INTRODUCTION

Page 2

1. SCHOOL OF HUMAN RELATIONS

1.2Research by Elton Mayo.

2. SCHOOL OF BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

2.1 Chester Barnard's theory.

3.1 Abraham Maslow's theory.

4. PROCESS THEORY OF MOTIVATION

4.2.Theory of justice.

5. MODERN MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS BY HUMAN RESOURSES.

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST

INTRODUCTION

At the turn of the 20s-30s, prerequisites began to form that two decades later led to a qualitatively different situation in management.

In the conditions of the transition from extensive to intensive management methods that began in those years, there was a need to search for new forms of management, characterized by a more pronounced sociological and psychological bias. The purpose of these methods was to eliminate the depersonalized industrial relations inherent in scientific management theories and bureaucratic models, and replace them with the concept of cooperation between workers and employers. Scientific control over the production process was introduced in order to achieve the economic objectives of the enterprise using rational and effective methods. However, nothing similar was observed in the field of interpersonal relationships between entrepreneurs and employees.

Management theorists turned to the problems of labor motivation, the “human factor”, in the 1930s. According to the views of some of them, the rationalization of industrial production largely depends on the improvement of the social organization of the enterprise, which is not limited to purely material elements, but extends to ethical standards and the psychology of workers. At this time, there was a need to bring the scale of administrative structures in line with the needs of the economy. mass production and distribution. Rationalization in the use of material resources and scientific management of production processes made it possible to satisfy it to a certain extent. An era of unprecedented strengthening of economic efficiency of production has begun. However, it was soon realized that if industrial civilization was to survive in the future, it needed to develop a new understanding of the role of human motivation and human behavior in business organization, based on the fact that human behavior is more often motivated not by logic or facts, but by feelings.

1. SCHOOL OF HUMAN RELATIONS

Two scientists, Mary Parker Follett and Elton Mayo, can be called the largest authorities in the development of the school human relations in management. It was Mary Parker Follett who first defined management as “getting work done with the help of others.”

The leader of the movement for the introduction of new forms and methods of management in industry, which later became known as the “school of human relations,” was the American sociologist and psychologist Elton Mayo (1880 – 1949). He believed that the previous management methods aimed at achieving material efficiency rather than establishing cooperation. The school of "human relations" was the realization of a new desire of management to consider each industrial organization as a certain " social system", which was an undoubted achievement of management thought. The point was that the purely technological aspect of production efficiency, as well as issues of economic income, must be considered through the prism of the relationship of these aspects of industrial organization with the actually human, social factor of the industry. Naturally, each worker has certain physiological and material needs, which are relatively easy to satisfy to a reasonable extent in a developed economy. Here it is more important to take into account the fact that a person also has social needs - communication, self-actualization, recognition - and they are much more difficult to satisfy.

Elton Mayo's famous experiments, especially those conducted at the Western Electric plant at Hawthorne, opened a new direction in control theory. E. Mayo discovered that clearly designed work procedures and good wage did not always lead to labor productivity. The forces that arose in the course of interaction between people could and often did exceed the efforts of the leader. Sometimes employees reacted much more strongly to pressure from group colleagues than to the desires of management and material incentives. Later research by Abraham Maslow and other psychologists helped to understand the reasons for this phenomenon. The motives of people's actions, A. Maslow suggests, are mainly non-economic forces, as the supporters and followers of the school of scientific management believed, but various needs that can only be partially and indirectly satisfied with the help of money.

Based on these findings, researchers psychological school believed that if management shows greater concern for its employees, then the level of employee satisfaction should increase, which will lead to increased productivity. They recommended the use of human relations management techniques, including more effective supervisors, consultation with employees and providing them with greater opportunities for communication at work.

1.1 Research by Mary P. Follett

Mary P. Follett (1868 – 1933) studied social relationships in small groups. She outlined her views in books, some of which were published only after her death: “Creative Experience” (1924), “Energetic Administration” (1941), “Freedom and Subordination” (1949). From her point of view, conflict in work collectives is not always destructive; in some conditions it can be constructive. Power, taken as the subordination of one man to another, offends human feelings and cannot be the basis of effective industrial organization. Democracy is that enormous force that uses everyone and compensates for the imperfections of individual individuals by interweaving them in the life of society. Leadership is not the destiny of an individual accustomed to dominate; leaders become not only by birth, but also through appropriate training. A true leader must not only anticipate the future situation, but also create it. In the article “Management as a Profession” (1925), she identified the following factors in the increasing need for management:

· Effective management replaces exploitation natural resources, whose days are numbered;

· Management is determined by – intense competition;

lack of labor resources;

a broader concept of ethics of human relations; a growing awareness of business as a public service, with a sense of responsibility for its effective delivery.

Initially, the theorists of “human relations” in their works adhere to the following argumentation: in pre-industrial society, a person knew his place, his future, and social solidarity reigned in him; the patriarchal system, which arose on the basis of family and kinship relations, gave a person satisfaction in work and, to some extent, in public life. The factory system and the process of individual isolation that accompanied it destroyed the former social solidarity, tearing the individual away from his natural social basis. Primarily due to the growth of large-scale organizations in which the nature social relations shifted from personalized to formal-impersonal dependencies. As a result, a way of life was formed, devoid of moral values, without roots, with the lost individual identity of people, which sank into oblivion along with the traditional bonds and shrines that for so long and reliably ensured the integrity and purposefulness of human existence. Widespread social anonymity ultimately led to the deformation of both people’s personal lives and the disorganization of production teams, clearly manifested in a feeling of worthlessness, a sense of irreparable losses and deep disappointment with the achievements of industrial civilization. The deterioration of the social climate at enterprises had a negative impact on the economic indicators of their activities. All this caused concern among entrepreneurs and managers.

1.2 Research by Elton Mayo.

According to E. Mayo, any labor organization has a unified and integrated social structure, the main theses of which boil down to the following:

· people are mainly motivated by social needs and feel their own individuality through their relationships with other people;

· as a result of the industrial revolution and the rationalization of the labor process, work as such has largely lost its attractiveness, so a person must seek satisfaction in social relationships;

· people are more responsive to the social influence of a group of people equal to them than to the incentives and control measures coming from management;

· the employee responds to the orders of the manager if the manager can satisfy the social needs of his subordinates and their desire to be understood.

The task of management at this stage was also to develop fruitful informal contacts, in addition to the formal dependencies between members of organizations, the importance of which was identified during the study of the bureaucratic management model. They, as shown by experiments carried out by E. Mayo and his colleagues, very significantly influence the results of joint production activities of people. Research at the Hawthorne (Illinois) plant, owned by the Western Electric Company, which lasted 12 years (1924 - 1936), revealed the phenomenon of an informal group in the structure of the production process, the relationships between the members of which had a tangible impact on the rhythm and productivity of labor. It turned out, for example, that the group has an inherent desire to develop its own norms, values and positions, and to establish strict social control over the behavior of individual members of the team in the labor process. Research has further shown that informal groups are naturally formed social formations, having outgrown the behavioral framework created by the formal structure of the organization. According to E. Mayo, the factor of cooperation in a group is an extremely important circumstance, comparable in importance to management itself. In other words, informal relations in the production process were recognized as a significant organizational force, capable of either boycotting the orders of management or facilitating the implementation of its guidelines. Therefore, informal relations should in no case be left to chance; they should be learned to be managed on the basis of cooperation between workers and management.

