works on the theory and history of pedagogy, defectology.

Works: History of deaf pedagogy, K., 1975 (in Ukrainian); The problem of compensation for deafness, K., 1976; Public education in the Ukrainian SSR, Kiev, 1979; Pedagogy, K., 1986; Ped. activity and creative heritage of A. S. Makarenko, K., 1989. V. K. Mayboroda.

YAROSHEVSKY Mikhail Grigorievich (b. 8/22/1915, Kherson), psychologist, honorary. Part RAO (1993), der psychol. Sciences (1961), prof. (1961). Graduated from Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute (1937). He worked at the Institute of Philosophy of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1945-51), in pedagogy. institute of Kulyab, Leninabad, Dushanbe (1951-65), to the Taj. University (1963-65), where he created and headed the departments of psychology and experimental psychology. laboratories. Since 1965 at the Institute of History of Natural Science and Technology of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Repressed in 1937-38.

Basic works in the field of history and methodology of psychology and human sciences, scientific psychology. creativity, science. Exploring the patterns of development of psychol. knowledge from antiquity to the present day, developed the concept of categorical analysis of scientific. activities, according to the cut, in addition to empirical-theoretical. knowledge, the categorical structure of science is distinguished as a system of extremely generalized concrete scientific. concepts that organize scientific. knowledge and determining the logic of the development of science. Based on this approach, he put forward the concept of scientific. activity (considered in the unity of its subject-logical, social and personal aspects), the unit of analysis is the research program. The idea of a research program as a consolidating beginning of the collective activity of scientists, implemented through the distribution of scientific research. functions (roles), served as the basis for the development of a program-role approach to the study of scientific. team that gave rise to a new direction - the social psychology of science. Integration of further work in this direction with historical and scientific. approach led to the development of orig. system of concepts that reveals psychol. specificity of scientific creativity. Thus, the foundation was laid for another direction - history. psychology of science. Research in this area has made it possible to identify the specifics of a special science of behavior that arose in Russia. Ed. I. publ. research “Repressed Science” (2 vols., 1991-1993).

Works: The problem of determinism in psychophysiology of the 19th century, Dushanbe, 1961; I. M. Sechenov, Leningrad, 1968; Development and modern times state of affairs, psychology, M., 1974 (jointly with L. I. Antsyferova); Psychology in the 20th century, M., 19742; Schools in science, M., 1977 (ed. and co-authors); History of science and school. training, M., 1978 (jointly with L. Ya. Zorina); Sechenov and world psychology. thought, M., 1981; History of psychology, M., 19853; Psychology. Dictionary (ed. jointly with A.V. Petrovsky), M., 1990; L. S. Vygotsky: in search of a new psychology, St. Petersburg, 1993; Introduction to the history of psychology, M., 1994; History of Psychology, M., 1994 (jointly with A. ~A. Petrovsky), M., 1994; East. psychology of science, St. Petersburg, 1995; Theory and history of psychology, 2 vols., M., 1996. V.V. Umrikhin.

Yastrebtsov Ivan Maksimovich, philosopher and teacher,

people's figure enlightenment. Received Wed. spiritual education, but in 1816 he abandoned the career of a clergyman and entered the medical field. faculty Moscow University (graduated in 1820). In 1825 he defended his doctoral dissertation. in human physiology. He devoted the next 10 years to scientific literature. activities. From 1834 he served in the people's department. education: male director gymnasiums in Grodno (1834-42) and Dinaburg (from 1842). Author of works on history, geography, geology. A special place is occupied by Ya.'s articles and books on issues of pedagogy and folklore. education.

Considering enlightenment as a universal human phenomenon, Yaroslav believed that it could be introduced by one people to another, but only by changing “according to the properties of peoples.” The situation in Russia was assessed in relation to various. classes and its different peoples; He associated both relationships with different approaches to educational systems. He saw the ideal of enlightenment in public education.

He assigned an important role in education to the study of “natural history” (the history of man in the world), and was critical of the history textbooks that existed in Russia. In the journal "Moscow Telegraph" published in con. 20's - early 30s 19th century a series of articles that were supposed to constitute a “special kind of history.” textbook" (the textbook was not published as a separate book due to opposition from censorship). According to Ya., the study of history contributes to the knowledge of the laws of nature and society. Among such laws Ya. first of all included the law of changeability. In nature, everything is connected into a common whole. Every being “is partly in captivity, partly in freedom, partly obeys the general nature, partly commands it. The more perfect it is, the weaker its tribute to the general and the more this general serves in its individual benefit.” And the person himself “cannot escape from external influences, which act on him and change him not only physically, but also mentally.” In life For man and the whole society, the decisive role belongs to reason and enlightenment: reason is the most powerful force on Earth, its tool is enlightenment, which consists in “acquiring ways to control the forces of nature.” Ya. also considered a special type of education, which he called civic education - mastery

the ability not only to “control nature, but also to control those like oneself.” From these positions, I examined in detail the tasks of the school. education and the role of dep. uch. subjects in the formation of a citizen. To account I made certain demands on the material: the information taught to children should not exceed the limits of their understanding; training should contribute to harmonious mental and physical. development and prepare the ground for further education and self-education; First of all, those disciplines that correspond to the spirit of the times and the development of which can bring the greatest benefit to humanity, the homeland and the person himself should be taught. In this regard, the natural sciences attached particular importance. sciences

Works: On the mental education of children. age, M., 1831; On the organs of the soul, M., 1832; On the system of sciences that are appropriate for children in our time..., M., 18332 (new abbreviated edition, in the book: Anthology of pedagogical thought in Russia in the first half of the 19th century, M., 1987); Confession, St. Petersburg, 1841.

Lit.: Lebedev P. A., I. M. Yastrebtsov and his studies in didactics, SP, 1987, No. 4. P. A. Lebedev.

