Article by psychologist Galina Belozub.
Whatever newspaper or magazine you pick up contains advice almost everywhere on how to become happy. You need to smile, rejoice, be content with the fact that there is a lot more that is correct and very specific. And no one, let alone me, is going to argue with this. But I invite you to look a little deeper into our psyche and into our soul, which is different for me. And try to understand what makes a person unhappy and how to become happy.
Man is born for happiness as a bird is born for flight. So thought the Russian writer V. Korolenko. And not only him. Many of us have a harmful illusion that just as nature created a bird for flight, so it created a person for happiness. By no means, as the countess would say from an anecdote, nature never had such a thing “in its thoughts.” All she had to do was create an individual that would survive and reproduce. For this purpose, nature has provided man with a psyche. The psyche is busy responding, as it is now fashionable to say, to challenges external environment, that is, it solves problems as they arise. The psyche makes sure that the individual is well-fed, shod, dressed (i.e., not cold as a wolf’s tail), so that he is safe and in his “pack” occupies the place appropriate to him, and it would be better even higher.
But take care of your happiness yourself. Because our psyche is concerned only with threats, challenges, etc., and therefore our attention is constantly aimed at the problem. If it doesn’t exist, then search for the problem, then suffer from this problem, finally solve it and enjoy the solution. The algorithm is clearly presented in an anecdote about a man in a pub. Therefore, if you and I are walking through the Catherine Park of Tsarskoe Selo, and a sharp pebble hits our shoe, then... Can you imagine? The beauties will fade into the background until we shake this pebble out of our shoe. And there is no time for courtship and no time for gallantry for a culinary school student if you have just eaten a watermelon, but small house not nearby. In general, our psyche is engaged in catching only minuses. Among the minuses, you can hardly feel happy. How unnatural this is. But I want to be happy!
And I’ll tell you the secret of how to contrive to be happy. It’s quite simple - you need to turn a minus into a plus. Yes, I don’t have a lot of clothes, but every purchase brings me such joy that jaded people no longer have. Yes, I'm not very good good health, but illnesses strengthen my spirit, which means they are good for me. There are so many examples here that I will stop. Because every moment of my life is a translation of a minus into a plus. So, we seem to have sorted this out - let’s not allow us to be immersed in a world of disadvantages and problems. We will make our way to the sun, we will make our way to happiness.
But our psyche is not limited to catching problems. Its main task is adaptation. We ourselves adapt to environment, but we are also trying to adapt this environment to ourselves. And we like the slogan of “Time Machine” more: “We shouldn’t bend to the changing world, let it bend to us better” than the other option. Of course, it’s more comfortable if the world “bends in.” But will this make us happy? I want to show this mechanism of “bending under oneself” using the example of reforging, re-melting our loved ones, that is, how to make them comfortable for oneself. And therefore, our psyche is configured to catch shortcomings in people (from our point of view) and fight them in all acceptable, and sometimes unacceptable, ways. It should be noted that the process of eradicating shortcomings in another person is endless, because there is no limit to perfection. But does this make us and our loved ones happy? It is very doubtful that “you will find your happiness in struggle.” In order to be happy among people and help others become happy, you need to be able to resist the mechanisms of the psyche.
You need to “surround” yourself with good people. Not positive ones, who do everything as expected, but good ones, i.e. people with whom you feel good. Where, you say, are there so many good people dial? You can't have enough good people. And I'll teach you, it's very simple. Every person has shortcomings, but at the same time there are many advantages, a lot of good things, and we will communicate with this good thing. Here, for example, is a cheerful, optimistic person, but at the same time somewhat tight-fisted and greedy. Why should we care about his tight-fistedness? We will not expect any gifts from him and we will not ask for a loan. But we will rejoice in his optimism and sense of humor. The other, on the contrary, is generous and noble, but at the same time so always sad and depressed. We will appreciate his nobility and generosity in him and at the same time we will try to lift his spirits. And, of course, with a problem, it’s better to go to an optimist, who may even laugh at this problem and dispel all fears, but if we need to borrow money, we’ll turn to a generous one. There are people who are carefree and cheerful, and it’s good to celebrate their name day with them. But they have a problem with commitment, and therefore concluding deals with them means digging a hole for yourself. And so on. The rest is up to you to figure out. The main thing is to draw a conclusion and formulate a rule for yourself: you should expect from a person only what he can give and not demand from him what he is absolutely not capable of. The French philosopher Helvetius was generally categorical: “To love people, you need to expect little from them.” That's how it is.