2.2 Douglas McGregor's theory.

Another prominent representative of the theory of “human resources” was Douglas McGregor (1906-1964). In his 1960 book, The Human Side of Enterprise, he wrote: “We can improve our managerial abilities only if we recognize that control consists of selective adaptation to human nature rather than of trying to bend people to our desires.” . If attempts to establish such control are unsuccessful, then the reason for this, as a rule, lies in the choice of unsuitable means.” D. McGregor expressed the opinion that the formation of managers is only to a small extent a consequence of the formal efforts of management in its managerial self-development. To a much greater extent, this is the result of management's awareness of the nature of its tasks and all its policies and practices. Therefore, those who try to study management development only in terms of the formal functioning of management programs take the wrong path. In the present conditions, continued D. McGregor, the practical return even from well-trained managers is small. We have not yet learned how to effectively use talent, create an organizational climate conducive to human growth, and in general we are far from properly understanding the potential that human resources represent.

From the point of view of D. McGregor, throughout history, two main turns can be distinguished in relation to the means of controlling the behavior of people in organizations. The first was a transition from the use of physical violence to reliance on formal authority. This process took centuries. The second turn occurs within at least last century, although its beginning lies in the distant past; it is a turn from formal authority to leadership. But even today this process is far from complete. Thus, for example, authoritarianism in politics is suspect, and the truth that exclusive reliance on power creates more problems what solves them is generally accepted. If power is the only weapon in a manager's equipment, he has no hope of successfully achieving his goals, but it does not follow from this, continues D. McGregor, that he is obliged to throw this weapon away. There come times when nothing else is suitable to achieve his goals, and then he resorts to this weapon.

Leadership is a certain social attitude. At least four variables should be included:

· Characteristics of a leader;

· Positions, needs and other characteristics of his followers;

· Characteristics of the organization, such as its purpose, structure, nature of the tasks to be performed;

· Social, economic and political environment.

D. McGregor based his concept on the dichotomy of theories, conventionally denoting them with the symbols “X” and “Y”. The first of them corresponded to the traditional view of the problems of social management, the second interpreted the prerequisites for the integration of individual and organizational goals into management process, which he considered as the basis of a new type of management. The main provisions of Theory X:

· An ordinary person has an internal aversion to work, and he tries to avoid it in any way;

· Therefore, the vast majority of people must be coerced and directed in order to motivate them to make appropriate efforts to achieve the goals of the organization;

· An ordinary person prefers to be controlled, strives to avoid responsibility;

· He has only very slight ambitions, and mainly needs protection.

The premises of Theory Y, which McGregor actually defends, are exactly the opposite:

· The expenditure of physical and intellectual strength in work is natural, as in play or even in rest;

· External control or the threat of punishment is not the only means to achieve organizational goals;

· A person exercises self-government and self-control of the tasks assigned to him;

· Reward should be an integral function of achieving the desired objectives;

· A common person under appropriate conditions, learns not only to accept responsibility, but also to seek it;

· The ability to show a relatively high degree of imagination, originality and creativity in solving organizational problems is becoming increasingly common among people;

· Under the present circumstances of industrial life the intellectual powers of the average man are only partially utilized.

The central principle that makes up the axis of the X theory, that is, the traditional approach to management, is leadership and control through the direct application of power, and a person is only an inert object of power influence. On the contrary, the cornerstone of Theory Y is integration, that is, the creation of conditions under which members of the organization can achieve their individual goals by promoting the commercial success of the enterprise.

The achievements of the school of behavioral science formed the basis of the concept of human resource management, the main content of which is not limited to increasing the moral component and the degree of personal satisfaction in the organization, as was characteristic of the theory of human relations. The purpose of human resource management of an organization is to improve decision making and control effectiveness. If, when implementing approaches inherent in the theory of human relations, the manager shared information, consulted with subordinates and encouraged self-management solely to increase worker satisfaction with working conditions and improve the moral climate in the enterprise as the main means of increasing productivity, then in the doctrine of the use of human resources, the manager allows the participation of subordinates and in the management process, because most effective solutions, as a rule, are accepted by those who are directly affected by them.

The concept of human resource management is based on the premise that the moral climate in the enterprise, as well as employee satisfaction, are the product of creative problem solving caused by worker participation in management. However, this participation is limited to the framework of the primary labor group and those issues that fall within its direct competence.

3.1 Abraham Maslow's theory.

One of the first behavioral scientists from whose work managers learned about the complexity of human needs and their impact on motivation was Abraham Maslow. When Maslow created his theory of motivation in the 1940s, he recognized that people have many different needs, but also believed that these needs could be divided into five main categories.

This idea was developed in detail by his contemporary, the Harvard psychologist Murray.

1. Physiological needs are essential for survival. These include needs for food, water, shelter, rest and sexual needs.

2. Needs for security and confidence in the future include the need for protection from physical and psychological dangers from the outside world and confidence that physiological needs will be satisfied in the future. A manifestation of the need for confidence in the future is the purchase insurance policy or searching for a reliable job with good views on retire.

3. Social needs, sometimes called affiliation needs, are a concept that includes a feeling of belonging to something or someone, a feeling of being accepted by others, feelings of social interaction, affection and support.

4. Esteem needs include the needs for self-esteem, personal achievement, competence, respect from others, and recognition.

5. Self-expression needs - the need to realize one’s potential and grow as an individual.

Motivation and hierarchy of needs. According to Maslow's theory, all these needs can be arranged in the form of a strict hierarchical structure, shown in Fig. 1. By this, he wanted to show that the needs of lower levels require satisfaction and, therefore, influence human behavior before the needs of higher levels begin to affect motivation. At any given moment in time, a person will strive to satisfy the need that is more important or strong for him. Before the next level need becomes the most powerful determinant of human behavior, the lower level need must be satisfied. Here is what psychologists Calvin Hall and Gardner Lindsay say in their interpretation of Maslow’s theory: “When the strongest and most priority needs are satisfied, the needs that follow them in the hierarchy arise and demand satisfaction. When these needs are satisfied, there is a transition to the next step in the ladder of factors that determine human behavior.”

Fig. 1. Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

Since with the development of a person as an individual his potential capabilities expand, the need for self-expression can never be fully satisfied. Therefore, the process of motivating behavior through needs is endless.

A person experiencing hunger will first seek to find food, and only after eating will he try to build a shelter. Living in comfort and security, a person will first be driven to activity by the need for social contacts, and then will begin to actively strive for respect from others. Only after a person feels inner satisfaction and respect from others will his most important needs begin to grow in accordance with his potential. But if the situation changes radically, then the most important needs can change dramatically. How quickly and strongly the highest needs can descend the hierarchical ladder, and how strong the needs of its lowest levels can be - shows the behavior of people who survived a plane crash in the Andes in 1975 - in order to survive, these completely normal people were forced to eat their dead comrades .

In order for the next, higher level of the hierarchy of needs to begin to influence human behavior, it is not necessary to satisfy the need of the lower level completely. Thus, hierarchical levels are not discrete steps. For example, people usually begin to seek their place in a certain community long before their security needs are met or their physiological needs are fully satisfied. This point can be well illustrated by the great importance which rituals and social intercourse have for the primitive cultures of the Amazon jungle and parts of Africa, although famine and danger are always present there.

