History of Japan at the end of the 19th century - beginning. The 20th century is full of important events. They are associated with Japan's entry into the capitalist path of development. The history of Japan of this period has much in common with the countries of Europe and the USA. At the same time, Japan had its own specific features.
Discovery of Japan Until the middle of the 19th century, Japan was a “closed country.” This led to the economic, political and military weakness of the country. In 1854, the United States, using force of arms, forced the shogun's government to “open” the country. A treaty of peace and friendship was signed. Following the United States, European countries were also allowed into Japan.
Meiji Revolution Late 60s The 19th century was marked by events that are commonly called “Meiji Imi” or “Meiji Revolution”. It is associated with the restoration of the power of the emperor and the overthrow of the “shogunate”. In 1867, the shogun abdicated power in favor of the 15-year-old Emperor Mutsihito.
On April 6, 1868, the Emperor made a solemn statement in which he put forward the following program of action: All state affairs will be decided in accordance with public opinion. All people must unanimously devote themselves to the prosperity of the nation. You will be allowed to pursue your own aspirations and develop your own activities. Knowledge will be borrowed all over the world
Japan has entered an era of modernization. The task facing the government was very difficult: to carry out modernization according to the Western model and not lose its independence and traditions.
To achieve this, Meiji carried out a number of fundamental reforms: The direction of the reforms The content of the reforms The significance of the reforms Agrarian reform Part of the land was transferred to the peasants under certain conditions. The capitalist structure began to develop in agriculture. Administrative reform Confiscation of part of the land and deprivation of power from princes. Destroyed the power of the princes and the division of the country into principalities. Military reform Universal conscription was introduced. The military-feudal structure was eliminated. The Japanese army acquired high combat effectiveness. Monetary reform A single currency was introduced - the yen. Created conditions for the formation of a single national market. Education reform A decree on compulsory primary education was adopted. The class education system was destroyed.
In the 1980s, a broad movement for a constitution unfolded in the country. A special mission was sent to Europe and the USA to familiarize themselves with and choose the most suitable version of the constitution. The mission chose the Prussian version of Bismarck. Emperor Parliament Upper House Lower House
Features of the development of Japan at the beginning of the 20th century. Japan has embarked on the path of accelerated modernization. The government actively patronized the development of industry and trade, seeing in the industrialization of the country protection from the danger of foreign interference in the affairs of the state. By order of the emperor, “model factories” were built at the expense of the state treasury, which were then sold or given to companies close to the imperial court. The companies Mitsui and Mitsubishi received especially generous gifts.
At the end of the 19th century, Japanese capitalism entered a monopoly stage of development. Trade could not develop without good roads. Therefore, the state itself took up railway construction.
Conclusion Japan is the only non-European state whose level of development by the beginning of the 20th century reached the level of leading European countries. The development of imperialism took place in conditions of a narrow domestic market, poverty of the vast majority of the population, and this made Japan an aggressive country that sought to seize foreign lands.
paragraph 1 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph page 147
Question. Remember why in the 1630s. the “closure” of Japan happened and what it meant. What other Asian countries in the modern era followed this path?
Missionaries from European countries preached Christian teaching in Japan, and it was successful among the peasants. This caused the displeasure of the central government and the nobility, who saw in the Christian ideas of universal equality a danger to existing traditions.
In the 30s of the 17th century, the government took a number of measures to isolate Japan from the outside world. Decrees were issued expelling Europeans from the country and banning Christianity. The policy of “closing” the country was caused by the desire of the authorities to prevent the invasion of Japan by Europeans and the desire to preserve the old traditions and feudal order intact.
After the “closure” of the country, Japan’s trade relations with Europe ceased.
clause 1 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph page 148
Question. What were the results of the “self-isolation” policy for the population and economy of Japan? Why in the middle of the 19th century? could the authorities no longer keep Japan “closed” to Europeans and Americans?
Following the conclusion of unequal treaties with foreign powers, Japan's ports were opened to the import of foreign goods. The influx of European goods led it to an economic crisis. As a result, taxes from peasants increased, and the tax in kind was replaced by a cash tax. All this led to a deterioration in the situation of the peasantry.
paragraph 2 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph page 149
Question. Why do you think the leading industrial countries of the world supported the regime of the shogun, who personified the feudal order?
The main impetus for modernization and mastery of industrial production came from the ruling circles, who saw it as a means of strengthening the position of the state in the international arena. Japan remained a feudal state.
paragraph 3 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph page 150
Question. Analyze reforms in different areas of the country's life and explain how they provided a compromise between supporters of traditional society and adherents of modernization in Japan.
