The main purpose of this article is to fill the existing gap and make life easier for those who are just starting to act in the field of historical reconstruction. It is recommended that you first read the translation of Peter Beatson's article at the above addresses, and then use this article as a guide to action.
Material.
The shield field can be made based on two options: from furniture board (closest to reality, but less durable), or plywood sheet. The furniture panel is a rectangle glued together from boards, 1 m wide, 2 m long and 2 cm thick. Considering the thickness of real shields, you will need to plan with a plane wooden blank almost one and a half times 6-8mm. Or use plywood with an already specified thickness. The diameter of the workpiece can vary from 80 to 90cm.
The handle must be made from a wooden strip with a D-shaped section. The length is adjusted based on the diameter of the shield, so that the distance from the edge is about 5 cm. The handle can be made the same width along the entire length, or it can be reduced to a cone - from the center to its two ends. The thickness and height are no more than 3-3.5 cm. On Carolingian miniatures there are images of round shields with a figured metal handle (Men), Anglo-Saxon material also confirms the use of this type of handle (Men).
The central place on the shield is occupied by the umbon - an iron cap covering the handle with outside shield During the Viking Age, umbons have enough same look throughout Europe, differing in the details of making the cone itself and the design of the field. At the end of the 19th century, a typology (Rüge) was developed which is still in use today. You can make your own umbon by cold forging on a mandrel made of iron sheet 2-2.5 mm.
The edge of the shield was covered with a leather strip 2-3mm thick and 5-6cm wide. The joints of the pieces were covered with rectangular iron fittings 1 mm thick and measuring 2 by 7 cm. According to materials from the Birki burial ground, these fittings were riveted with 2 rivets.
The outer side of the shield must be glued with leather or fabric (burlap). The shield from the Tyrian peat bog was glued with leather on both sides.
Again, based on the materials from the Birki burial ground, along with the finds of shields, the finds of one or two iron rings on brackets located at the same distance from the umbon, apparently necessary for attaching a leather shoulder strap, can be traced.
Misconceptions
Before you start making your first shield, you need to avoid the most common mistakes:
Additional strips.
In addition to the handle, the shield field was not reinforced with additional longitudinal strips riveted big amount rivets. Firstly, there is no archaeological evidence for this fact, and secondly, this addition does not give the shield strength, but only makes it heavier. The shield handle was the only bar that held together the shield field and the umbon. The use of rivets to fasten these parts is still controversial. Usually the umbo was fastened with nails bent inward. The handle of the Tyrian shield was tied to the field with a rope.
Shield thickness.
The optimal thickness of the board is 6-8 mm: you should not make a board from plywood more than 10 mm thick. This adds weight, turning the shield from a mobile, active defense into another heavy item on your arm. Real artifacts give us an idea of a shield as protection for one fight; tests show that the shield cannot withstand arrows and darts; powerful chopping blows with an ax destroy the edge of the shield, breaking even the handle. This fragility is compensated by its maneuverability and ease of dismantling. metal parts to a new field.
Shield shackles.
You should not bind the edge of the shield with a metal strip; this will again increase the weight and will not greatly save the edge of the shield from destruction. The shields of the Viking Age had only a leather strip along the edge, additionally fastened with metal brackets. In Birka's only burial, the bindings are riveted close to each other, covering one sector of the shield.
Shield belt.
The belt was attached to steel rings, which in turn were attached to the handle. The most common mistake is installing the belt to the shield field using a rivet and washer, followed by installing the buckle and belt tip. Buckles, and especially (richly decorated) finials, were never found together with the remains of the shield. Apparently, the belt was single, or its length was adjusted using a series of holes at one end of the belt and a forked tail at the other.
Decorations.
Archaeological finds of shields give us a limited choice of decoration for the outer part: Gokstad - alternating yellow and black paint, Gnezdovo - ocher-red color on the remains of wood on the frame of one shield. The Tyrian shield has a leather covering, which most likely did not have a pattern. The pictorial sources on shields are much richer (there are quite a few examples of miniatures with reconstruction of the design throughout Europe). In addition to these sources, drawings on models of shields and decorations can be used. The basis of the design is usually the so-called “Segner wheel”, or a cross. The most common misconception is the transfer of a real zoomorphic or geometric design decorating any object of material culture (braids on dishes, spoons, embroidery, architecture, book miniatures) to the subject of military life. We should not forget that the ornament for our ancestors was more likely practical significance rather than just as a decorative element.