YAKHONTOV Alexander Alexandrovich, entomologist, methodologist in natural science, c.-k. APN RSFSR (1946). After graduating from Moscow. University (1904) taught natural science at school. In 1919-25 he worked at the People's Commissariat for Education, in 1920-29 - at the Research Institute of School Methods. work. Participated in the preparation of the textbook. programs, development of teaching methods, creation of educational programs. and method, literature, teacher training. In 1925-32, while working in Uchpedgiz, he organized a series of books “To Help Schoolchildren.” Since 1932, Ya. has been teaching at the Center, the institute for advanced training of people's personnel. education (until 1935) and at Moscow State Pedagogical Institute (until 1949); in 1944-60 for scientific research. ped. work at the Research Institute of Teaching Methods of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences. Ya.'s research in the field of entomology (over 30 works) is reflected in the method and teaching. lit-re; in particular, on their basis, a guide for young people, “Our Daytime Butterflies” (1935), was compiled. The author of textbooks, teaching methods, and visual aids, popular science books, in which he consistently pursued the idea of intensifying teaching methods, substantiated the importance research method And excursions in science teaching. disciplines.

Works: Biol. excursions in the city around the mountains. garden, M.-L., 1926; Animal world. Uch. book on zoology, part 1, M.-L., 19295; Part 2, M.-L., 192911; Origin of domestic animals, M., 1937; Album of paintings on zoology, M., 1938; Fundamentals of Darwinism, M., 19473 (co-author); Methods of teaching zoology, M., 1955 (ed. and co-authors); Practical classes at school educational experimental site, M., 1956 (ed.); Pictures “Animal World”, M., 1966; Zoology for teachers. Invertebrates, M., 19822; Zoology for teachers. Chordata, M., 19852.

Lit.: Raikov B. E., Ways and methods of naturalistics. education, M., 1960.

Z. A. Klepinina.

Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia

Publisher:

Moscow, “Great Russian Encyclopedia”, 1993

RUSSIAN PEDAGOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA

Parameter name	Meaning
Article topic:	RUSSIAN PEDAGOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA
Rubric (thematic category)	Pedagogy

FRENET(Freinet) Selestin (10/15/1896, ᴦ. Gard, – 10/7/1966, ᴦ. Vence), French teacher. In 1913–1914 he studied at a normal school in Nice. Organizer and director of experimental primary schools in the cities of Bar-sur-Loup (1920–1928), Saint-Paul (1928–34), Vence (1934–1966). In 1927 he organized the “Cooperative of Supporters of the Secular School,” which united his followers, in 1957. – ʼʼInternational Federation of New School Supportersʼʼ. Publisher and editor-in-chief of the magazines "Educator" and "Children's Art".

Frenet shared the main ideas new education and sought to apply them in his pedagogical work, rejecting “traditional” methods of teaching and upbringing. In the educational process, Frenet attached great importance to the independence of students. The children systematically compiled the so-called free texts in which they talked about their families, friends, plans for the future, etc., and then they printed them themselves. According to Frenet, school printing is the most effective means of activating students, and “free texts” help to reveal the psychology of a child’s personality, his interests and aspirations.

Frenet opposed the use of textbooks in elementary schools, believing that they exclude the possibility of individualized learning, impose on the student the logic of an adult that is beyond his ability, and instill blind faith in the printed word. Instead of textbooks, the Frenet school used cards containing basic educational material and located in a systematic file cabinet. With the help of the teacher, each student drew up his own individual weekly schedule, which, according to Frenet, allowed the child to study program material in such a volume and at a pace that best suited his abilities and interests.

Frenet paid a lot of attention to experiments in the field of programmed learning and proposed an original design for the simplest teaching machine.

Frenet was an opponent of the “verbal” method of moral education; he attached decisive importance to the child’s personal experience, acquired as a result of the appropriate organization of school life. This goal at the Frenet school was served by student self-government - the “school cooperative”, which controlled the economic activities of the school, organized self-service work, and acted as the highest disciplinary authority.

Frenet sought to overcome the bookish and verbal nature of learning, to arouse children's active interest in school activities, to establish a friendly relationship between students and teachers, to widely use a variety of teaching tools, and to instill in students work skills. At the same time, Frenet's method violates the principle of systematic knowledge. In the 20–30s. Frenet advocated for a secular school, demanded to improve the financial situation of teachers and expand their civil rights. After the defeat of France in 1940 ᴦ. Frenet was subjected to repression by the Vichy regime.

After Frenet's death, the federation he founded continued its activities, convening annual congresses, and publishing pedagogical literature. In the early 80s. more than 10 thousand primary school teachers in France used Frenet's methods. Οʜᴎ have also become widespread in schools in other countries.

RUSSIAN PEDAGOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "RUSSIAN PEDAGOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA" 2017, 2018.

This publication is intended for practicing teachers of all specialties, researchers and students who feel the need for reliable and objective information on theory, history, methodology, methods of psychological and pedagogical sciences and various educational systems.

About the author: Vasily Vasilyevich Davydov (August 31, 1930 - March 19, 1998) - Soviet teacher and psychologist. Academician and vice-president of the Russian Academy of Education (1992). Doctor of Psychological Sciences (1971), Professor (1973).

Since 1953, he worked in the institutions of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR (vice-president since 1989). Honorary member... more...

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RUSSIAN

PEDAGOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA

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"C:Documents and SettingsIhtik.IHTIKWorking tableSD 001about.htm" From the editorial board
"C:Documents and SettingsIhtik.IHTIKWorking tableSD 0011.htm" Information about volume I
"C:Documents and SettingsIhtik.IHTIKWorking tableSD 0012.htm" Information about volume II
"C:Documents and SettingsIhtik.IHTIKWorking tableSD 001info.htm" Instructions for the electronic version

Moscow
GREAT RUSSIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA
1993-1999 Electronic design
"FREE ACCESS"
2003