In other words, although at the moment one of the needs may dominate, human activity is not stimulated only by it. Moreover. Maslow notes:

“Until now we have said that the hierarchical levels of needs have a fixed order, but in fact this hierarchy is not nearly as “rigid” as we thought. It is true that of most of the people we worked with, their basic needs fell roughly in the order we listed. However, there were a number of exceptions. There are people for whom, for example, self-respect is more important than love.”

Using Maslow's theory in management. Maslow's theory has made an extremely important contribution to the understanding of what underlies people's desire to work. Leaders of various ranks began to understand that people's motivation is determined by a wide range of their needs. In order to motivate a particular person, a leader must enable him to satisfy his most important needs through a course of action that contributes to the achievement of the goals of the entire organization. Not so long ago, managers could motivate subordinates almost exclusively only with economic incentives, since people's behavior was determined mainly by their needs at lower levels. Today the situation has changed. Thanks to higher wages and social benefits won through labor unions and government regulations (such as the Employee Health and Safety Act of 1970), even people at the lower levels of the organizational hierarchy are positioned at relatively high levels. Maslow's hierarchy. As Terence Mitchell notes:

“In our society, physiological and safety needs play a relatively minor role for most people. Only the truly disenfranchised and poorest sections of the population are guided by these lower-level needs. This leads to the obvious conclusion for control systems theorists that the needs of higher levels can serve as better motivating factors than the needs of lower levels. This factor is confirmed by researchers who conducted surveys of workers about the motives of their activities.”

The bottom line is that if you are a leader, you need to carefully observe your subordinates to decide what active needs drive them. Since these needs change over time, you cannot expect that motivation that works once will work effectively all the time.

Hierarchy of needs when working in a multinational environment. International managers, like their domestic counterparts, must provide opportunities to meet employee needs. Because the relative importance of needs is defined differently in different countries, managers of organizations operating internationally must be aware of these differences and take them into account.

In one fairly comprehensive study, a comparative analysis of five different groups of managers was carried out based on Maslow's hierarchy of needs. These groups were formed on a geographical basis: 1) heads of English and American firms; 2) Japanese leaders; 3) managers of companies from northern and central European countries (Germany, Denmark, Sweden and Norway); 4) managers of companies in southern and western European countries (Spain, France, Belgium, Italy); 5) heads of companies in developing countries (Argentina, Chile, India). One of the findings of this study was that managers from developing countries placed greater importance on all needs of Maslow's hierarchy and the degree to which they were satisfied than managers from any other countries. Managers from developing and south-west European countries are most keen to meet social needs. This indicates the importance of using rewards such as increased status, social respect, and recognition of merit when working with them. A more recent study on the same topic, based on survey results and aimed at identifying the needs of people from more than 40 countries, concludes that theories of motivation developed by American scientists are based on the implicit assumption that the American system of cultural values and ideals exists abroad too. However, this is not true

Unfortunately, there have been no systematic studies of motivation internationally. However, it can be concluded that managers operating internationally must constantly consider, understand and be sensitive to the cultural differences in the needs of the people with whom they interact. Managers should avoid in every possible way the obvious preference of employees of one nationality over another. You cannot expect that the people you manage abroad have the same needs that I have in your country. What to do? You need to ensure that the needs of the people you manage are met if they are working effectively.

Criticism of Maslow's theory. Although it would seem that Maslow’s theory of human needs gave managers very useful description motivation process, subsequent experimental studies confirmed it far and completely. Of course, in principle, people can be classified into one or another fairly broad category, characterized by some need of a higher or lower level, but a clear five-stage hierarchical structure of needs according to Maslow, apparently, simply does not exist. The concept of the most important needs has not received full confirmation either. The satisfaction of any one need does not automatically lead to the involvement of the needs of the next level as a factor motivating human activity.

The main criticism of Maslow's theory was that he failed to take into account individual differences in people. Edward Lawler, on the contrary, introduced a hierarchical structure of individual needs - preferences, which a person forms on the basis of his past experience. Thus, based on his past experience, one person may be most interested in self-expression, while the behavior of another, seemingly similar to him and also working, will be primarily determined by the need for. vocation, social needs and the need for security. Some people, for example, were so shocked by the Great Depression of the 1930s that later (even though they managed to get rich) the need for security remained dominant throughout their lives.

Ultimately, as Mitchell notes. “Managers need to know what each employee prefers in the reward system, and what makes some of your subordinates refuse to work with others. Ragged people like different things, and if a leader wants to effectively motivate his subordinates, he must be sensitive to their individual needs.”

3.2 David McClelland's theory

Another model of motivation that emphasized higher-level needs was David McClelland's theory. He believed that people have three needs: power, success and belonging. The need for power is expressed as a desire to influence other people. Within Maslow's hierarchical structure, the need for power falls somewhere between the needs for esteem and self-expression. People with a need for power tend to be outspoken and energetic, unafraid of confrontation and willing to stand up for their position. They are often good speakers and demand a lot of attention from others. Management very often attracts people with a need for power, since it provides many opportunities to express and realize it.

The need for success also lies somewhere in between the need for esteem and the need for self-expression. This need is satisfied not by proclaiming the success of this person, which only confirms his status, but by the process of bringing the work to a successful completion.

People with a high need for success take moderate risks, like situations in which they can take personal responsibility for finding solutions to a problem, and want specific rewards for the results they achieve. As McClelland notes: “It doesn’t matter how strongly a person has a need for success. He may never succeed unless he has the opportunity to do so, unless his organization gives him enough initiative and rewards him for what he does.”

Thus, if you want to motivate people with a need for success, you must set them tasks with a moderate degree of risk and the possibility of failure, delegate them sufficient authority to unleash initiative in solving the tasks, regularly and specifically reward them in accordance with their achievements. results.

Motivation based on the need for affiliation according to McClelland is similar to motivation according to Maslow. Such people are interested in the company of acquaintances, establishing friendships, and helping others. People with a strong need for affiliation will be attracted to jobs that provide them with extensive opportunities. social communication. Their leaders must maintain an atmosphere that does not restrict interpersonal relationships and contacts. A leader can also ensure that their needs are met by spending more time with them and periodically bringing them together as a separate group.

3.3 Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory

In the second half of the 50s, Frederick Herzberg and his colleagues developed another model of motivation based on needs. This group of researchers asked 200 engineers and office workers of one large paint and varnish company to answer the following questions: “Can you describe in detail when, after performing official duties, you felt feeling particularly good?” and “Can you describe in detail a time when you ate while performing official duties and felt particularly ill?”

According to Herzberg's findings, the responses received can be divided into two large categories, which he called “hygiene factors” and “motivation” (Table 1.).

Table 1.

Hygiene factors

Motivations

Company and administration policy

Working conditions

Career advancement

Earnings

Recognition and approval

Interpersonal relationships with superiors, colleagues and subordinates

High degree of responsibility

Degree of direct control over work

Opportunities for creative and business growth

Hygiene factors are related to the environment in which work is carried out, and MOTIVATION is related to the very nature and essence of the work. According to Herzberg, in the absence or insufficient degree of presence of hygienic factors, a person experiences job dissatisfaction. However, if they are sufficient, then in themselves they do not cause job satisfaction and cannot motivate a person to do anything. In contrast, the absence or inadequacy of motivation does not lead to job dissatisfaction.