Making a shield. Shield field.
First, you need to cut a circle out of plywood; with the usual cutting of a sheet, you can get two blanks with a diameter of 89 cm. To mark, use a nail driven into the center of your future shield, a thread tied to it with a pencil, equal to the radius shield It is also necessary to cut a hole for the arm in the center of the shield. The diameter of the hole should be slightly larger than the internal diameter of your (already finished) umbo. All edges of the cuts must be thoroughly sanded. Interior The board is lined onto boards with a layout knife along the longitudinal pattern of the plywood and treated with stain. If the surface is assembled from furniture board, then the texture and direction of the boards will appear after treatment with stain.
After this you need to cover it with cloth. outside shield, to do this you need to apply a layer of PVA first to the plane, then place a wet(!) cloth on the shield and apply several more layers of glue on top. Last layer will be a design of a shield - for this you add a coloring pigment or tempera paint to the glue itself and paint the surface.
Umbon.
While the shield is drying, you need to make a umbon. With abundance modern means this will not be difficult to do. The first way is to buy a ready-made, hot-deformed umbo, which can be endlessly rearranged from the old shield to the new one. And the second way - self-production. To do this you need: a knockout hammer with a round striker, a small concave steel cup/ingot or a wooden block with a recess in the center. A workpiece with a diameter of 16-18 cm is cut from sheet iron 2-2.5 mm thick, then a 2 cm margin is outlined along the edge with a caliper. The workpiece must be held on the die with pliers and, moving it in a circle, struck with a hammer. You need to knock out the sphere with a series of blows from the edge to the center. Each cycle of blows will allow you to knock out the sphere approximately 5mm. Considering the required depth of the umbon is 6-8cm. After the second hour of beating, you finally get the idea that it was better to buy it.
Edge stitching.
After the fabric on the face of the shield has dried, you will need to cut off the excess pieces of fabric around the edges. Then we will proceed to trim the edge of the shield with a leather strip. With a shield thickness of 8 mm, a strip of leather 5 cm wide will be sufficient. By fitting the strip onto the edge, mark the edge line of the strip along the entire board. Next, retreating 5 mm from this line to the outside, use an awl to line future holes for stitching at equal intervals (10-12 mm). If you have chosen continuous stitching, then one line of holes will be enough; if the stitching method is used, then it will be necessary to step back from the line 5 mm inside the shield and mark the holes in the gaps. Next, you need to drill all the holes in a circle with a diameter of 2 mm, apply a strip and use an awl to pierce holes in it for the firmware, so that they coincide with those drilled in the field of the shield. You can sew on the strip with thick linen or waxed threads.
Installation of shackles.
For the bindings, you can use a sheet of iron 1mm thick, from which you need to cut 6-8 identical plates 2cm wide and 7cm long (with a shield thickness of 8mm and leather covering 2mm - if these dimensions change, the length of the bracket may vary). 4 holes are drilled in the workpiece for future rivets, and the bracket is pressed tightly with pliers along the edge of the shield. After this, holes are drilled in the shield itself, rivets are inserted and riveted with inside. If the leather strip on the edging consists of several pieces, then brackets are placed at each joint; if the strip is solid, then 4-6 brackets can be placed along the sectors of the shield at an equal distance from each other.
Assembly of shield parts. Umbo, handle, rings.
Before installing the handle, it is necessary to secure the rings on it - belt holders. The rings are bent on a mandrel with a diameter of 2 cm made of 4 mm wire. Then strips 4-5mm wide are cut from one extra bracket. They are bent around the ring and inserted into holes drilled in the handle, and the remaining shanks are bent on the back side. Their location may vary, the main thing is that they are equidistant from the umbon.
Next, the handle and the umbo itself are mounted. It is usually attached to 4 nails or rivets, two of which also go through the handle. The handle itself requires two more rivets at the ends, although you can rivet each board of the lined shield. Finishing touch- installing a belt with ties and sewing a linen cover for the shield.
- Boards. Some were from a pallet, some were just lying around at the dacha.
- Wood glue. Any wood glue will do.
- Rivets.
- Sheet of iron.
This is the most basic thing, you will need a few more small things, but more on that later.
Making a shield
We are not looking for simple ways, so we will make a shield not from plywood or furniture board (a shield from a shield, cool), but from boards. These are:
And you ask me how to make something cool out of a bunch of these old boards? But no way! First you need to plan all the blanks.