FROM THE EDITORIAL BOARD

The Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia is a reference publication aimed at presenting as complete a set of generalized and systematized information in the field of theory and practice of education as possible in modern conditions. This publication is intended for practicing teachers of all specialties, researchers and students who feel the need for reliable and objective information on theory, history, methodology, methods of psychological and pedagogical sciences and various educational systems. Since many pedagogical phenomena and patterns are interdisciplinary in nature, the encyclopedia is largely focused on specialists in related fields - psychology, philosophy, sociology, etc. At the same time, readers (and primarily parents and educators of children of any age) who are interested in problems of education and development individuals will find here a variety of materials on these problems.
Our country has experience in publishing such works. However, the Pedagogical Encyclopedia, published in 1927-29 in 3 vols. edited by A.G. Kalashnikov today is more of a historical and scientific source than a reference source. To a certain extent, the same can be said about the two-volume Pedagogical Dictionary (1960-61) and the four-volume Pedagogical Encyclopedia (1964-1968).
The creators of the encyclopedia are aware that not a single scientific reference publication, especially in the humanities, can claim to be considered completely independent of the ideological trends of its time, scientific traditions, and sometimes emotional predilections. Similar publications from past years bear the imprint of their era. In recent decades, and especially in the last few years, in the field of psychological and pedagogical knowledge there has been a revaluation of many theories and facts that previously seemed unconditional. Considerable experience has also been accumulated - both positive and, it must be admitted, negative - in the field of education.
The Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia strives to reflect as objectively as possible the current level of development of domestic pedagogical science and practice. A complex and contradictory stage in the life of the state and society cannot but affect the state of pedagogy and the education system. Therefore, the material presented in the encyclopedia bears the imprint of those social trends that, even if not fully formed, now determine the development of pedagogical science and practice.
Our ingrained perception of encyclopedic literature is characterized by its assessment by the reader as a normative source. From modern positions, this view cannot be considered justified, since in the field of humanities in general and pedagogy in particular, a monopoly on truth does not at all serve the cause of a creative approach to the topic under consideration. Of course, the factual material presented in the encyclopedia has been carefully checked. As for the definitions given to this or that concept, as well as scientific interpretations of various phenomena and facts, the editorial board abandoned attempts to formulate them in the final version. In modern science, a number of concepts have many definitions that are not always consistent with each other. Scientific interpretation of certain phenomena is also carried out from different positions. Therefore, in most cases, the content of a problematic article reflects mainly the position of the specialist who wrote it. In this regard, the text of encyclopedia articles cannot and should not serve as an indisputable argument in scientific discussion. In particular, the bibliography of articles includes sources that reflect approaches to the problem other than the author’s. This partly reveals one of the goals of the encyclopedia - to stimulate scientific thought and creative search.
The unifying core of the various author's approaches was the general trend - the humanization of pedagogical science and practice, especially teaching and upbringing in a modern school.
In light of emerging trends in modern pedagogy, the content of the encyclopedia has undergone significant changes in comparison with previous publications of a similar profile. The creators of the encyclopedia sought to free the text from ideological cliches and attitudes that had dominated Russian pedagogy for decades. Material dedicated to domestic and foreign scientists and their views, as well as foreign teaching experience, is presented as objectively as possible, without unambiguous evaluation. Critical analysis of various theories and approaches gave way to exposition and commentary. The information presented in this way in the encyclopedia is sufficient for the reader to identify a rational grain in a particular position and make his own assessment.
In general, the unifying position of numerous authors of the encyclopedia was the recognition of childhood as an intrinsically valuable, unique stage in a person’s life, as well as the affirmation of the right of every child to a full-fledged education in accordance with his abilities and inclinations. The main emphasis is placed on the obvious advantages of democratic forms of education and training over authoritarian approaches. The authors also sought to emphasize the idea of the necessary continuity of positive historical and national traditions in education and upbringing.
The formation of personality is not a narrow pedagogical, but a universal human problem. It attracted the attention of thinkers from different eras, including those who are not traditionally classified as teachers, but whose reasoning about human nature played an important role in the development of pedagogical thought. In the encyclopedia, separate articles are devoted to some of these major figures, which do not reflect the entirety of the views of this or that scientist or writer, but are focused on presenting his concept in accordance with the specifics of this publication.
Certain concepts are included in the pedagogical encyclopedia for the first time. This is a series of psychological concepts that have previously received insufficient attention, but which are of fundamental importance for pedagogy. These are also some concepts of philosophy and ethics, without understanding which judgments about the humanization of education lose scientific ground. Information from the field of medicine, physiology, anatomy, morphology, etc. is presented quite succinctly, since it is only indirectly related to pedagogical issues and can be gleaned from other sources.
The material in the Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia is presented in the form traditionally accepted in domestic encyclopedic publications. Articles are arranged in alphabetical order. Terms consisting of two or more words are placed in such a way that the first place is taken by the word that carries the logical emphasis (for example, Age-related crises), with the exception of cases of established phrases (for example, Developmental psychology). In some cases, inversion is allowed (for example, the Peoples of the North Institute). If necessary, etymological information is provided. Connections between different articles are established using references (the title of the corresponding article in the text of another article is given in italics). For the sake of compactness of presentation, abbreviations accepted in the encyclopedia were used, a list of which is given on p. 7-8.
The editorial board expresses gratitude to all organizations and individuals who took part in the creation of the Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia.

RUSSIAN
PEDAGOGICAL
ENCYCLOPEDIA
IN TWO VOLUME

VOLUME I
(A-L)

Editor-in-Chief V. G. PANOV
Deputy editors-in-chief: V. I. BORODULIN, A. P. GORKIN, A. A. GUSEV, N. M. LANDA

Moscow

1993

Editor-in-Chief V.V. DAVYDOV
EDITORIAL TEAM

I. Y. LERNER, A. V. MUDRIK, B. M. YEMENSKY,

M. N. SKATKIN, N. M. SHAHMAEV.

37(03) P76

Head Edited by Yu. H. KOPOTKOB, D. V. IGNATIEV,
leading scientists editors L. S. GLEBOVA, O. D. GREKULOVA, S. R. MALKINA.
scientific editors S. S. STEPANOV, A. O. TOLSTIKHINA, I. V. SHADRINA,
editor N.V. LARIONOVA.