Comparison of different theories of needs.

Herzberg's theory of motivation has much in common with Maslow's theory. Herzberg’s hygiene factors correspond to physiological needs, needs for safety and confidence in the future, his motivations are comparable to the needs of Maslow’s higher levels (Fig. 2). But there is one point where these two theories diverge sharply. Maslow viewed hygiene factors as something that causes a particular line of behavior. If a manager gives a worker the opportunity to satisfy one of these needs, the worker will perform better in response. Herzberg, on the contrary, believes that the employee begins to pay attention to hygiene factors only when he considers their implementation inadequate or unfair.

Figure 2. Correlation between Maslow and Herzberg’s theories of needs.

The main characteristics of the Maslow, McClelland and Herzberg models are compared in Table 2.

Table 2. Comparison of the theories of Maslow, McClellend and Herzberg

Maslow's theory

1. Needs are divided into primary and secondary and represent a five-level hierarchical structure in which they are arranged according to priority

2. Human behavior is determined by the lowest unsatisfied need of the hierarchical structure.

3. Once a need is satisfied, its motivating influence ceases.

McClelland's theory

1 . The three needs that motivate a person are the need for power, success and belonging (social need)

2. These needs are especially important today higher order, since the needs of lower levels, as a rule, are already satisfied

Herzberg's theory

1.Needs are divided into hygiene factors and motivations.

2. Availability hygiene factors It just prevents job dissatisfaction from developing.

3. Motivations that roughly correspond to the needs of higher levels according to Maslow and McClelland actively influence human behavior

4. In order to affectively motivate subordinates, the leader must himself understand the essence of the work

Applicability of Herzberg's theory in management practice.

According to Herzberg's theory, the presence of hygiene factors will not motivate workers. It will only prevent feelings of job dissatisfaction. In order to achieve motivation, the manager must ensure the presence of not only hygiene, but also motivating factors. Many organizations have attempted to implement these theoretical insights through work “GENERALIZATION” programs. During the implementation of the labor “enrichment” program, work is restructured and expanded so as to bring more satisfying rewards to its immediate performer. “ENRICHMENT” of labor is aimed at structuring labor activity in such a way as to make the performer feel the complexity and significance of the task entrusted to him, independence in choosing decisions, the absence of monotony and routine operations, responsibility for the given task, the feeling that the person is performing a separate task completely independent work. Among the several hundred firms that use labor RICH programs to eliminate Negative consequences fatigue and the associated drop in productivity, there are also such large companies as I.T. and T., American Airlines and Texas Instruments. Although the concept of “labor ENRICHMENT” is widely used, it is implemented in many situations.

In order to use Herzberg's theory effectively, it is necessary to create a list of hygiene and, especially, motivating factors and give employees the opportunity to determine and indicate what they prefer,

Criticism of Herzberg's theory.

Although this theory has been used effectively in a number of organizations, there have also been criticisms of it. They were mainly related to research methods. Indeed, when people are asked to describe situations when they felt good or bad after doing work, they instinctively associate favorable situations with the role of their personality and objects that they control, and unfavorable ones with the role of other people and things that are objectively unknown to the respondents. depend. Thus, the results Herzberg obtained were, at least in part, a result of the way he asked questions.

Although Herzberg made an important contribution to the understanding of motivation, his theory does not take into account many variables that determine the situations associated with it.

4. PROCESS THEORY OF MOTIVATION

Process theories view motivation from a different perspective. They analyze how a person distributes his efforts to achieve goals and how he chooses his line of behavior. Such theories include the theory of expectations, or the motivation model according to V. Vroom, the theory of justice and the Porter-Lawler model.

4.1 Victor Vroom's expectancy theory.

According to expectancy theory, the presence of a need is not the only a necessary condition for motivation. A person must also hope (expect) that the type of behavior he chooses will actually lead to the intended goal.

Expectations according to this model can be regarded as an estimate of the probability of an event. When analyzing motivation, the relationship between three elements is considered:

· costs – results;

· results – reward;

Valence (satisfaction with reward).

Vroom's model can be represented as follows:

Motivation = ST * RT * Valence

where ST is the expectation that efforts will produce the desired results;

RT - expectations that results will lead to rewards;

Valence is the expected value of a reward.

If the value of one of these factors is low, then motivation will be low.

4.2.Theory of justice.

Equity theory postulates that people subjectively evaluate the reward received by relating it to the effort expended and the rewards of other people. If people believe that they have been unfairly treated, their motivation decreases and they tend to reduce the intensity of their efforts.

The theory of motivation by L. Porter - E. Lawler.

This theory is built on a combination of elements of expectancy theory and equity theory. Its essence is that the relationship between remuneration and achieved results has been introduced.

L. Porter and E. Lawler introduced three variables that affect the amount of reward: effort expended, personal qualities a person and his abilities and awareness of his role in the labor process. Elements of expectancy theory here are manifested in the fact that the employee evaluates the reward in accordance with the effort expended and believes that this reward will be adequate for the effort expended. Elements of equity theory are manifested in the fact that people have their own judgment about the rightness or wrongness of rewards in comparison with other employees and, accordingly, the degree of satisfaction. Hence the important conclusion that it is the results of work that are the reason for employee satisfaction, and not vice versa.

Among domestic scientists greatest success in the development of the theory of motivation achieved L.S. Vygodsky and his students A. N. Leontiev and B. F. Lomov. However, their work was not developed, since they studied the problems of psychology only using the example pedagogical activity.

Vygodsky's theory states that in the human psyche there are two parallel levels of development - the highest and the lowest, which determine the high and low needs of a person and develop in parallel. This means that it is impossible to satisfy the needs of one level using the means of another.

For example, if at a certain point in time a person needs to satisfy his lower needs first, material incentives are triggered. In this case, the highest human needs can only be realized in non-material ways. L.S. Vygodsky concluded that higher and lower needs, developing in parallel and independently, collectively control human behavior and his activities.

5. MODERN CONCEPTS OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT.

The participation of people in social production has been and can be considered from various points vision. Let's look at some modern concepts personnel management.

L.I. Evenko believes that there has been a change in four concepts of the role of personnel in production:

1. The concept of labor resources use. Time: late 19th century – mid 20th century. The bottom line: instead of a person in production, only his function was considered - labor, measured by the cost of working time and wages. In the West, this concept was reflected in Marxist and Taylorist theories, in the USSR - in the exploitation of labor by the state.

2. The concept of personnel management. Time: from the 30s of the 20th century. It is based on the theory of bureaucratic organizations, when a person was considered through the formal role he occupied - a position and was depersonalized, and management was carried out through administrative mechanisms (principles, methods, powers, functions).

3. The concept of human resource management. Time: approximately from the 70s. The essence: a person began to be considered not as an element of structure (position), but as a kind of non-renewable resource - an element of social organization in the unity of three main components (labor function, social relations, state of the employee). In Russian practice, this concept flourished in the mid-80s during the years of “perestroika” and was called “activation of the human factor.”