In the process, I replaced some of the original boards. Light wear and tear on the wood gives it a special charm, but outright rot is unnecessary. If you buy edged board(you can have one long one and then cut it into the required parts), then you won’t have to plan it much, but if you go the difficult route and take old boards, you’ll have to adjust the ends. What I mean is that all the blanks should fit together well. We need this for the next stage - gluing. Oh yes. All boards must be no more than 10 mm thick. The shield should be light, a historical Viking shield could be 8 mm in the middle, and 5 mm towards the edges. The shield shouldn’t have been enough for more than 1 battle, only the umbon is tenacious, but more on that later.
I glued all the boards on a workbench, with stops in the form of bars attached to three sides. I glued the ends together with Moment wood glue. Very good glue By the way, I used it to glue the soundboard of an electric guitar, and glue the furniture, and, well, the shield. All ends were glued and joined in turn. Then a third stop was attached to the workbench, which clamped all the boards, and two more boards were placed on top, and gypsum blocks on them. This is so that the gluing does not fail. I left the glue to dry for about a day.
Afterwards a circle with a diameter of 74 cm was drawn. Not the biggest or smallest overall given size I chose it specifically for myself.
Next, I started making the umbon. In general, it should be made of approximately 4 mm steel, but here I decided to take the path of least resistance. I found an iron plate a little more than one mm thick and began to bend it into a hemisphere.
To do this, I dug a pipe into the ground, put a plate on top, constantly heated it with a burner and beat it with an old dumbbell.
Afterwards, holes were drilled along the edges of the umbon, and I also cleaned it from old paint and smoked it over the fire. Also, leather was glued to the inside of the umbon.
Now we mark a hole for the umbon in the center of the shield and carry out drilling and chisel work. That is, we drill along the edges of the markings, and then we knock out the circle with a chisel, those places that were not drilled. We also drill the umbo itself and the shield along the edges of the hole for the rivets.
We attach the umbo to the shield with rivets. And we paint the shield with stain. I used a mixture of mahogany and mocha. It turned out quite interesting. At different lighting and from different angles the color is sometimes darkly saturated, sometimes dull-light.
The handle is also attached to the shield with rivets and to each board to strengthen the shield.
Next I found black and brown leather, which was cut into strips and nailed to the shield with small nails. On the reverse side, I had to additionally attach all the leather with a large stapler, because the nails were too short. Go to the store and buy carnations of the right length? No, not our option.
This completes the production of the shield. And yes, we tried to hit it with an ax and, lo and behold, it survived! It’s better not to repeat this, even if you make a shield and are not sure of it.
There is a rune ax, there is a shield, all that remains is to make a longship and go on a campaign!
Recently I received an order from a friend for a Viking shield and axe. And while I have been working with axes for quite a long time, this was the first time I had to make a shield.
I didn’t take the simple path, i.e. I didn’t cut it out of plywood or buy it furniture board. I purchased some planed pine boards from a warehouse to keep them dry. Board thickness 20 mm, width 95 mm.
I bought good carpenter's glue and built a small device for gluing boards together from two pieces of plywood and studs. I sawed the boards into fragments 90 cm long, not very economically, but it was more convenient for me, so that there was more margin when cutting out a circle.
Then, as soon as the glue has dried (in my case, the next day), we screw a self-tapping screw into the center of the workpiece, tie a rope to it, and a pencil to the end of the rope.
I decided to make the shield with a diameter of 78 cm (it seems not the smallest, but not huge either), before that I read historical references on Viking shields.
After marking, I cut out the circle with a jigsaw, and then treated one side with a wire nozzle to brush the wood.
Yes, I forgot, I removed 5 mm of the thickness of the board with an electric planer. I wanted more, but the knives on the plane began to remove the wood very unevenly and I refused to continue the procedure.
In short, the thickness of the shield was 15 mm. Then I sanded the front and back sides a little to remove large burrs. The umbon was made from a sheet of steel 2 mm thick.
I cut out a circle (about 21 cm) from the sheet, found a pipe of suitable diameter and pulled out a hemisphere. During the process, I slightly heated the workpiece in the forge. I used a slightly rounded hammer (modified with a grinder) and half a Soviet dumbbell in the shape of a ball. I tore the first umbon (most likely due to rusted areas), but the second one came out quite well. Depth about 5 cm.