How can we direct our eyes to the advantages and simply not notice the shortcomings? You probably noticed that all people can be divided into two categories. Some people are dissatisfied with everything all the time, they all grumble and grumble, while others, on the contrary, in the same situation, do not grumble, but purr with pleasure. Yes, you say, someone is lucky. This is true, maybe someone is lucky, but who is stopping you and me from getting into the ranks of these lucky ones?
And also happy man, this is a grateful person. You know, some people live in a world where everyone owes them everything. They know this for sure. But the trouble is, others, those who should, don’t want to take on this debt. And can you imagine how offensive it is: you, for example, think that the government owes you something, but it doesn’t care about this debt. And I’ll tell you about it all, as always, with an example. Once upon a time there lived “A” and “B”. Only, of course, they weren’t sitting on any pipe. Because they were married and respected women. And their husbands were, as they say now, wealthy people. And, in my opinion, so rich. “A” (greed) was 48 years old, and “B” (gratitude) was 46. And then the same misfortune overtook them. Their rich husbands became interested in young women. And they didn’t just get carried away, but formed new families with those new women. “A” and “B” did not immediately find out about their husbands’ betrayal. But, as they found out, both of them offered their husbands things to go out with. The husbands did not argue and went to their young, newly found passions. But the men did not ignore their ex-wives either. Wives were guaranteed the same standard of living. And this despite the fact that in the new family they got a lot of trouble for this, they had to withstand the pressure of the young chosen ones, who quite reasonably declared this state of affairs unacceptable. And the men had nothing to object to. Really, ex-wives apartments and cars, fur coats, diamonds, etc., and some savings for a rainy day were left behind. But all this is a saying, and this is what my fairy tale is about. “A” was in a world where everyone owed her money. The children had to love her, her husband should support her, her friends should help her. Everyone around her was in debt, like silk. And when her husband came to her, she greeted him only with reproaches and tears, scandals and hysterics, and she herself was deeply unhappy. She lived in a world where unscrupulous people did not want to completely forget about themselves and devote themselves to the service of “A”.
"B" was completely different. Having learned about her husband's betrayal, she grieved and cried for a long time, she suffered, but was not angry. And “B” lived in a completely different world. In her world, no one owed her anything. She told me: “We are adults. I am healthy, able to work and must provide for myself. I didn’t work, I raised my children, but now the children have grown up, and I could well go to work, but, to be honest, I don’t really want to. And I am so grateful to my husband that he gives me the opportunity to live for my own pleasure, that he helps the children, that he bought me a tour to Rimini.” When I came to "B" ex-husband, she greeted him with joy and did not reproach him for anything. “What can we do,” she said, “life is life, he fell in love with another.” She never asked him for anything, and she was very grateful for everything he did for her. And you know, she lived happily, she had peace in her soul, there was no anger or hatred in her soul, but there was an acceptance of life as it is, and she accepted from people what they gave her not as debts, but as gifts.
And now we move on to the next mechanism of our psyche, which also needs to be resisted in order to be happy and nothing else.
Where is human happiness? What is it? Very often a person thinks that his happiness depends on external circumstances. More precisely, from owning something. We get this from hamsters and squirrels and even all sorts of rats. The psyche is concerned with ensuring that the individual lives and survives not only on favorable days, but also when it is cold and hungry. And for this you need a reserve. Therefore, a happy hamster is the one who has something hidden not only behind his cheek, but also in his hole. It seems to us that the more there is in our mink and the larger the mink itself, the happier we will be. You can often hear: why is she complaining, what is she missing, she has everything? And when we say that the rich cry too, we say this with some surprise. Why should they cry? They have everything, aren’t they rich?