Agrarian reform and governance reform were carried out. Although the class system was preserved, feudal fragmentation and feudal, non-economic forms of exploitation of the peasantry gradually ceased to exist.
paragraph 4 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph page 152
Question. What lessons, in your opinion, should other Asian countries interested in equal cooperation with the leading countries of Europe and the United States learn from the Japanese experience of modernization?
Japan has embarked on the path of accelerated modernization. The government actively patronized the development of industry and trade, seeing in the industrialization of the country protection from the danger of foreign interference in the affairs of the state. At the end of the 19th century, Japanese capitalism entered a monopoly stage of development. Trade could not develop without good roads. Therefore, the state itself took up railway construction. Reforms carried out in the economic, political, social and spiritual spheres of life were organically accepted by society. Japan has avoided major social conflicts. A special type of labor relations emerged: employers and employees considered themselves as members of the same team.
paragraph 5 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph page 152
Question. Based on the map (p. 153), describe the geopolitical position of Japan at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. and explain why its foreign policy was colonial in nature.
Limited raw material resources prompted Japan to conquer.
Questions and assignments for paragraph page 154
Question 1. Why, of all the Asian countries, was Japan at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Was the CD able to achieve significant results in the modernization of society and industrialization?
Firstly, the state has become the main instrument for implementing reforms designed to create the preconditions for modernization. The reforms were supposed to reduce the scope of natural and semi-subsistence farming, promote the development of commodity-money relations, and ensure the release of free labor for use in the growing industry.
Secondly, Japan resorts to state customs policy to protect domestic producers.
Thirdly, the state directly financed and organized the construction of railways, the creation of factories and factories (the greatest support was provided to the military industry and the industries serving it.
Question 2. Why did Japan, unlike, for example, Spain and Italy, manage to avoid major social conflicts during deep political reforms and socio-economic transformations?
Japan was able to avoid social conflicts because employers and workers viewed themselves as members of the same collective.
Section "Documents"
Question 1. On behalf of which strata of Japanese society were the demands formulated for the shogun? What was the reason for their presentation to the real head of state?
Demands for the shogun are formulated on behalf of coalition forces hostile to the shogunate. The discontent of the samurai, merchants, artisans and peasants sparks a rebellion against the shogun.
Question 2. In your own words, briefly formulate the four most important requirements presented in this document. What should Japan become as a result of their implementation?
Main demands: expulsion of foreigners, removal of the shogun from power and the creation of a strong, centralized and independent empire.
Questions and assignments for section p. 155
Question 1. Evaluate the socio-economic and political development of the countries discussed in the chapter according to the following criteria:
The time of completion of the industrial revolution.
The pace of industrialization of the country in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries.
Leading industries in the national economy.
Feudal remnants.
Internal problems that complicated the development of the country and impeded its independent foreign policy.
The predominant type of labor relations between employers and employees.
The state of the labor and trade union movement.
2. Why only certain countries were able to implement the requirements for industrial modernization and social reforms, maintain or gain influence on world development at the beginning of the 20th century.
Modernization, that is, mastery of the industrial type of production, at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries became the goal of the policy of most countries in the world. Modernization was associated with an increase in military power, expansion of export opportunities, revenues to the state budget, and an increase in living standards. Among the countries that became centers for the development of industrial production in the 20th century, two main groups stood out. They are called differently: the first and second echelons of modernization, or organic and catching-up development.
Two models of industrial development. The first group of countries, which included Great Britain, France and the USA, was characterized by gradual development along the path of modernization. Initially, the industrial revolution, then the mastery of mass, conveyor industrial production occurred in stages, as the corresponding socio-economic and cultural prerequisites matured.
Most countries that modernized within the framework of the catch-up development model at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries achieved noticeable success. Thus, Germany became one of England's main competitors in world markets. Japan in 1911 got rid of the previously unequal treaties imposed on it. At the same time, accelerated development was a source of exacerbation of many contradictions both in the international arena and within the modernizing states themselves.
The most difficult problems were created by the social consequences of modernization. In essence, they were the same in all countries that entered the industrial phase of development and were faced with social stratification of society.
TEST
in the discipline "World Economy"
Subject: MODERNIZING JAPAN
AT THE END XVIII – EARLY XIX centuries.
INTRODUCTION
I CHAPTER
CHAPTER II
CHAPTER III
1. First steps of reform
state administrative system
2. Formation of local government institutions
3. Reform of the class system
4. Military reform. Creation of a regular army
5. Creation of a police apparatus
6. Judicial and legal reform
2. Reforms of the 1880s
2.1. Agrarian reforms 1871-1873
2.2. Capitalization of samurai pensions
2.3. The initial period of industrialization of Japan
2.4. Education reform
3. Reorganization of the country's state apparatus
Meiji Constitution
CONCLUSION
GLOSSARY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
The process of the country's transition from a feudal society to a capitalist one, which is also called the process of modernization of society, took place differently in different countries. In some European countries this process took centuries. In the East, where all social and political processes do not fit into the framework of European scientific schemes, such processes were very different from European ones, and in their most vivid form they can be traced in the example of Japan in the second half of the 19th century.