Afterwards I drilled holes in the umbo and shield and riveted aluminum rivets. I cut the shield's handle out of a birch board with a jigsaw (there was a good one left from a pallet) and placed it on furniture bolts so that it could be removed if something happened (it seems like they were going to hang the shield on the wall, but who knows). I didn’t take any photos at this stage, I confess.
By the way, the holes turned out to be a little asymmetrical, and all because I really wanted to finish it as quickly as possible, but I no longer had the strength. It would be better if I went to bed, but oh well.
Since the theme of the shield is Valkyrie, I sketched something like wings (I found a similar picture with a tattoo sketch on the Internet). In the photo, the shield is already covered with stain - mahogany.
I applied the design using pyrography and covered the shield with drying oil so that the wood fibers would show up better.
Then he started covering the edge of the shield with leather. I sewed with a saddle stitch, used leather 2 mm thick, and pre-drilled holes in the shield.
To be honest, I’m tired of sheathing (my fingers still hurt), it would be better to nail it down with nails (after sheathing I also glued the skin a little with waterproof universal glue).
This is what the shield looks like reverse side. This strap is temporary for now, most likely later, when suitable leather appears, I will make a carrying strap.
Leather pads at the joints, 3.5 mm thick. I don’t pretend to be historic, but I tried.
Recently I received an order from a friend for a Viking shield and axe. And while I have been working with axes for quite a long time, this was the first time I had to make a shield.
I didn’t take the simple path, i.e. I didn’t cut it out of plywood or buy furniture board. I purchased some planed pine boards from a warehouse to keep them dry. Board thickness 20 mm, width 95 mm.
I bought good carpenter's glue and built a small device for gluing boards together from two pieces of plywood and studs. I sawed the boards into fragments 90 cm long, not very economically, but it was more convenient for me, so that there was more margin when cutting out a circle
Then, as soon as the glue has dried (in my case, the next day), we screw a self-tapping screw into the center of the workpiece, tie a rope to it, and a pencil to the end of the rope.
I decided to make the shield with a diameter of 78 cm (it seems not the smallest, but not huge either), before that I read historical references on Viking shields. 
After marking, I cut out the circle with a jigsaw, and then treated one side with a wire nozzle to brush the wood.
Yes, I forgot, I removed 5 mm of the thickness of the board with an electric planer. I wanted more, but the knives on the plane began to remove the wood very unevenly and I refused to continue the procedure.
In short, the thickness of the shield was 15 mm. Then I sanded the front and back sides a little to remove large burrs. The umbon was made from a sheet of steel 2 mm thick.
I cut out a circle (about 21 cm) from the sheet, found a pipe of suitable diameter and pulled out a hemisphere. During the process, I slightly heated the workpiece in the forge. I used a slightly rounded hammer (modified with a grinder) and half a Soviet dumbbell in the shape of a ball. I tore the first umbon (most likely due to rusted areas), but the second one came out quite well. Depth about 5 cm.
Next we return to the pieces of wood. Namely, we cut out a hole for the umbon. I marked it according to the same principle as a large circle.
Then I drilled holes in the umbo and shield and riveted aluminum rivets. I cut the shield's handle out of a birch board with a jigsaw (there was a good one left from a pallet) and placed it on furniture bolts so that it could be removed if something happened (it seems like they were going to hang the shield on the wall, but who knows). I didn’t take any photos at this stage, I confess.
By the way, the holes turned out to be a little asymmetrical, and all because I really wanted to finish it as quickly as possible, but I no longer had the strength. It would be better if I went to bed, but oh well.
Since the theme of the shield is Valkyrie, I sketched something like wings (I found a similar picture with a tattoo sketch on the Internet). In the photo, the shield is already covered with stain - mahogany. 
I applied the design using pyrography and covered the shield with drying oil so that the wood fibers would show up better.
Then he started covering the edge of the shield with leather. I sewed with a saddle stitch, used leather 2 mm thick, and pre-drilled holes in the shield.
To be honest, I’m tired of sheathing (my fingers still hurt), it would be better to nail it down with nails (after sheathing I also glued the skin a little with waterproof universal glue).
This is what the shield looks like from the back. This strap is temporary for now, most likely later, when suitable leather appears, I will make a carrying strap
Leather pads at the joints, 3.5 mm thick. I don’t pretend to be historic, but I tried.
Shields of the Viking Age.