Here, we dream, if I had a Harley Davidson and I would be happy. Or, for example, if I went out somewhere in a mink coat, everyone would look at me and fall, that would be happiness. Yes, what can we deny, when you acquire a coveted item, for a while you feel deep satisfaction. But then you look around and realize that in addition to Harley Davidson, there is also a Ferrari, and fur coats are made not only from mink, but also from chinchilla, in general, there is no limit to perfection. If you have a beautiful apartment, then a separate house is still better. And in this pursuit of happiness, which is hidden in some thing, there is no end, chase, chase, chase... These are the people who say that happiness is a short moment, which you really wanted, got, soared, and then crashed to the ground again . Because such people do not know how to be content with what they have. It may be difficult at first to accept this formula: it is not the one who has a lot who is rich, but the one who has enough of what he has. Likewise, a person who is content with what he has is happy. This does not mean that you do not need to strive for anything, it is important how you feel about it. You can feel happy, but still set goals for yourself and strive to achieve them. Or you can put happiness beyond the horizon and run towards it with all your might, while feeling deeply unhappy. The moral of all these arguments is this: happiness is not a possession, but a skill, the ability to enjoy what you have, and the ability to rejoice.
This is where we get to the real thing important aspect throughout my “sermon” and the most valuable quality for me in a person is the ability to rejoice. Some people are born with this, but most people need to learn it. Because you need to learn to enjoy the little things. It is best to constantly maintain this state of quiet joy and love within yourself. Unfortunately, again, this is not planned by nature, this is our quiet joy. Each of us has a pleasure center that will “work” if we manage to grab something bigger than our neighbor or get rid of trouble. Therefore, do not rely on Mother Nature, in general, you should not expect favors from nature, our task is to take them.
Of course, you and I experience different feelings, which we call happiness. Falling in love, achieving the result you were striving for, the joy of discovery, the pleasure of a frank conversation, relief from getting rid of some kind of trouble, etc. But all this is practically a moment.
But that’s not why I’m writing. I believe that you can be in a happy, harmonious state, of course, not all the time, but almost all the time. Here's to turning the usual state of things around: so that despondency, depression, irritation are only a moment, and a state of mental peace, harmony and quiet joy is the rest of the time. To do this, you need (that’s all!) to reconfigure your psyche. As soon as she settles down to suck and chew some problem, immediately ask herself the question: is this a problem? Is it in my power to solve it? And is it worth ruining your mood and the lives of those around you with your mood, if this is not my problem at all? And again, examples of barking at our government, our deputies and not at all our oligarchs pop into my head? After all, we feel resentment and irritation from the injustice of the world’s structure, while we inject adrenaline, cortisol and other “biological additives” that are harmful to health into the blood of our dear and only ourselves. Let's stop and don't get angry and puff about the fact that we didn't get an oil well, but let's rejoice in the fact that we are with such and such beauty and without security. We don’t have a well, but we have completely selfless love and friendship of our loved ones (what benefit do they get from us?), a calm conscience and peace in our souls.
Cultivate love in your soul. The best cosmetic product. No creams will save a disfigured face negative emotions. Doom yourself to a constant search for joy. Little joys. No, problems shouldn’t be brushed aside either, they need to be solved. But don’t procrastinate! Don't pamper and cherish. He chewed up another problem and order. And you rejoice again. But even if there is not enough human power to solve your problem, we are still happy. Get yourself binoculars that will increase your joys and reduce your sorrows and sorrows.
And don’t hope that happiness will suddenly knock on your door, set yourself up for joy, love, gratitude, and happiness will follow. Constantly work, correct, reconfigure the work of our psyche, to put it so harshly, then learn to resist its mechanisms! And always remember the words of the brilliant Schopenhauer: “There is only one innate (everyone) mistake - this is the belief that we are born for happiness.”