As the famous American Japanese scholar E. Reisschauer (Harvard University) noted, Japan embarked on the path of modernization during the Meiji period, already at a fairly high level of development. In addition, the support of the state played an important role in the transformation, which made modernization a priority of its policy. The borrowing of Western methods of industrialization led to a significant reduction in the transition time of Japanese society from a feudal state to a modern one. At the same time, such a reduction in terms also led to complications in society, which can be explained by the fact that in the process of modernization, modern technologies, political, economic and other innovations introduced into Japanese traditional structures were not always consistent with the level of development of the given society.
A characteristic feature of Japanese modernization in the Meiji era it was carried out through the elite of the nation. The population itself did not directly encounter representatives of Western civilization and received new knowledge and information translated into Japanese. Therefore, the rapid turn of society towards the West, the Europeanization of society, did not give rise to feelings of rejection in the Japanese consciousness, and, in addition, some Western concepts (positivism, for example) were close to Japanese traditional views. In general, it must be said that it was the pragmatism of the Japanese that allowed them to so successfully respond to the challenge of the West and carry out fairly effective reforms in a relatively short time, unlike, say, China. In both the Japanese and Chinese cases, the most important role was played by socio-psychological reasons that have deep historical roots, such as, for example, the attitude of national consciousness to the outside world. China, throughout its long history, has played the role of a donor of cultural achievements for the countries around it. That is why the Chinese for a long time could not come to terms with the idea of the presence of other cultural values outside of themselves, different from their own, and the need to learn something from other peoples. For example, rejection of the idea, natural for a European, of the equal position of embassy missions with the head of state in which these missions are represented, was one of the reasons for the third Opium War.
Throughout history, the Japanese have borrowed cultural achievements from outside (mostly from China), and therefore were able to quickly reorient themselves to their new source, while maintaining their national identity.
I CHAPTER
Transition from feudalism to capitalism in Japan, unlike Western countries, it passed quite quickly and, one might say, quite painlessly. This can be explained by the coincidence in time of at least two factors: the crisis of the feudal political system within the country and pressure on Japan from the West. Moreover, the crisis was comprehensive, i.e. affected all aspects of the country's political and economic life (systemic crisis).
Having developed in Japan back in the 12th century, the historically unique shogunate system at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries was approaching its end. Since the beginning of the 17th century, when Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616) established the dominance of his house over most of Japan, the country was the last in the history of Japan to establish shogunate .
From the beginning of the 17th century, the Tokugawa rulers began to pursue a policy of isolating the country from the outside world.
After 1640, foreigners were generally prohibited from entering the country, as well as foreign trade. An exception was made only to the Dutch (for assistance in the fight against the Portuguese) and Chinese traders, who could trade exclusively through a small trading post on the island of Dejima in Nagasaki. For complete isolation, in 1637, on pain of death, all residents of the country were prohibited from leaving the country, and it was also forbidden to build large ships capable of making long voyages.
The reasons for the shogunate's policy of "closing Japan" can be explained by the fact that through such a political course the shogunate tried to prevent the threat of loss of the country's political independence.
Another important factor that caused the country to close down was the rapid and quite effective spread of Christianity in Japan. However, it should be noted that the “closure of the country” took place not only in Japan, which is well known, but also in China and Korea. Such a policy was a natural reaction of countries with Confucian morality to the invasion of a new religion for the East, completely different in its essence - Christianity.
However, by the beginning of the 19th century, the political system of the shogunate became a brake on the further development of society.
Both internal (the systemic crisis of the shogunate) and external (the desire of Western countries to open Japan, caused primarily by the need of the world fleet for intermediate supply bases) preconditions were developing in the country, which ultimately led the feudal system of the shogunate to collapse.
In addition, high taxes and famine caused an increase in the number of peasant uprisings.
In 1720, the ban on foreign literature was lifted, and some new philosophical teachings came to Japan from China and Europe (Germany).
At the end of the 18th century, pressure from the rest of the world began to mount when Russia unsuccessfully attempted to establish trade relations with Japan. Russia was followed by European states and Americans in the 19th century. Commander Parry asked the Japanese government in 1853 and 1854 to open several ports for maritime trade, but foreign trade relations remained insignificant until the Meiji Restoration in 1868.