The large round Viking shields were apparently made in accordance with some special tradition. The most famous examples of complete specimens - those located on the sides of the ship from Gokstad, Norway (Fig. 1.) - date back to 905 AD. e. (Bonde and Christensen 1993). They are similar to the shields from Thorsberg (Raddatz 1987).
Design and dimensions.
The usual size of shields of that time was 80-90 cm in diameter (see Table 1). For comparison, shields found in pagan Anglo-Saxon burials (23 copies) range from 42 to 92 cm; from Thorsberg – 7 copies, Roman Iron Age – from 65 to 104 cm in diameter; Välsgarde, Sweden – 3 specimens, Vendelian period – from 84 to 110 cm in diameter). The shield field was flat; It was made from one layer of planks (boards) knocked (fastened) together. Gokstad shields are made from seven or eight pine planks (soft wood coniferous species, appears to have been used in most cases, but not always) in varying widths, with the option of fewer, wider slats appearing to be more practical; for example, the central plank of a Wendel-era shield from Välsgarde was 52 cm wide. The thickness of the planks was usually 6-10 mm (Table 2); decreased towards the edges (Fig. 1, Table 2). Confirmation of the hypotheses about the existence of multilayer structures has not yet been found (Härke 1981).
Fig. 1 – shield from a burial at Gokstad, Vestfold, Norway, 905 AD. Diameter 94 cm (Nicolaysen 1882).
A. Front view. Umbon type - Rygh 564.
b. Back side; visible holes for attaching the rim (skin) and one wooden plank, serving as a handle - the remaining structural reinforcement elements visible in the photo are modern additions.
With. Sectional side view; thinning towards the edges is visible.
The planks were glued to one another whenever possible. In addition, the umbo, handle and rim (edge trim) (see below), as well as the leather covering, provided additional strength. Some Birka shields had a face covering of thin leather, and some early English shields were covered with it on both sides (Arwidsson 1986; Dickinson and Härke 1992). However, the Gostad shield straps were painted, suggesting that they were not covered with leather (Lowe 1990). One can even assume that their shape and fragility of construction suggested only use in burial, for which they were made; These were unlikely to be combat shields. It is interesting to note that the shields from Gokstad are structurally similar to the shield found in the peat bog at Tirskom, Latvia (Tirsky peat bog) (Fig. 1.1).
Fig 1.1 – Shield 1, found in Tirskom, Latvia. On the left is the found one, on the right is the reconstruction.
Shield 1. This shield, dating from the 9th century, was assembled from six spruce or fir planks (Yrtan 1961). The diameter of the shield is 85.5 cm, the thickness of the slats is 0.6 cm. On both sides the shield is covered with leather and lined with compressed grass, possibly to soften the blow. In some places on the edge the leather is fixed (nailed (?) or sewn (?)).
Interestingly, the umbo of the shield from the Tyrian peat bog is made of wood, although it is identical in shape and size to local iron examples (another wooden umbo was found at the site of a Slav settlement in GrossRaden, Northern Germany). The umbon measures 13.1 by 10.5 cm and covers a hole in the center 11.5 cm wide. It is riveted with 14 rivets (which have not survived). Traces of blows on the surface of the leather and umbo indicate that the shield was used in battle.
Shield 2. From the second shield found in Tirskom, only the middle bar was found, or rather, only part of it. It was made from some kind of coniferous tree and measures 68 x 11.8 x 1.4 cm. The quadrangular arm hole is located (presumably) in the center of the field, thus suggesting a shield width of 73 cm. Interestingly, the field is curved, perhaps it was a convex shield.
Umbon.
In the center of the shield was done round hole(at least this is how it was in the shields from Gokstad; oval, 8- and D-shaped ones are known from materials dating back to the Vendelian and earlier periods. The second shield from Tirskom had a square hole). It (the hole) was closed with a hemispherical iron umbo, the diameter of which was about 15 cm (including the fields); The umbo covered the handle. The iron on the dome was quite thick (3-5 mm), although the margins of the umbon were thinner ( Note from S.K. : I measured about a dozen ancient Russian umbons and gave a thickness of about 1.5 mm, so 3-5 mm is clearly too much).
The umbo had two main forms - the early style (variant) had a high dome and a clear “neck” (neck, interception) (Fig. 2-a) The late style (variant) had a low dome without a “neck” (Fig. 2-b) , although the early style was not completely replaced by the later one. Less common were low option(Fig. 2-c), and spheroconic (Fig. 2-d), sometimes with a protrusion at the top.