Grigorovich L.A., Martsinkovskaya T.D. Pedagogy and psychology. – M., 2003.
Levels of pedagogy methodology
The structure of methodological knowledge can be represented by four levels (according to E.G. Yudin): philosophical, which is represented general principles knowledge and the categorical structure of science as a whole; general scientific, which contains theoretical concepts applicable to all or most scientific disciplines; concrete scientific, which is represented by a set of methods, principles of research, in a specific special scientific discipline; technological, which includes research methods and techniques that ensure the receipt of reliable empirical material and its processing.
Philosophical level
The creation of pedagogical theories is based on philosophical models of describing the world. Let us briefly outline the basic principles of philosophical trends that most often underlie pedagogical theories.
1. Neo-Thomism. The founder of this trend, the famous medieval philosopher Thomas Aquinas, in order to strengthen the influence of the church on people, recognized reason as a means necessary to prove religious dogmas. He argued that, while collecting empirical data, science is still unable to reveal the essence of the world, and the highest truth is comprehended only by approaching God, only by “supermind”. Neo-Thomists prove the leading role of religion in the upbringing of the younger generation and believe that the entire education system should be aimed at developing a “preconscious” desire to get closer to God.
2. Positivism and neopositivism. Most of the representatives of this philosophical trend are prominent natural scientists. For positivists, only what is obtained using quantitative methods is true and tested. Absolutizing the methods of natural sciences, transferring them to the field of pedagogy, neopositivists give priority in the learning process not to its content, but to methods of cognition, believing that the main thing is “not knowledge, but methods of acquiring it.” The main drawback of the pedagogy of this philosophical direction is that it is dominated by useless (from their point of view) ideas and abstractions, rather than real facts.
3. Pragmatism. The main concept is “experience,” and knowledge of reality comes down to a person’s individual experience. Denying the existence of objective scientific knowledge, pragmatists argue that all knowledge is true if it is obtained in the process practical activities person and useful for him. The founder of pragmatic pedagogy is the American scientist J. Dewey, who put forward a number of important principles of teaching and upbringing: developing children’s activity, arousing interest as a motive for a child’s learning, increasing practical methods when teaching, etc. Dewey declared the child’s individual experience to be the basis educational process, believed that the purpose of education comes down to the process of “self-discovery” of the instincts and inclinations given to the child from birth. Considering issues moral education, pragmatists argued that a person should not be guided in his behavior by pre-formulated norms and rules, he should behave as the given situation and the goal he sets dictates to him. Everything that helps achieve personal success is moral.
4. Dialectical materialism. Its largest representatives, K. Marx and F. Engels, substantiated the role of social practice in knowledge and organically combined materialism and dialectics. The main provisions of this scientific direction are as follows:
Matter is primary, consciousness is secondary, it arises as a result of the development of matter and is its product;
The phenomena of the objective world and consciousness are interconnected and interdependent and, therefore, causally determined;
All objects and phenomena are in motion, development and change.
Pedagogy, built on the methodology of dialectical materialism, considers the individual to be the object and subject of social relations, and assumes that its development is determined by external social circumstances and nature human body. Education is given a vital role in personality development, and education itself is seen as complex social process, having a historical and class character. Important for this approach is the need to consider personality and activity as a unity.
5. Existentialism. The main concept of this philosophical observation is existence (existence) - the individual being of a person immersed in his Self. For existentialists, the objective world exists only thanks to the existence of the subject.
They deny the existence of objective knowledge and objective truths. The world is how the inner self of each person perceives it. Denying objective knowledge, existentialists oppose programs and textbooks in schools. Believing that the value of knowledge is determined by its importance for a particular individual, representatives of this scientific approach suggested that the teacher provide students with complete freedom in mastering this knowledge. The student himself must determine the meaning of things and phenomena, while the leading role, from the point of view of existentialists, is played not by reason, but by feelings and faith. Existentialism acts as a philosophical basis for the individualization of learning.