Deputy editor-in-chief of the publishing house, doctor of geogr. Sciences A. P. GORKIN.
Consultant A.I. FOTEEVA.
Leading scientist editor of the Scientific Editorial Council, candidate of philology. Sciences G. V. YAKUSHEVA.
Head by the editors of philosophy, candidate of philosophy. Sciences N. M. LANDA.
Group of Medicine - scientific. editor candidate of biology Sciences N. E. VESENINA.
Editorial board of the dictionary - scientific. editors T. A. SVIRIDOVA, L. P. SIDOROVA.
Literary control test - head. edited by G. I. ZAMANI, T. N. PARFYONOVA, art. editor I. I. PETROVA, editors G. I. LEMESHONOK, N. G. RUDNITSKAYA.
Bibliography group - Art. scientific editor V. A. STULOV, senior editors 3. S. IZMAILOVA, T. N. KOVALENKO.
Group of transcription and etymology - scientific. editors E. L. RIF, N. K. TOLMACHEVA, M. S. EPITASHVILI.
Fact verification and comparison group - group leader T. V. ZHUKOVA, scientific. editor, candidate of art history M. V. ESIPOVA, editors E. V. ADAMOVA, N. I. RODINA, I. S. RYAKHOVSKAYA, G. F. SERPOVA.
Control and dispatch service - head G. S. SHURSHAKOVA, editors T. I. KRASOVITSKAYA, A. V. SAVINA.
Technical edition - head. Edited by R. T. NIKISHINA, technical. editor T. F. ALEXANDROV.
Production department - deputy. head department of V. N. MARKIN, process engineers M. N. ANDREEVA, V. F. KASYANOVA.
Proofreading department - head proofreader Zh. A. ERMOLAEV, art. proofreaders S. N. BUTYUGIN, V. N. IVLEVA, S. F. LIKHACHEVA.
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Department of reprinting of manuscripts - head. Department of L. A. MALTSIN.
Editing of illustrations - head. edited by A. V. AKIMOV, artist. editors G. A. ZHURAVLEVA, M. K. MOREINIS.
Artist B.K. MIROSHIN.
Deputy production director N. S. ARTEMOV.
Deputy Director for Commercial Affairs Yu. I. ZAVEDETSKY.
4303000000-021 007(01) - 93
ISBN 5-85270 140-8 (vol. 1) 5-85270-114-9
© Scientific publishing house "Big Russian Encyclopedia", 1993

LIST OF BASIC ABBREVIATIONS
abs. - absolute
Aug. - August
auto - autonomous
adm. - administrative
Asian. - Asian
acad. - academician

alm. - almanac
AMS - Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR
AN - Academy of Sciences
antique - antique

arch. - archival, architect
architect - architectural
ace. - assistant

AH - Academy of Arts
B. - Big
b. g. - no year
b. m. - no space
b. h. - most of, for the most part
bib. - bibliography, bibliographic
biol. - biological
b-ka - library
Bl. East - Middle East
nerd. - botanical letters. - literally ex. - former bulletin - newsletter V. - east
V. - century, issue
including - including

centuries - centuries

vet. - veterinary

on - inclusive
VKP(b) - All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)

chvnesh. - external
external - extracurricular

internal - internal
military - military
eastern - eastern
VS - Supreme Council
All-Russian - All-Russian
All - All-Union
entry - introductory

higher - highest
year - year. city
gas. - newspaper
GBL - State Library of the USSR named after. V. I. Lenina
gg. - years, cities
gene. - general, general
geogr. - geographical
geol. - geological
Ch. - chief, head
Ch. arr. - mainly
mountains - urban
state - state
state - state
citizen - civil
lips - province

D. East - Far East
d.ch. - full member
democr. - democratic
dep. - deputy, department
village - village
det. - children's
diss. - dissertation
doc. - documentary
Dokl. - Reports
docs - documents

doshk. - preschool
doctor - doctor
Dr. - Ancient
other - other
Children's and Youth Sports School_
European - European
units - unit
monthly - monthly
and. d. - railway
railway - railway
wives - female
magazine - magazine
3. - west
head - manager
deputy - deputy
Zap. - Notes
zap. - western
zarub. - foreign

zool. - zoological
fav. - favorites
Izv. - famous, famous
ed. - edition
publishing house - publishing house
ill. - illustrations
them. - name

industr. - industrial
Eng. - engineering

insp. - inspector
int - institute
information - informational

art - art
research - study
ist. - historical
source - sources
IUU - Institute for Teacher Development
Ph.D. - candidate

department - department
class - Class
k.-l. - any
book - book
Ph.D. - some
quantity - quantity
coll. - collective
column - colonial
Colkh. - collective farm
coma - Komsomol
con. - end
conf. - CPSU conference - Communist Party of the Soviet Union
to-ry - which
committee - committee

Linen. Ave. - Lenin Prize
leningr. - Leningradsky
treat - medicinal
lit. - literary
lit-ra - literature

Max. - maximum

math. - mathematical
materials - materials

MSU - Moscow State University
honey. - medical, medal
international - international
month - month
method. - methodical
min - minute
min. - minister
min-in - ministry
min. - minimal

ml. - Jr
million - million
billion - billion
pl. - many

mor. - sea
washers - Moscow
MP - Ministry of Education
husband. - male
music - musical
Muslim - Muslim
N. ST. - A NEW STYLE
n. e. - our era
called - called, called
name - Name
max. - most, greatest
name - name, smallest
eg - For example
adv. - folk
us. - population
present - real
people's commissar - people's commissar

scientific - scientific
national - National
beginning - beginning, initial, chief
week - week

some - some
several - some

O. - island
society - society
region - region, regional
OK. - near
env. - district

org. - organized, organized
org-tion - organization
orig. - original
basic - based, main
resp. - responsible
dept. - separate department
father - domestic
official - official
desk - party
ped. - pedagogical
lane - translation
rename - renamed
Petersburg - St. Petersburg
Petrograd - Petrogradsky
pl. - square
floor. - half
polygraph. - printing
Polytechnic - polytechnic
pom. - assistant
village - village
having eaten - dedicated
fast. - decree, staging, permanent
honor h. - honorary member
etc. - bonus, etc.
pr-vo - government
prev - chairman
preface - preface
Prez. - the president. Presidium
preim. - mainly
approx. - approximately
adj. - application
approx. - note
province - "province"
prod. - work
production - production
prom. - industrial
prom-st - industry
prof. - professor, professional
prof.-tech. - vocational and technical
pseudo. - pseudonym
psychol. - psychological

publ. - publication
R. - river, born
section - chapter
section - various

RAO - Russian Academy of Education
roar - revolutionary
ed. - editor, editors
dir. - director
religious - religious
rep. - republican
ref. - abstract
rec. - review
Rome. - Roman
rice. - drawing
district - district
genus. - was born
grew up - Russian
pp. - rivers