Rice. 2 – shield umbons.
The only examples of umbos with jagged edges are known from Telemark, Norway (Fig. 3-a); Birka, Sweden and Ile de Groix, France (Fig. 3). The last burial contained several unique umbos with unusually made flanges (Fig. 3-d,c,d,e), possibly of Western European origin (Mueller-Wille 1978).
Usually the umbo was attached iron nails(rivets), the tips (ends) of which were either bent or riveted on the back side of the shield (Fig. 3-d, h). ( Note from S.K. : fastening with nails is the most common, rivets are found, but less often). The specimens found at Birka usually contain 4 nails, sometimes six (as at Gokstad). There are also cases of fastening with five rivets, as in Cronk Moar, Man and Groix, France.
The fields of some umbons were angled, perhaps because they were attached to the convex field of the shield. From Birka also come examples of umbos, the fields of which were decorated with applied plates of non-ferrous metal (Fig. 3-f,g), and the heads of the rivets were inlaid(?) or tin-plated (Arwidsson 1986).
Fig. 3 – shield umbons.
a - umbo with jagged edges, Telemark, Norway
b-e - Ile de Groix, France. The ends of the nails are often riveted rather than bent.
f – Birka, tinning applique is shown.
g – Birka, copper edging on the flange.
h – Birka, in the side view the bend of the rivets is noticeable.
Handle.
Apparently it was only wooden, judging by most of the burials, where there are not as many remains as in Gokstad; there, a thin strip is riveted to the boards from edge to edge and serves as a handle (in the place where it intersects the central hole) (see Fig. 1). On more beautifully made shields, a curved iron plate was superimposed on the wooden core, usually decorated with an engraved bronze sheet or silver inlay (Fig. 4-a)
Rice. 4 – shield handles, 10 c.
a – two fragments of a silver-decorated iron handle with a wooden core from a burial at Hedeby, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.
b - fragment of the “spatulat” end of the handle, Gokstad.
c-d – three-pointed bronze mounts for the handle in the form of human-animal images, burials of Hedeby and Birka.
The handle was long, often crossing the entire diameter of the shield and thinning towards the ends. A “spatula-shaped” pad could be attached to the ends of the handle, which was also riveted (Fig. 4-b); or everything was fastened with various bronze fasteners (plates) (Fig. 4-c, d). Sometimes the rivets that held the umbo passed through the handle. The handle could be wrapped in leather.
Edge reinforcement.
Most finds do not confirm the presence of edge reinforcement, which perhaps indicates either its absence (reinforcement), or that it was made from material that deteriorates relatively quickly and, therefore, has not survived to this day. Small holes were drilled into the Gokstad shields at a distance of about 2 cm from the edge at intervals of 3.5 cm (Fig. 1-a,b), possibly to attach a rim, all other traces of which have not survived. It can be assumed that a strip of leather ran along the edge, secured with stitches or nailed with thin nails.
Rice. 5 – Metal clamps from the rims of the shields.
a – burial in Birka, Sweden. Type A is a simple U-shaped bracket.
b – burial in Birka, Sweden. Type B – with an extension for attaching a leather strip.
c – Lindholm Hüye 1112, Denmark. Marks of hammering (?) around the rivet are visible.
Small brackets made of iron or bronze plates are sometimes found in burials (Fig. 5). The brackets were sometimes decorated with tinning, chasing or engraving (Fig. 5-c). In Birka, shields were found in which the brackets were fitted one to the other continuously along the edge (Fig. 6); however, only fragments of the rim have survived, which perhaps means deliberate (?) damage to the shield before burial.
Rice. 6 – Burial in Birka Bj736, 10th century.
a – shields as they were found during excavations
b – reconstruction (Peter Beatson)
Sometimes several staples were distributed evenly around the rim, perhaps to secure along the edge of a leather strip, the marks of which sometimes remain. The staples from burial Bj 850 were fastened over a leather border (Fig. 7), although they a small amount of And uneven distribution give reason to assume that this (fastening the skin) is not their main purpose. For example, they could strengthen the joints of planks or a damaged edge.
Rice. 7 – Burial in Birka Bj850, 10th century.
a – shield, as found during excavations (Arbman, 1943).
1 - umbon, 2 - rim brackets, 3 - end of the handle (near the remains)
b – reconstruction of the shield (Peter Beatson)
c – section - section with a bronze bracket; The shield material, leather lining and edge band are shown.