General scientific level
General scientific methodology can be represented by two approaches: systemic and axiological. The systems approach reflects the general connection and interdependence of processes and phenomena of the surrounding reality. Essence systematic approach lies in the fact that relatively independent components are not considered in isolation, but in their interrelation, development and movement. This approach requires the implementation of the principle of unity of pedagogical theory and practice. Pedagogical practice is a criterion for the truth of scientific knowledge and a source of new fundamental problems that require theoretical research. The theory provides the basis for choosing optimal and effective practical solutions, and also develops new concepts and models that need experimental practical testing.
The axiological approach is the basis of a new methodology of pedagogy. It is inherent in humanistic pedagogy, which considers man as the highest goal of society and an end in itself social development. Consequently, axiology, being more general in relation to humanistic issues, can be considered as the basis of a new philosophy of education and, accordingly, the methodology of modern pedagogy.
The meaning of the axiological approach can be revealed through a system of axiological principles:
Equality of philosophical views within the framework of a single humanistic value system while maintaining the diversity of their cultural and ethnic characteristics;
The equivalence of traditions and creativity, recognition of the need to study and use the teachings of the past and the possibility of spiritual discovery in the present and future, a mutually enriching dialogue between the traditional and the innovative;
Existential equality of people, sociocultural pragmatism instead of demagogic disputes about the foundations of values, dialogue and asceticism instead of messianism and indifference.
The axiological approach assumes that one of the most important tasks of pedagogy is the study of the attitude towards a person as a subject of knowledge, communication and creativity. Education as a component of culture in this regard acquires special significance, being considered as the main means of humanistic essence of a person.
Specific scientific level
The specific scientific level includes the following approaches.
1. Personal approach - orientation in design and implementation pedagogical process on the individual as a goal, subject, result and main criterion its effectiveness. It involves relying in education on the natural process of self-development of a person’s creative potential and abilities, and creating appropriate conditions for this.
2. Activity approach - consideration of activity as the basis, means and decisive condition for personal development. Already during training it is necessary in moderation age characteristics involve children in various types of activities (cognition, work, communication), organize full-fledged socially life activity of children.
3. Polysubjective (dialogical) approach - orientation to the fact that the essence of a person is much more complex and versatile than his activities. The activity of the individual and his needs for self-development occur in the context of relationships with other people.
Dialogue with another is the very real field of interaction where these needs are satisfied. Personal, activity and polysubjective approaches form the basis of the methodology of humanistic pedagogy.
4. The culturological approach considers culture as a universal characteristic of activity, social environment and the direction of its value typological features.
5. The ethnopedagogical approach is manifested in the unity of the international, national and individual.
6. Anthropological approach - systematic use of data from all sciences about man as a subject of education and their consideration in the construction and implementation of the pedagogical process.
Technological level
This level includes the methodology and technology of pedagogical research, ensuring the receipt and analysis of reliable empirical material.
Criteria for evaluation:
Structured texts;
Awareness and adequacy of understanding texts;
Terminological correctness of speech;
Reasonedness of judgments and conclusions;
Availability of prepared visual information;
Active participation in the discussion.
Report requirements: text materials and presentation in class in accordance with the criteria.
Main literature:
1. Borytko N.M. Pedagogy: textbook. aid for students universities studying pedagogical specialties / N. M. Borytko, I. A. Solovtsova, A. M. Baibakov; ed. N. M. Borytko. - M.: AcademiA, 2009.
2. Kodzhaspirova G.M. Pedagogy: Textbook. for students universities studying pedagogical specialist. / G.M. Kojaspirova. - M.: Gardariki, 2009.