4. The concept of human being management. In accordance with this concept, a person is no longer only a special object of management, but also a subject of management, which can no longer be considered as a “resource”. Based on the desires and abilities of a person, the strategy and structure of the organization should be built. The founders of the concept are the Japanese K. Matsushita and A. Morita.

English professor S. Lees, from the standpoint of the theory of human relations, identified seven strategic directions in working with personnel.

1. Decline specific gravity wages in the cost of production and compensation of workers.

Due to the high wages of workers in the USA and Europe, the products of many Western firms have become uncompetitive. As a way out, it is proposed to divide the personnel into two groups: highly qualified permanent workers with social guarantees and high wages “core”; low-skilled seasonal workers without social guarantees and low wages (“periphery”).

2. Employees are a resource that needs to be maximized.

It is believed that the only source of long-term advantage in the market is knowing the abilities of your employees and maximizing their ingenuity, motivation and human relationships, rather than “copying” the experience of the best companies. (example: IBM, Hewlett-Packard).

3. Inextricable connection between enterprise strategy and personnel management strategy.

Depending on the type of company, it can apply a centralized strategy from a single center (Chandler’s cascade model) and a decentralized strategy, when independent divisions of a large company conduct flexible marketing in the market (Porter and Fombrook models).

4. Development of organizational culture: common goals, collective values, charismatic leaders, strong market positions, control of employees through social means

IN in this case The goal is to achieve “extraordinary results through the activities of ordinary people.” It is believed that a high internal organizational culture for some companies is the key to success.

5. “Japaneseization” of personnel management methods, which became widespread after the success of the largest Japanese companies.

Achieved by minimizing the number of management levels, high organizational culture, flexible forms of work organization, High Quality products, workers' devotion to the company, etc.

6. Human resource management is a strategic function.

This direction involves the development of a personnel strategy, selection of personnel based on the philosophy of the company, remuneration taking into account quality individual activities, minimizing labor disputes and creating harmony in the workplace, encouraging collective efforts aimed at the survival of the company

7. The use of models of managerial choice in working with personnel, taking into account four main aspects: the influence of the employee and ways of influencing him; procedure for employee movement in the company; reward systems; organization of the workplace.

The model successfully solves the problem of choosing a policy to maximize a person's contribution to the success of the company.

The proposed areas of work with personnel concentrate the experience of successful companies and modern management concepts in the West.

Our conditions are somewhat different. G.M. Ozerov, a well-known specialist in the field of personnel management, believes that personnel management in Russia should be based on the following principles:

1. People are the basis of corporate culture.

Successful businesses pay great attention to their staff; when people are put at the forefront of change, they become driving force change.

2. Management for everyone.

Management should be carried out at three levels: top management, middle management (“team”) and lower management (“employees”).

3. Efficiency as a criterion for the success of an organization.

Consists of achieving goals with optimal use of resources and maximizing profits.

4. Relationships as a criterion for the success of an organization.

Emerging problems from the “world of psychology” (psychological relationships, communications, values, motives) should be prioritized over problems from the “world of facts” (technique, technology, organization)

5. Quality as a criterion of effectiveness.

It is necessary to work with five interrelated quality subsystems: personal, team quality, product quality, service quality, organizational quality.

6. Teams as a criterion for the success of an organization.

Everyone working in the organization is an employee. They are all members of a social group (team). All teams and individuals within a team contribute to both the success and failure of the organization.

7. Training is the key to development and change and an integral part of the vital process of moving an organization forward.

By analyzing the concepts outlined above, we can generalize approaches to personnel management. Many publications note two poles of the role of man in social production:

· person as a resource production system(labor, human, human) – important element production and management process;

· a person as an individual with needs, motives, and values is the main subject of management.

Another part of the researchers considers personnel from the perspective of subsystem theory, in which employees act as the most important subsystem. Two groups of systems can be most clearly distinguished:

· economic, in which the problems of production, exchange, distribution and consumption of material goods prevail, and based on this, personnel are considered as a labor resource or an organization of people (team);

· social, in which issues of relationships between people prevail, social groups, spiritual values and aspects of comprehensive personal development, and the staff is considered as the main system consisting of unique individuals.

CONCLUSION.

The main goal of the schools of human relations and behavioral science in management was to displace rigidly formalized, depersonalized relations in production, which by this time had completely revealed their ineffectiveness. IN in this sense the interpretation of industrial organizations as integral systems showed the strength of the social factors in the production process. For the first time, the personal factor of the organization received recognition, and attention was also paid to the issues of the indirect influence of informal relationships on the economic performance of firms and enterprises. Along with this, these theories also had some disadvantages. Thus, they focused their attention on the problems of cooperation, bypassing difficult questions social conflicts. They clearly overestimate the level to which workers can be manipulated using socio-psychological methods. Recognition of the employee as a “factor” that independently influences manufacturing process, of course, a step forward, but it was not enough to recognize the need for self-organization and self-government of workers in production. Although the question of the “complicity” of workers in decision-making processes was raised, it did not find any positive resolution.

Way to effective management lies through understanding human motivation. Only by knowing what motivates a person, what motivates him to act, what motives underlie his actions, can we try to develop an effective system of forms and methods of managing a person. To do this, you need to know how certain motives arise or are caused, how and in what ways motives can be put into action, how people are motivated.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST

1. V.I. Knorring "Theory, practice and art of management." Textbook for universities in the specialty "Management". M-1999, NORM-INFRA.

2. A.P. Egorshin "Personnel Management", ed. Nizhny Novgorod - NIMB, 1999

3. A. Bolshakov "Management". Tutorial. St. Petersburg, ed. JSC "PITER", 2000. Short course series.

4. A.Ya. Kibanov, D.K. Zakharov "Organization of personnel management at an enterprise" - M. State Agrarian University, 1994

5. Egorshin A.P. Personnel management. N. Novgorod: NIMB, 1997. 607 p.

6. Maslov E. V. Personnel management of an enterprise: Textbook / Ed. Shemetova P. V. M.: INFRA-M; Novosibirsk: NGAEiU, 1998. 312 p.

7. Directory of an Enterprise / Ed. Lapusty M.G. 4th ed., revised, amended. and additional M.: INFRA-M, 2000. 784 p.

8. Personnel management: Textbook for universities / Ed. Bazarova T. Yu., Eremina B. L., M.: Banks and exchanges, UNITI, 1998. 423 p.

9. Organizational personnel management: Textbook / Ed. A. Ya. Kibanova. M.: INFRA-M, 2000. 512 p.

10. Michael Mescon, Michael Albert, Franklin Khedouri "Fundamentals of Management." Per. from English - M.: "Delo LTD", 1995.

11. Yu.A. Tsypkin, A.N. Lyukshinov, N.D. Eriashvili “Management” UNITY Moscow, 2001.

De... (lat.de...) – a prefix denoting separation, removal, cancellation, for example: depersonalized – depersonalized, opposite. – personalized (person (Latin persona) – person, personality).

Ethical - moral, related to ethics (ethics (lat.ethika, gr.ethos) - a system of norms of moral behavior of a person, of any class, social or professional group); meeting ethical requirements.

Context (lat. contextus - close connection, connection) is a semantically complete passage of written or oral speech, necessary to determine the meaning of a separate word or phrase included in it.