These events gave rise to a wave of anti-Western sentiment and criticism of the Tokugawa shogunate, as well as the growth of a movement in support of the restoration of the emperor. The anti-Western and pro-imperial movement (Sonno Joi) was widespread among samurai provinces of Choshu and Satsuma. More reserved people understood the serious achievements of science and military art of the West much earlier and preferred to open Japan to the world. Later and conservatives from Choshu and Satsuma realized the advantages of the West, participating in several battles with Western warships.
In 1867-68, the Tokugawa government, under political pressure, left the scene and the Meiji era began.
CHAPTER II
Meiji era (Japanese) meiji jidai) - the period in Japanese history from October 23, 1868 to July 30, 1912, when Mutsuhito was Emperor). Emperor Mutsuhita took the name Meiji, which means “enlightened government” (Mei - light, knowledge; ji - rule). Indeed, this period was marked by Japan’s refusal of self-isolation and its emergence as a world power.
After the fall of the Tokugawa regime, opportunities arose to transform Japan from a backward feudal monarchy into an advanced power built on European models. The first serious blow to the feudal system and the privileges of the samurai was that the government forced the daimyo to renounce their feudal rights in governing the clans. In 1869, the so-called voluntary return of the country and people to the emperor took place - hanseki-hokan.
Mutsuhito (1852-1912), the first emperor of Japan after the overthrow of the shogunate. During the years of his “enlightened reign,” all privileges of the samurai class were abolished.
The daimyo were initially left in charge of their former domains as hereditary governors(chihanji), but after the complete destruction of the division of Japan into principalities and the introduction prefectures(ken) in 1871 the princes were completely removed from government affairs. The exercise of supreme power in the prefectures began to fall within the competence of government officials. Land ownership was abolished, its owners became landowners of a new type and bourgeoisie.
In 1872, the complex and strict class division adopted in Tokugawa Japan was abolished. The entire population of the country (not counting the imperial family - kazoku) began to be divided into three classes: kazoku, formed from representatives of the court (kuge) and military nobility; shizoku- former military service nobility (buke) and heimin- common people (peasants, townspeople, etc.). All classes were formally equal in rights. Peasants and townspeople received the right to have a surname.
Japan remained a closed state to the rest of the world for a long time, but the isolation ceased, and Japan began to cooperate closely with the leading world powers. We will learn below about how the modernization of Japanese society took place.
Japan on the path of modernization
Throughout its history, Japan has sought to absorb all the best that its neighbors had. Before the American Navy invaded Japan in 1854, the country was completely separated from civilization economically and culturally. The country was in a feudal system. Cheap American goods poured into the Japanese market, killing the domestic industry. Beginning in 1869, Emperor Mutsuhito set a course for the Europeanization of Japanese society. A period of global changes began, which went down in history as the “Meiji reforms.”
Rice. 1. Emperor Mutsuhito.
Realizing that in order to be competitive with the leading powers of the world, it is necessary to have the same level of development as them, the emperor first united the entire country under his rule, destroying feudalism, and then began close cooperation with the British Empire and the United States, adopting all the best that these countries had.
Let's consider the essence of the changes being carried out, summarizing them into a general table.
|
Reform |
Changes in society |
|
|
Administrative |
Destruction of the power of princes |
Division of the country into prefectures and provinces headed by appointed officials |
|
Agrarian |
Establishment of private ownership of land. Permission to buy and sell land plots |
The peasants received land. Increase in wealth among large landowners, decrease in income among some peasants |
|
Introduction of universal conscription |
The samurai lost the privilege of being a closed caste; the army began to be formed according to the European model |
|
|
Public administration |
Adoption of the Constitution and creation of a bicameral parliament |
The emperor had almost unlimited rights. 1% of the population received the right to vote. Samurai became officials in the country |
Rice. 2. Portrait of Katsumoto.
It is worth noting that the essence of the Meiji reforms was not a complete copying of the Western way of life, but only the necessary experience. This concept is called "Wakon Yosei" - Western form and Japanese content.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the country experienced rapid economic growth. Japan begins to build up its military potential, developing the military-industrial complex, turning into a colonial power.
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Japan seeks to make Korea and Northern China its colony, which leads to a clash of its interests with the Russian Empire. Unable to reach an agreement diplomatically, Japan enters the war and emerges victorious within a year, achieving its goals.
Rice. 3. Map of the Russo-Japanese War.
Victory in the war and a significant cultural and economic breakthrough allowed Japan to become a leading regional power, an oceanic empire, capable of much more than just leadership in the Pacific.
What have we learned?
From an article on history (8th grade) we learned briefly about Japan on the path of modernization. It is important to note that this was one of the few examples in world history when, in a short period of time, a state reduced the gap with the leading European powers by several centuries, proving its worth to the world.
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