3. Pedagogy: textbook. for students universities / Ed. L.P. Krivshenko. - M.: Prospekt, 2008.
4. Pedagogy: Textbook. aid for students universities / Ed. P.I. Pidkasisty. - M.: Higher education, 2007.
5. Podlasy I.P. Pedagogy: textbook / I. P. Podlasy. - 2nd ed., add. - M.: Yurayt: Higher Education, 2010.
6. Slastenin V.A., Isaev I.F., Shiyanov E.N. Pedagogy: tutorial for universities. 3rd ed. – M., Academy, 2008.
1. Borytko N.M. Diagnostic activity of a teacher: textbook. aid for students universities, educational according to special "Social pedagogy"; "Pedagogy" / N.M.Borytko; edited by V.A. Slastenina, I.A. Kolesnikova. - 2nd ed., erased. - M.: AcademiA, 2008.
2. Borytko N.M. Methodology and methods psychological-pedagogical research: a textbook for students. universities studying specialties. “Pedagogy and psychology”, “Social pedagogy”, “Pedagogy” / N. M. Borytko, A. V. Molozhavenko, I. A. Solovtsova; ed. N. M. Borytko. - 2nd ed., erased. - M.: AcademiA, 2009.
3. Golovanova N.F. General pedagogy: textbook. manual for universities / N. F. Golovanova. - St. Petersburg. : Speech, 2005.
4. Grigorovich L.A., Martsinkovskaya T.D. Pedagogy and psychology: Proc. Benefit. – M., Gardiki, 2003.
5. Zagvyazinsky V.I. Methodology and methods of psychological and pedagogical research: Textbook. aid for students universities studying specialties. "Pedagogy and psychology" / V. I. Zagvyazinsky, R. Atakhanov. - 5th ed., rev. - M.: AcademiA, 2008.
6. Kodzhaspirova G.M. Pedagogy in diagrams, tables and supporting notes: textbook / G. M. Kodzhaspirova. - 3rd ed. - M.: IRIS PRESS, 2008.
7. Korzhuev A.V. Scientific research in pedagogy: theory, methodology, practice / A. V. Korzhuev, V. A. Popkov. - : Academic project; M.: Triksta, 2008.
8. Kraevsky V.V. Methodology of pedagogy: New stage: textbook. aid for students universities, educational according to pedagogical specialties / V. V. Kraevsky, E. V. Berezhnova. - 2nd ed., erased. - M.: AcademiA, 2008.
9. Petrusevich A.A. Diagnostics in pedagogical research: monograph / A. A. Petrusevich, N. K. Golubev; Omsk. state ped. univ. - Omsk: Omsk State Pedagogical University Publishing House, 2009.
10. Khutorskoy A.V. Pedagogical innovation: textbook. manual for university students, educational. by teacher specialist. / A. V. Khutorskoy. - M.: AcademiA, 2008.
The textbook is a brief and comprehensive presentation of the content of psychology and pedagogy, which have always been and remain one of the most important sciences about man. It is these disciplines that develop ways of socialization of people, outline directions and ways for children to enter the world of adults, that is, they answer the vital question of what a person should and can become, how to train and educate him, contribute to his spiritual development, self-realization, and overcoming age-related and situational crises that arise along his life path. Contents of the course “Psychology and Pedagogy”
It is the basis of culture necessary for a person in any field of his activity.
For undergraduate and graduate students of non-psychological faculties of universities.