S. - north
s - second
With. - village, page
rank - sanitary
With. farming - agriculture
Sat. - collection, collections - collections
St. - from above
Social-Democrats - social democrat, social democratic
north - northern
sat down - rural, village
ser. - middle, series
Sib. - Siberian
track. - next
see - look
SM - Council of Ministers
al. - co-author
Council of People's Commissars, Council of People's Commissars - Council of People's Commissars
collection - meeting
collection Op. - collected works
own - actually
owls - Soviet
joint - together, joint
modern - modern
abbr. - abbreviation, abbreviated
Op. - composition
specialist. - special
sport. - sporty

Wed - compare, average
Middle-century - medieval
Art. - article, station, senior
stlb. - column
poem. - poem
building - construction
agricultural - agricultural
SH - Union of Artists
t. - volume
i.e. - that is
because - since
so-called - so-called
That. - Thus
table - table
t-vo - partnership
text. - textile
terr. - territorial, territory
tetr. - notebook
tech. - technical
technol. - technological
t-p - theater
tr. - works

vol. - volumes
TU - technical school
thousand - thousand, millennium
TYUZ - theater for young spectators
u. - county

univ - university

conventional - conditional
outdated - outdated
uch. - educational
student - students
school - college
fam. - surname
fash. - fascist
feud. - feudal
FZD - factory nine-year plan

FZU - factory apprenticeship
physical - physical
physics and mathematics - physical and mathematical
physiol. - physiological
fi lol. - philological
Philosopher - philosophical
finance - financial
fp. - piano

faculty - faculty
x-in - farming
chem. - chemical
household - economic
Christ - Christian
artist - artistic
church - church
Central Committee - Central Committee

h - hour
h. - part
people - Human
Thursday - quarter
member - member
h.-k. - corresponding member
school - school
ShKM -_ school of peasant youth, school of collective farm youth
ShSM - school for rural youth
SHRM - school for working youth
PC. - state, thing

copy - copy
econ. - economic
let's experiment - experimental
ethnographic - ethnographic
S - south

south - southern
UNRSCO - Organization
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Affairs
legal - legal
language - language
Note. 1. Abbreviations of words denoting state, language or nationality (for example, English - English, Russian - Russian), names of months (for example, April - April, April) are used. 2. In adjectives and participles, it is allowed to cut off endings and suffixes: “alny”, “annay”, “elny”, “elsky”, “enny”, weighty”, “ionic”, etc. (for example, central, foreign. , means., published, natural, practical, demonstrative, etc.).
Abbreviations in the names of common scientific periodicals of the USSR"
VLU - “Bulletin of Leningrad State University”
VMU - "Bulletin of Moscow State University"
VP - “Questions of Psychology”
VF - “Questions of Philosophy”
VYa - “Issues of Linguistics”
DAN - “Reports of the USSR Academy of Sciences”
IAN - “Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences” UZ - “Scientific Notes”
PZh - “Psychological Journal” CHOIDR - “Readings in the Society of History and
TODRL - “Proceedings of the Department of Old Russian Antiquities at the Moscow University of Literature of the Institute of Russian Literature”

BS - “Biology at school”
BBIII - "Bulletin of Higher School"
VS - “Education of schoolchildren”
GS - “Geography at school”
DV - “Pre-school education”

enlightenment"
IAPN - “News of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences” IALS - “Foreign languages at school”
LS - “Literature at school”
MSh - “Mathematics at school”
NO - “Public Education”
NS - “Primary School”
PISH - “Teaching history at school”
VET - “Vocational and technical education”

RYAS - “Russian language at school”
SP - “Soviet pedagogy”

Secondary school - “Family and school”
UG - "Teacher's Newspaper"
FS - “Physics at school”
HS - “Chemistry at school”
SHIP - “School and production
City name abbreviations
In Russian
A.-A. - Alma-Ata Ash. - Ashgabat B. - Baku V. - Vilnius G. - Bitter Shower. - Dushanbe Er. - Yerevan K. - Kyiv Kaz. - Kazan Kish. - Chisinau L. - Leningrad M. - Moscow
Mn. - Minsk
Novosib. - Novosibirsk
Od. - Odessa
P. - Petrograd (St. Petersburg)
R. - Riga
SPB - St. Petersburg
Tal. - Tallinn
Tash. - Tashkent
Tb. - Tbilisi
Fr. - Frunze
In foreign languages
V. - Berin
Bdpst - Budapest
Brat. - Bratisava
Brux. - Bruxees
Buc. - Bucuresti
Camb. - Cambridge
Fr./M. - Frankfurt am Main
Gen. - Geneve
Gott. - Gottingen
Hamburg, Hamburg
Hdeb. - Heideberg
L.-London
Lpz. - Leipzig Mi. - Miano Munch. - Munchen N. Y. - New York Oxf. - Oxford P. - Paris Stockh. - Stockhom Stuttg. - Stuttgart W. - Wien Warsz. - Warszawa Z. - Zurich.

RUSSIAN
PEDAGOGICAL
ENCYCLOPEDIA
IN TWO VOLUME

VOLUME II
(M-Z)

Chairman of the Scientific Editorial Board of the Publishing House A. M. PROKHOROV
Editor-in-Chief A. P. GORKIN
Deputy editors-in-chief: V. I. BORODULIN, V. M. KAREV, N. M. LANDA

Moscow
Scientific publishing house "GREAT RUSSIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA"
1999

EDITORIAL TEAM
V. V. DAVYDOV (editor-in-chief),
E. D. DNEPROV (deputy editor-in-chief),
V. P. ZINCHENKO, I. S. KON, V. Y. LAKSHIN,
I. Y. LERNER, A. V. MUDRIK, B. M. NEMENSKY,
A. V. PETROVSKY, M. A. PROKOFIEV,
M. N. SKATKIN, N. M. SHAHMAEV.