Eliminate – exclude, eliminate.

Sentiment (French sentiment - feeling) is excessive sensitivity, manifested in words and actions.

Concept (Latin conceptio) – 1) a system of views, one or another understanding of phenomena, processes; 2) a single defining concept, the leading thought of any work, scientific work, etc.

Empirical (gr. empeiria – experience) – based on experience.

Behaviorism (English: behaviorism) is the study of the psychological aspects of employee behavior, identifying their motivations and preferences.

Discrete (lat. Discretu) – intermittent, consisting of separate parts; discrete quantity– a quantity whose values contain only a finite number of other values; opposite is a continuous value.

Cooperation (lat.cooperation - collaboration) is a form of labor organization in which big number people jointly participate in the same or in different but interconnected labor processes.

Alternative (French Alternative, Latin Alter – one of two) – 1) the need to choose between mutually exclusive possibilities; 2) each of the mutually exclusive possibilities.

Dichotomy (gr. Dichotomia, Dicha - into two parts and tome - section) - sequential division of the whole into two parts, then each part again into two, etc.

Stimulus (lat. Stimulus - lit. a pointed stick that was used to drive animals, goad) - an incentive to action, a motivating reason.

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Representatives of the classical (administrative) school developed principles, recommendations and rules for managing an organization without taking into account the individual characteristics of employees. Such an interpretation of the place of man in production could not lead to a unity of interests of entrepreneurs and workers. Human relations theory aims to increase attention to people. It provides knowledge about how people interact and react to different situations in an effort to satisfy their needs. Unlike the classical school, which built models of organization, this school tried to build models of employee behavior.

Prominent representatives of the school: E. Mayo, M. Follett, A. Maslow. If F. Taylor promised managers an increase in labor productivity, then E. Mayo promised an increase in the prestige of the organization and the loyalty of employees.

The theory of human relations arose on the basis of a generalization of the results of experiments with groups of workers at the Western Electric factories in Hawthorne, which lasted 13 years (1927-1939).

The Hawthorne Experiments began:

numerous studies of relationships in organizations;
taking into account psychological phenomena in groups;
identifying motivation to work in interpersonal relationships;
studying the role of a specific person and small group in an organization;
determining ways to provide psychological influence on an employee.

The scientific basis for the school of human relations was psychology, sociology and the so-called behavioral sciences.

E. Mayo argued that the productivity of workers depends not only on working conditions, material incentives and management actions, but also on the psychological climate among workers.

Representatives of this school questioned a number of provisions of the administrative school. For example, the maximum division of labor, which in practice led to the impoverishment of the content of labor, as well as coordination through hierarchy. They believed that directing power only from the top down was not effective. In this regard, coordination through commissions was proposed. They took a new approach to the principle of delegation of authority. We considered it as a two-way process. The lower levels of the organization must delegate upward the functions of administration and coordination of activities, and the upper levels must delegate downward the right to make decisions within the framework of their production functions.

The main provisions of the school of human relations:

people are primarily motivated by social needs and have a sense of identity through their relationships with others;
as a result of the industrial revolution, work lost its attractiveness, so a person should seek satisfaction in social relationships;
people are more responsive to the social influence of their peer group than to the incentives and controls emanating from management;
the employee responds to the orders of the manager if the manager can satisfy the social needs of his subordinates.

The main theoretical conclusion of E. Mayo: an enterprise is a social system consisting of informal groups that regulate human behavior.

The School of Human Relations made the following amendments to the previous management concepts:

increasing attention to human social needs;
improving jobs by reducing the negative effects of overspecialization;
rejection of the emphasis on the hierarchy of power and a call for employee participation in management;
increasing acceptance of informal relationships.

The School of Human Relations emphasized the collective. Therefore, by the beginning of the 50s. In the 20th century, in addition to it, behavioral concepts were formed aimed at studying and developing the individual capabilities and abilities of individual workers.

The behavioral sciences of psychology and sociology have made the study of human behavior in the workplace rigorously scientific.

Representatives of this direction: D. McGregor, F. Herzberg, P. Drucker, R. Likert.

The school of behavioral science has moved significantly away from the school of human relations, focusing primarily on methods of establishing interpersonal relationships, motivation, leadership, communication in the organization, on studying and creating conditions for the fullest realization of the abilities and potential of each employee.

Within the framework of this school, McGregor's theories X and Y are interesting, in which he presented two main approaches to the organization of management.

Theory X is characterized by the following view of man:

the average person is lazy by nature, he tries to avoid work;
he lacks ambition, he does not like responsibility;
he is indifferent to the problems of the organization;
by nature he resists change;
aimed at obtaining material benefits;
he is trusting, not very smart, lacks initiative, prefers to be led.

This view of people is reflected in the policy of "carrots and sticks", control tactics, procedures and methods that make it possible to tell people what they should do, determine whether they do it, and apply rewards and punishments.

According to McGregor, people are not at all like this by nature and they have opposite qualities. Therefore, managers need to be guided by another theory, which he called theory Y. The main provisions of theory Y:

people are not naturally passive or opposed to the goals of the organization. They become this way as a result of working in an organization;
people strive for results, they are able to generate ideas, take responsibility and direct their behavior to achieve the goals of the organization;
The responsibility of management is to help people realize and develop these human qualities.

Theory Y places more emphasis on the nature of relationships, the creation of an environment conducive to the emergence of loyalty to the organization, its goals, which represent an opportunity for maximum manifestation of initiative, ingenuity and independence in achieving them. In this case, the emphasis is not on external control, but on self-control, which arises when an employee perceives the company's goals as his own.

Contributions of the school of human relations and the school of behavioral sciences to management theory:

1. Application of interpersonal relationship management techniques to increase employee productivity.
2. Application of the sciences of human behavior to the management and shaping of organizations so that every employee can be utilized to his full potential.
3. The theory of employee motivation. Coordination of interests of labor and capital through motivation.
4. The concept of management and leadership styles.

As in earlier theories, representatives of these schools defended the “single best way” to solve management problems. His main tenet was that the correct application of the science of human behavior will always improve the effectiveness of both the individual employee and the organization as a whole. However, as it turned out later, techniques such as changing the content of work and the participation of workers in enterprise management are effective only in certain situations. Despite many important positive results, this approach sometimes failed in situations that differed from those studied by its founders.

The school of human relations appeared at the turn of the 20s and 30s. It was based on the achievements of psychology and sociology, which is why the problem of increasing labor productivity was solved by studying human behavior in the labor process. Scientists realized that by focusing their attention on the individual, they could offer methods for effectively stimulating work.

R. Owen was the first to draw people's attention. He argued that the company spends a lot of time on equipment maintenance (lubrication, repairs, etc.) and cares little about people. Therefore, it is quite reasonable to spend the same time on “care” for people (“living machines”), then, most likely, there will be no need to “repair” people.

E. Mayo is considered to be the founder of the school of human relations. He believed that previous management methods were entirely aimed at achieving material efficiency, and not at establishing cooperation, while simply paying attention to people had a very large impact on labor productivity.

Among other scientists in this direction, we can highlight M. P. Follett, who made a huge contribution to the theory of leadership.

Representatives of the school of human relations sought to consider each organization as a certain “social system,” which was a new step in the development of management theory.