Add. information:
Preface. 9
Part I. PEDAGOGY
Chapter 1. General Basics pedagogy 13
1.1. Object, subject, tasks and functions of pedagogy 13
1.2. Methodology and methods pedagogical science 15
1.3. Basic concepts of pedagogy 24
Questions and tasks 32
Sample essay topics 32
Literature 32
Chapter 2. History of the formation of pedagogical science and practice
2.1. The formation of pedagogical science
2.2. Modern structure pedagogy 42
2.3. The connection between pedagogy and other sciences 46
Questions and tasks 47
Sample essay topics 48
Literature 48
Chapter 3. Education as a global object of pedagogy 49
3.1. Goals and objectives of education 49
3.2. Education system Russia 51
3.4. Modern tendencies education development 67
Questions and tasks 73
Sample essay topics 73
Literature 73
Chapter 4. Pedagogical activity. 74
4.1. Psychological nature pedagogical activity 74
4.2. Teaching style 78
4.3. Teaching abilities 81
4.4. Pedagogical skills 82
4.5. Pedagogical culture 86
Sample essay topics 89
Literature 89
Chapter 5. Education as a process of internalization of sociocultural values 90
5.1. Education and socialization 90
5.2. Parenting theories 92
5.3. Self-education 94
5.4. Education methods 95
Sample essay topics 113
Literature 113
Chapter 6. General provisions didactics 114
6.1. Goals, objectives, functions and principles of training 114
6.2. Learning Theories 117
6.3. Forms of training organization 122
6.4. Teaching methods 129
6.5. Learning motivation as necessary condition successful learning. . . 132
Questions and tasks 137
Sample essay topics 137
Literature 137
Chapter 7. Family as a sociocultural environment for education 138
7.1. Family like social institution 138
7.2. Child-parent relationships and family parenting styles. . . . 141
7.3. Violations in parent-child relationships 147
7.4. Education in families where parents are teachers 152
7.5. The role of the family in the development of a child’s personality 155 Questions 158
Sample essay topics 158
Literature 159
Chapter 8. Management of pedagogical systems 160
8.1. The state nature of management of the education system 160
8.2. Functions and managerial culture of a leader 163
8.3. Pedagogical analysis, planning and control as the main directions of management of pedagogical systems 165
8.4. The role of the organization in management 170
Questions and tasks 173
Sample topics for essays 173 Literature 173
Part II. PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its methodology and methods 177
1.1. Subject of psychology. The connection between psychology and other sciences 177
1.2. Main factors and principles determining development psychological science 179
I 1.3. Methods of psychology 191
Questions and tasks 196
Sample essay topics 197
Literature 197
Chapter 2. History of the development of psychological science 198
2.1. Stages of development of psychology 198
2.2. The emergence of associationism 205
2.3. Methodological crisis 209
2.4. Characteristics of the main psychological schools 215
Questions and tasks 235
Sample topics for essays. 235
Literature 235
Chapter 3. Mind and body 236
3.1. The first studies of the biological foundations of the psyche 236
3.2. Evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin 240
3.3. Psychophysiology of sensory organs, psychophysics and psychometry 241
3.4. Dominant theory 244
3.5. Reflex theories 245
Questions 249
Sample topics for essays. 249
Literature 249
Chapter 4, Mental development 250
4.1. Development of the psyche in phylogenesis. 250
4.2. Causes of consciousness. Its levels and structure 252
4.3. Development of the psyche in ontogenesis. 259
Questions 270
Sample topics for essays. 270
Literature 270
Chapter 5. Behavior and activity. 271
5.1. Activity and its types 271
5.2. The theory of activity of Rubinstein - Leontiev 272
5.3. Behavioral studies in behaviorism. 276
Questions 281
Sample essay topics 282
Literature 282
Chapter 6. Cognitive processes 283
6.1. Sensation and perception 283
6.2. Memory 295
6.3. Thinking. 305
6.4. Imagination 321
6.5. Thinking and speech. 325
6.6. Attention. 332
Questions 335
Sample topics for essays. 335
Literature 336
Chapter 7. Motivation and Emotions 337
7.1. Psychology of motivation, its general characteristics 337
7.2. Emotional processes 340
7.3. Will 359
Questions 362
Sample topics for essays. 362
Literature 363
Chapter 8. Individuality and personality 364
8.1. general characteristics concepts of “individual”, “individuality”, “personality” 364
8.2. Individuality. Individual qualities and style of human activity 366
8.3. Basic theories of personality 379
8.4. The problem of personality in modern psychology 426
Questions 434
Sample essay topics 434
Literature 434
Chapter 9 General issues social psychology 435
9.1. Communication. 435
9.2. Small group. General characteristics of group dynamics 447
Questions 453
Sample essay topics 454
Literature 454
Practical tasks 455