UDC 37(03) BBK 74 ya2 P 76
Editorial Board of Pedagogy and Public Education
Head Edited by D. V. IGNATIEV,
leading scientists editors L. S. GLEBOVA, O. D. GREKULOVA,
scientific editors S. S. STEPANOV, A. O. TOLSTIKHINA,
editor N.V. LARIONOVA.
Continuous reading - Doctor of Geography. Sciences A. P. GORKIN, Candidate of Philosophy Sciences H. M. L AND A.
The following took part in the preparation of the publication:
Editorial of illustrations - chief artist of the publishing house A. V. AKIMOV, leading artist. editor N.I. KOMISSAROVA, artist B.K. MIROSHIN.
Literary control editorial office - head. Edited by T. N. PARFYONOVA, editors S. L. LAVROVA, N. G. RUDNITSKAYA.
Bibliography group - group leader T. N. KOVALENKO, editors G. A. SADOVA, N. K. TOLMACHYOVA.
Transcription and Etymology Group - group leader: Ph.D. Sciences Yu. F. PANASENKO, editor M. S. EPITASHVILI.
Technical edition - head. Edited by O. D. SHAPOSHNIKOV, tech. editor T. F. ALEXANDROV.
Production department - head. department of I. A. VETROV, leading process engineer G. N. ROMANOVA, process engineer V. F. KASYANOVA, leading specialist G. S. SHUR-SHAKOVA.
Proofreading department - head proofreader Zh. A. ERMOLAEV, art. proofreaders L. S. VAINSHTEIN, V. N. IVLEVA, E. A. KULAKOVA, S. F. LIKHACHEVA, A. V. MARTYNOVA, L. A. SELEZNEVA, A. S. SHALAEVA, M. D. STRAMEL, proofreader A. A. VOLCHENKOVA.
Department of reading and production of typesetting original - head. Department N.V. SHEVERDINSKAYA, Art. proofreaders O. V. GUSEVA, T. B. SABLINA, I. T. SAMSONOVA, V. I. CHUVILEVA, G. B. SHIBALOVA.
Department of reprinting of manuscripts - head. Department of L. P. GORYACHEV, L. A. MALTSIN.
Commercial department - head. Department of I. N. DANILOV.
Chief Economist A.I. SOLODOVNIKOV A.
First Deputy Director N. S. ARTEMOV.
Deputy Director for Commercial Affairs I. Z. NURGALIEV.
Federal book publishing program of Russia.
ISBN 5-85270-286-2
© Scientific publishing house "Big Russian Encyclopedia", 1999.