The starting points of the theory of human relations include:

· people are mainly motivated by social needs and feel their individuality through relationships with other people;

· as a result of the industrial revolution and the rationalization of the process, work itself has largely lost its attractiveness, so people seek satisfaction in relationships with other people;

· people are more responsive to the social influence of a group of peers than to incentives through control emanating from management;

· the employee responds to the manager’s impulse if the manager is considered by the employee as a means of satisfying his needs.

The task of management at this stage was to ensure that, in addition to formal relationships (order-subordination), fruitful informal contacts develop between members of groups (teams). Informal relationships in the process of joint work were recognized as a significant organizational force that promotes/hinders the implementation of corporate goals. Therefore, informal relationships should be managed. If management cares about its employees, then the level of satisfaction should increase, which leads to increased productivity.

Later (40-60s of the 20th century), the ideas of the school of human relations formed the basis of the school of behavioral sciences, whose representatives were A. Maslow, McGregor, Herzberg, etc. Improvement of research methods in the field of sociology and psychology made it possible to study human behavior put it on a scientific basis in the labor process. The basis of the behavioral (behaviourist) approach to management is various aspects of social interaction, which led to the development of the theory and methods of forming a team as a special social community and interpersonal relationships within the organization. Particular importance is attached to management style and its impact on productivity and employee satisfaction with their work.

The founders of this school see the main tasks of management in the organization of personnel management, using the factors of communication, motivation, leadership, as well as maintaining an attitude towards personnel as active human resources. That is, they strive to improve the efficiency of the enterprise by increasing the efficiency of human resources.

Schools of scientific management and administrative management (functional) management were formed without due consideration of the influence of human relations on the effectiveness of activities in the field of production and management. The importance of the human factor in management was limited to such aspects as fair wages, economic incentives and the establishment of formal functional relationships between management employees. Experience has shown that dividing the management process into a number of functions, which together were focused on achieving the management goal, assigning functions to the relevant departments and individual employees did not in itself lead to an increase in labor productivity and did not guarantee the achievement of the enterprise's goals.

The role of a person in an organization, his ability to self-organize, increase labor efficiency by introducing creativity into it or as a result of improving the psychological climate in the organization have attracted the attention of sociologists and managers. Serious research into this problem has been conducted since the early 1930s. The object of research and organizational practical research and experiments was human behavior in an organization, “human relations”. The names of American sociologists M. P. Follett and E. Mayo are associated with this direction.

It was found that relationships between people in work collectives often contributed more to the growth of labor efficiency than clear organization labor and material incentives. The motives for highly effective work are not so much economic interests, as representatives of previous management schools believed, but the satisfaction of workers with their work, which is based on the socio-psychological climate in the team.

In the works of M. Follet, such issues as power and authority, their delimitation and informal perception, responsibility and delegation of responsibility, and participation of workers in management were considered for the first time. She studied the problem of conflicts in teams, classifying them into dominance, compromise and integration, with the development of appropriate recommendations. M. Follett originally defined management as ensuring that work gets done with the help of other people.

Since the 50s it has grown into a school of behavioral sciences, which is still developing today. Associated with this direction are the names of A. Maslow, who proposed a pyramid of motives for human behavior in an organization, R. Likert, D. McGregor, F. Gretzberg, K. Argyris. Supporters of the so-called behaviorist (behavioral) direction, including the above-mentioned authors and others, proposed their approach to determining motives and the corresponding set of incentives. The development of sociology and psychology made it possible to provide a scientific basis for the study of people’s behavior in work groups.

As K. Argyris showed, increasing pressure and control on the part of managers to increase the productivity of subordinates creates conflict in the management system and employees and does not help prevent low productivity, absenteeism, staff turnover, and loss of interest in work. On the contrary, according to R. Likert, conflict resolution is facilitated by constructive relationships between team members, experience and skills in regulating relationships in the team, and a high degree of mutual trust in the team. Mutual trust, respect, and favorable relationships in the team create a good moral and psychological climate, which has a significant impact on motivating employees to perform highly effective work.

The school of behavioral sciences focused mainly on methods for establishing interpersonal relationships in work groups. Its main goal was to increase the efficiency of organizations by increasing the efficiency of using their human resources. The main postulate was that the application of behavioral science will always improve the productivity of both the individual employee and the organization as a whole. Both the school of scientific management and the school of administrative management, and the behavioral school defended their path as the only and best. However, as science and management practice subsequently proved, changes in the content of work and the participation of workers in enterprise management have positive influence only in some work situations and not for all workers.

School of Human Relations and Behavioral Sciences

Features of the school of human relations. The human relations movement arose in response to the failure on the part of scientific management and the classical school to fully recognize the human factor as a fundamental element of effective organization. The greatest contribution to the development of the school of human relations (1930-1950) was made by two scientists - Mary Parker Follett and Elton Mayo. E. Mayo's experiments opened a new direction in control theory. He found out, that well-designed work procedures and good wages did not always lead to increased productivity. The forces that arose in the course of interaction between people often exceeded the efforts of leaders.

Later research by Abraham Maslow and other psychologists helped to understand the reasons for this phenomenon. The motives for people’s actions, according to Maslow, are mainly not economic forces, but various needs , which can only be partially and indirectly satisfied with money. Based on these findings, the researchers believed that if management showed greater concern for its employees, then satisfaction levels should increase, which would lead to increased productivity. They recommended use human relations management techniques that include more effective supervisors, consultation with employees, and providing them with greater opportunities for mutual communication at work .

Development of behavioral relationships. Among the most prominent figures of the later period of the behavioral direction (from 1950 to the present) are such scientists as K. Argyris, R. Likert, D. McGregor, F. Herzberg. These and other researchers have studied various aspects of social interaction, motivation, the nature of power and authority, leadership, organizational structure, communications in organizations, changes in the content of work and quality of work life.

The new approach sought to provide greater assistance to the employee in understanding his own capabilities through the application of behavioral science concepts to the building and management of organizations. The main goal of the school was to improve the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources. Main postulate was that the correct application of behavioral science will always improve the performance of both the employee and the organization. However, in some situations this approach turned out to be untenable.

This school focused its attention on a person: on how he interacts with others, how he reacts to various kinds of situations, wanting to satisfy his needs. The school of “human relations” sought to build models of human behavior, how it differs from the classical one, which dealt with models of organization.

This scientific direction in management theory arose after it was discovered that labor regulation and high wages do not necessarily lead to increased productivity, as representatives of the school of scientific management believed.

A significant contribution to the development of the school of “human relations” was made in the 1940-1960s. behavioral scientists (from the English behavior) who developed theories of motivation, in particular the hierarchical theory of needs (A. Maslow) and the theory of motivation depending on job satisfaction or dissatisfaction (F. Herzberg).

Elton Mayo(1880-1949), the founder of the school of “human relations”, conducted the “Hawthorne experiment”, which proved that a person’s behavior in an organization and the results of his work depend entirely on the social conditions in which this person is in the organization, and on the relationships that have developed between workers and between workers and managers.

The Hawthorne experiment allowed us to draw the following conclusions:

social norms of behavior influence labor productivity;
social incentives significantly affect the behavior of organization members; Thus, during the experiment, cases were recorded when social incentives completely blocked the effect of economic incentives;
group factors of behavior dominate over personal ones;
Informal leadership is important for the activities of the entire group.