LIST OF BASIC ABBREVIATIONS
abs. - absolute
auto - autonomous
adm. - administrative
Asian. - Asian
acad. - academician
AKB - Academy of Communist Education named after. N. K. Krupskaya
alm. - almanac
AMS - Academy of Medical Sciences
AN - Academy of Sciences
antique - antique
AON - Academy of Social Sciences
APN - Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
arch. - archival, architect
architect - architectural
ace. - assistant
ACS - Automated control system
AH - Academy of Arts
B. - Big
b. g. - no year
b. m. - no space
b. h. - most of - for the most part
bib. - bibliography
biol. - biological
b-ka - library
Bl. East - Middle East
nerd. - botanical
letters - literally
ex. - former
Bulletin - newsletter
V. - east
V. - century, issue
including - including
VASKHNIL - All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences named after. V. I. Lenina
centuries - centuries
Vel. Otech. war - Great Patriotic War 1941-45
vet. - veterinary
VKIP - Higher Communist Institute of Education
on - inclusive
VKP(b) - All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)
Komsomol - All-Union Leninist Communist Youth Union
ext. - external
external - extracurricular
VNIK "School" - temporary research team "School"
GNP - gross national product
internal - internal
military - military
eastern - eastern
VS - Supreme Council
All-Russian - All-Russian
All - All-Union
entry - introductory
university - higher education institution
VUS - All-Russian Teachers' Union
higher - highest
city - year, city
gas. - newspaper
GBL - State Library of the USSR named after. IN AND. Lenin
gg. - years, cities
gene. - general, general
geogr. - geographical
geol. - geological
Ch. - chief, head
Ch. arr. - mainly
mountains - urban
state - state
state - state
citizen - civil
lips - province
GUS - State Academic Council
D. East - Far East
d.ch. - full member
democr. - democratic
dep. -r- deputy, department
village - village
det. - children's
diss. - dissertation
doc. - documentary
Dokl. - Reports
docs - documents
add. - additional, addition
doshk. - preschool
doctor - doctor
Dr. - Ancient
other - other
Youth Sports School - Children's Youth Sports School
European - European
units - unit
monthly - monthly
and. d. - railway
railway - railway
wives - female
magazine - magazine
3. - west
head - manager
deputy - deputy
Zap. - Notes
zap. - western
zarub. - foreign
honorable activities - honored worker
zool. - zoological
fav. - favorites
Izv. - famous, famous
ed. - edition
publishing house - publishing house
ill. - illustrations
imp. - emperor, imperial
industrial - industrial
Eng. - engineering
INO - Institute of Public Education
insp. - inspector
int - institute
information - informational
IPAN - Institute of Psychology of the USSR Academy of Sciences
IPK - Institute for Advanced Studies
art - art
research - study
ist. - historical
exude. - sources
IUU - Institute for Advanced Training of Teachers
candidate
Ph.D. diss. - PhD thesis
class - Class
k.-l. - any
book - book, prince
Ph.D. - some
quantity - quantity
coll. - collective
column - colonial
Colkh. - collective farm
coma - Komsomol
con. - end
conf. - conference
CPSU - Communist Party of the Soviet Union
to-ry - which
committee - committee
cult.-enlightenment - cultural and educational
LSPI - Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after. A. I. Herzen
Leningrad State University - Leningrad State University
Linen. Prize - Lenin Prize
leningr. - Leningradsky
treat - medicinal
lit. - literary
lit-ra - literature
LIFLI - Leningrad Institute of Philosophy, Literature, History
Max. - maximum
MAPRYAL - International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature
math. - mathematical
materials - materials
mash.-builds. - mechanical engineering
IBE - International Bureau of Education
MVTU - Moscow Higher Technical School named after. N. E. Bauman
MGZPI - Moscow State Correspondence Pedagogical Institute
MGPDI - Moscow State Pedagogical Defectology Institute
MGPI - Moscow State Pedagogical Institute named after. V. I. Lenina
Moscow State Pedagogical Institute named after. Potemkin - Moscow City Pedagogical Institute named after. V. I. Potemkina
MSTU - Moscow State Technical University named after. N. E. Bauman
MSU - Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosova
honey. - medical, medal
international - international
months - month
method. - methodical
min - minute
min. - minister
min-in - ministry
min. - minimal
MIFLI - Moscow Institute of Philosophy, Literature and History
ml. - Jr
million - million
billion - billion
pl. - many
MNP - Ministry of Public Education
MOIP - Moscow Society of Natural Scientists
MOPI named after. Krupskaya - Moscow Regional Pedagogical Institute named after. N. K. Krupskaya
mor. - sea
ISCO. - MOSCOW
MP - Ministry of Education MPGU - Moscow Pedagogical State University
MPU - Moscow Pedagogical University
husband. - male music - musical Muslim. - Muslim
N. ST. - A NEW STYLE
n. e. - our era
called - called, called
name - Name
max. - most, greatest
name -name, smallest
eg - For example
adv. - folk
people's commissar - people's commissar
Narkompros - People's Commissariat of Education
us. - population
present - real
scientific - scientific
national - National
beginning - beginning, initial, chief
weeks - a week
unknown - unknown, unknown
some - some
several - some
n.-i. - research
Research Institute - Research Institute
Research Institute of Defectology - Research Institute of Defectology of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Research Institute of Far East - Research Institute of Preschool Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Research Institute of Computer Science - Research Institute of Informatics and Computer Science of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
Research Institute of General Education - Research Institute of General Adult Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Research Institute of EPP - Research Institute of General and Pedagogical Psychology of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Research Institute of EP - Research Institute of General Pedagogy of the Academy of Pedagogics of the USSR
Research Institute of OPV - Research Institute of General Problems of Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Scientific Research Institute Pryansh - Scientific Research Institute of Russian Language Teaching at the National School of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Research Institute of PTP - Research Institute of Vocational and Technical Pedagogy of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Scientific Research Institute SIMO - Scientific Research Institute of Contents and Methods of Teaching of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Research Institute TOP - Research Institute of Labor Training and Career Guidance of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Research Institute UENO - Research Institute of Management and Economics of Public Education of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
Research Institute of FDP - Research Institute of Physiology of Children and Adolescents of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Scientific Research Institute of Art and Culture - Scientific Research Institute of Artistic Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
Scientific Research Institute SHOTSO - Scientific Research Institute of School Equipment and Technical Means of Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR
new - new
O. - island
society - society
region - region, regional
OK. - near
env. - district
ONO - Department of Public Education
UN - United Nations
publ. - published, published
org-tion - organization
orig. - original
basic - founded, main
responsible - responsible
department - separate, department
father - domestic
official - official
party - party
ped - pedagogical
per - translation
rename - renamed
Petersburg - Petersburg
petrogr - Petrogradsky
pl - area
half - half
polygraph - printing
polit - political
polytechnic - polytechnic
pom - assistant
village - village
having eaten - dedicated
post - decree, staging, permanent
honorary member
pr - bonus, other
pr-vo - government
pre - chairman
preface - foreword
prez - president, Presidium
preim - predominantly
approx - approximately
adj - application
note - note
prov - province
production - work
production - production
prom - industrial
prom-st - industry
prof - professor, professional
prof-tech - vocational-technical
pseudonym - pseudonym
psychol - psychological
Vocational school - vocational school
publ - publication
p - river, born
RAEY - Russian Academy of Natural Sciences
section - section
razl - different
RAMS - Russian Academy of Medical Sciences
RAS - Russian Academy of Sciences
RANION - Russian Association of Research Institutes of Social Sciences
RAO - Russian Academy of Education
RSL - Russian State Library
RSUH - Russian State University for the Humanities
roar - revolutionary
ed - editor, editor
director - director
relig - religious
rep - republican
ref - abstract
retz - review
rome - roman
rice - drawing
district - district
RNL - Russian National Library
Ros-Russian
rr rivers
RTO - Russian Technical Society
RF - Russian Federation
N - north
s - second
s - village, page
san - sanitary
s x in - agriculture
sb - collection, sb - collections
ev - from above
s-d - social democrat, social democratic
north - north
village - rural, village
ser - middle, series
sib - Siberian
trail - next
cm - look
SM - Council of Ministers
Media - mass media
co-author
SNK - Council of People's Commissars - Council of People's Commissars
CO - teaching aids
sobr - meeting
sobr op - collected works
own - actually
sov - soviet
joint - together, joint
sovr - modern
abbr - abbreviation, abbreviated
op - essay
special - special
sport - sports
SPTU - secondary vocational school
cf - compare, average
middle age - medieval
st - article, station, senior
stlb - column
verse - poem
building - construction
с -х - agricultural
SH - Union of Artists
t - volume
those - that is
tk - since
t and - the so-called
then - in this way
table - table
t-vo - partnership
text - textile
terr - territorial, territory
notebook - notebook
techn - technical
technol - technological
t-r - theater
tr - works
TSO - technical training aids
tt-toma
TU - technical school
thousand - thousand, millennium
TYUZ - theater for young spectators
y - county
UVK - educational complex
univ - university
UPK - training and production plant
uel - conditional
outdated - outdated
uch - educational
studying - students
school - college
fam - surname
fascist - fascist
feud - feudal
FZD - factory nine-teelet
FZO - factory training
FZS - factory seven-year plan
FZU - factory apprenticeship
physical - physical
physics and mathematics - physical and mathematical
fiziol - physiological
philol - philological
philos - philosophical
finance - financial
FP - piano
FPK - Faculty of Advanced Training
faculty - faculty
fundam - fundamental
x-in - farming
chem - chemical
household - economic
christ - christian
artist - artistic
church - church
Central Committee - Central Committee
CEC - Central Executive Committee
CNS - central nervous system
h - hour
h - part
person - person
Thursday - quarter
member - member
h-k - corresponding member
shk - school
ShKM - school of peasant youth, school of collective farm youth
ShRM - school for working youth
ShSM - school for rural youth
piece - state, piece
COMPUTER - electronic computer
ex - instance
econ - economic
experiment - experimental
ethnographer - ethnographic
Yu - south
South Africa - South African Republic
south - southern
UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
jurid - legal
language - language
Note 1. Abbreviations of words denoting state, linguistic or national affiliation are used (for example, English - English, Russian - Russian), names of months (for example, April - April, April) 2 In adjectives and participles, endings and suffixes “alny” are allowed to be cut off , “annay”, “elny”, “elsky”, “ennyy”, “eskiy”, “ionic”, etc. (for example, center, foreign, therefore, published, natural, practical, demonstrative, etc.)
Abbreviations in the names of common scientific periodicals
VLU - "Bulletin of Leningrad State University" VMU - "Bulletin of Moscow State University" VP - "Questions of Psychology" VF - "Questions of Philosophy" VY - "Questions of Linguistics"
DAN - “Reports of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR” IAN - “News of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR” PZh - “Psychological Journal” TODL - “Proceedings of the Department of Old Russian Literature of the Institute of Russian Literature”
UZ - “Scientific Notes”
CHOIDR - “Readings at the Society of Russian History and Antiquities at Moscow University”
Abbreviations in the names of pedagogical periodicals
BS - “Biology at school”
VVS - "Bulletin of Higher School"
VS - “Education of schoolchildren”
GS - “Geography at school”
DV - “Pre-school education”
ZhMNP - "Journal of the Ministry of People's
education" IAPN - "News of the Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences"
ILS - “Foreign languages at school” LS - “Literature at school” MS - “Mathematics at school” NO - “Public education” NS - “Elementary school” II - “Pedagogy”
PIS - “Teaching history at school” VET - “Vocational and technical education”
RYANSH - “Russian language in the national school”
RYASSH - “Russian language in the Soviet school”
RYAS - “Russian language at school”
SP - “Soviet pedagogy”
SSO - “Secondary special education”
Secondary school - “Family and school”
UG - "Teacher's Newspaper"
FS - “Physics at school”
HS - “Chemistry at school”
SHIP - “School and Production”

“Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia” is a collection of information on problems of education and upbringing. It contains over 2000 articles devoted to the theory, history, and methodology of psychological and pedagogical sciences. The history and current state of education systems in Russia and abroad are covered. The focus is on the development of the student’s personality. The encyclopedia is intended for teachers and other specialists in the field of education, students of pedagogical universities, as well as parents and all those interested in issues of pedagogy and humanitarian knowledge.

UDC 37(03) BBK 74 ya2
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ABAY KUNANBAEV, Kazakh, poet-educator, founder of the new written Kazakh literature. He studied at a madrasah in Semipalatinsk, independently studied Persian and the language. The formation of his worldview was influenced by humanistic. ideas of Nizami, Navoi and others, views of Russian. Democrats. A.K. gained fame among the Kazakhs as an expert on folklore. life, customs, judicial decisions in litigation, etc., as the author of many others. satirical poems that were memorized by Kazakh youth. In verse and prose. “Words of Edification” expressed educational ideas.
A.K. saw the cause of most of the vices of Kazakh society in ignorance, which spreads due to the lack of properly organized education of children. Several existing in the Semipalatinsk region. governments and boarding schools for Kazakhs did not provide education for the children of nomads. A.K. pinned his hopes for enlightening the people on the education of young men and women in Russian. schools. He recommended including general basic knowledge, information about the culture of the East and West, Kazakhs, and Russians in the training. peoples He proposed teaching children and youth both their native and Russian languages, seeing this as the key to understanding the world and the national language. cultures and the path to equal status of Kazakhs among other peoples. According to A.K., broad general education develops a person’s mind, will, and worldview, and contributes to his striving for truth and justice. A.K. encouraged young people to take learning seriously, become independent, and master skills useful in everyday life.
In production A.K. pays great attention to morals. and labor education of youth, in which he assigned a decisive role to the family, ch. arr. will follow the example of parents and older relatives. In morals. A.K. attached special importance to poetry and music in the improvement of man. According to A.K., the nobility of a person depends on the development of a sense of beauty. A.K. translated into Kazakh, language. poems by A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, fables by I. A. Krylov. The ideas of Russian-Kazakh cultural cooperation expressed by A.K., therefore, had an impact on societies and thought in Kazakhstan. Prod. A.K. published for the first time in Kazakh, language. in St. Petersburg in 1909.
Works: in Kazakh, language. - Poly, coll. soch., vol. 1 - 2, A.-A., 1977; in Russian lane - Izbr., M., 1981; Words of edification. A.-A., 1982.
Lit.: Tazhibaev T. T., Philosophy, psycho-col. and ped. views of Abai Kunanbaev, A.-A., 1957; And ez o in M.O., Abay Kunanbaev. Art. and research, [A.-A., 1967]; Sombay/in A.I., Enlightenment-Democrat Abai Kunanbaev, SP, 1970, No. 8; Shaimerdenova K.. Ped. views of Abai Kunanbaev, A.-A., 1990.
G. M. Khrapchenkov.

ABAKUMOV Sergey Ivanovich, linguist, methodologist, academician. APN RSFSR (1947). Graduated from History and Philology. Faculty of Kazan University (1912). Led teaching and research. work in universities and research institutions in Moscow, including at the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute named after. V.I. Lenin (1933-41), Research Institute of Teaching Methods of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences (1944-49). Considering linguistics and teaching methods in close connection, A. proceeded from the need to give students an idea of Russian. language as a whole system. He pointed to practical the importance of exercises for mastering the basics. norms of grammatically correct and stylistically ordered lit. speech. Developed an approximate classification of stylistics. mistakes, a program of work on stylistics at school. He attached great importance to the development of students’ speech, developed an original theory and methodology of reading (“Creative Reading”, 1925). His ideas about the need for “active” reading, creative. mastering the text, about different methods, approaches to reading business and fiction. texts, oh meth

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