It turned out that from time to time workers react much more strongly to the pressure of their colleagues in the work group than to the desires of management or monetary incentives. Their motivation was based not only on economic factors, but also on various kinds of needs that money can satisfy only partially and indirectly. This means that if a manager takes care of his subordinates, their level of satisfaction will increase, which will lead to an increase in labor productivity.

The school of “human relations” defines management as ensuring that work gets done with the help of other people and recommended using effective methods work of immediate managers, consultations with employees, providing them with the opportunity to communicate at work.

Mayo came to the conclusion that the productivity of an organization depends not only on working conditions, the presence of material incentives and management, but also on the social and psychological climate in the work environment. The founders of the school of “human relations” recommended that managers identify the relationships that have developed in small informal groups, identify their leader, and then use the characteristics of such groups (psychological and social) to improve interpersonal relationships and increase workers’ satisfaction with their work.

The main provisions of the school of “human relations” are as follows:

the work collective is a special social group;
interpersonal relationships act as a factor in increasing the efficiency and potential of each employee;
a rigid hierarchy of subordination is incompatible with the very nature of man and his freedom;
Managers must focus more on people than on the products produced by the organization.

In his major book, The Social Problems of Industrial Culture, Mayo argued that the result of putting his theory into practice would be increased prestige and loyalty of subordinates. In his opinion, it is quite possible to achieve the desired goals in an organization precisely by meeting the needs of employees. Therefore, the art of communication must become the most important criterion selection of administrators, starting with the shop foreman.

Representatives of the “human relations” school expressed disagreement with some of the statements of the classical school. Thus, the complete division of labor leads to an impoverishment of the content of labor itself; A hierarchy of power that is only top-down is not effective. Therefore, Mayo and his colleagues proposed forming a commission to manage production, which would ensure more effective communication in the organization and understanding of ideas, which would allow the overall policy of the organization to be better perceived and implemented more effectively.

“Humans” viewed the delegation of responsibility as a two-way process: the functions of administration and coordination of activities are delegated from below, and the right to make decisions within the framework of their production functions is delegated from above.

Mayo and his supporters used methods from psychology and sociology in their work; so, they were the first to use tests and special forms interviews when hiring personnel. The management school of “human relations” has enriched psychology with data on the relationship between the human psyche and his work activity.

Basic principles and provisions of the school of human relations

Representatives of the (administrative) school developed principles, recommendations and rules for managing the organization without taking into account the individual characteristics of employees. Such an interpretation of the place of man in production could not lead to a unity of interests of entrepreneurs and workers. Human relations theory aims to increase attention to people. It provides knowledge about how people interact and react to different situations in an effort to satisfy their needs. Unlike the classical school, which built models of organization, this school tried to build models of employee behavior.

Prominent representatives of the school: E. Mayo, M. Follett, A. Maslow. The theory of human relations arose on the basis of a generalization of the results of experiments with groups of workers at the Western Electric factories in Hawthorne, which lasted 13 years (1927-1939).

The Hawthorne Experiments began:

numerous studies of relationships in organizations;
taking into account psychological phenomena in groups;
identifying motivation to work in interpersonal relationships;
studying the role of a specific person and small group in an organization;
determining ways to provide psychological influence on an employee.

The scientific basis for the school of human relations was psychology, sociology and the so-called behavioral sciences.

Mayo argued that worker productivity depends not only on working conditions, material incentives and management actions, but also on the psychological climate among workers.

The main provisions of the school of human relations:

people are primarily motivated by social needs and have a sense of identity through their relationships with others;
as a result of the industrial revolution, work lost its attractiveness, so a person should seek satisfaction in social relationships;
people are more responsive to the social influence of their peer group than to the incentives and controls emanating from management;
the employee responds to the orders of the manager if the manager can satisfy the social needs of his subordinates.

The School of Human Relations made the following amendments to the previous management concepts:

increasing attention to human social needs;
improving jobs by reducing the negative effects of overspecialization;
rejection of the emphasis on the hierarchy of power and a call for employee participation in management;
increasing acceptance of informal relationships.

The School of Human Relations emphasized the collective. Therefore, by the beginning of the 1950s. in addition to it, behavioral concepts were formed aimed at studying and developing the individual capabilities and abilities of individual workers.

Behavioral Sciences psychology and sociology have made the study of human behavior in the workplace strictly scientific.

Representatives of this direction: D. McGregor, F. Herzberg, P. Drucker, R. Likert.

Within the framework of this school, the theories of Hy KMcGregor are interesting, in which he presented two main approaches to the organization of management.

Theory X is characterized by the following view of man. Average person:

by nature lazy, he tries to avoid work;
unambitious, does not like responsibility;
indifferent to the problems of the organization;
is naturally resistant to change;
aimed at obtaining material benefits;
trusting, not very smart, lacking initiative, prefers to be led.

According to McGregor, people are not at all like this by nature and they have opposite qualities. Therefore, managers need to be guided by another theory, which he called the theory Y.

The main provisions of Theory Y:

people are not naturally passive or opposed to the goals of the organization. They become this way as a result of working in an organization;
people strive for results, they are able to generate ideas, take responsibility and direct their behavior to achieve the goals of the organization;
It is the responsibility of management to help people recognize and develop these human qualities.

In theory Y great attention is paid to the nature of relationships, creating an environment conducive to the maximum manifestation of initiative and ingenuity. In this case, the emphasis is not on external control, but on self-control, which arises when an employee perceives the company's goals as his own.

Contributions of the school of human relations and the school of behavioral sciences to management theory.

Application of interpersonal relationship management techniques to increase employee productivity.
The application of the sciences of human behavior to managing and shaping organizations so that every employee can be used to their full potential.
The theory of employee motivation. Coordination of interests of labor and capital through motivation.
Concept of management and leadership styles.

The starting points of the theory of human relations include:

people are primarily motivated by social needs and gain a sense of identity through their relationships with other people;
as a result of the industrial revolution and the rationalization of the process, work itself has largely lost its attractiveness, so a person seeks satisfaction in relationships with other people;
people are more responsive to the social influence of a group of peers than to incentives under the control emanating from management;
the employee responds to the manager's prompting if the manager is seen by the employee as a means of satisfying his needs.

The founder of the school of human relations was an American psychologist and sociologist, researcher of problems of organizational behavior in production organizations Elton George Mayo(26.12.1880-01.09.1949).

Under the leadership of Mayo was carried out " Hawthorne experiment", consisting of two areas of research.

The first stage was carried out between 1924 and 1927. and was called "Light Experiments". Its essence was that the workers were divided into two groups: working and experimental.

The work group carried out work in stable conditions. The experimental group was subjected to changes in working conditions, namely, the lighting changed.

The second stage was carried out between 1927 and 1932. and was called the "Assembly Test Site Experiment". It consisted of the six best employees in a special room assembling telephone relays. Their working conditions were constantly changing, and their body's reaction to these changes (body temperature, blood pressure) was studied.

The conclusions that were obtained during the study turned out to be very interesting.

As a result of the first experiment, it was possible to establish that lighting does not affect performance labor of workers, and the results of the second experiment made it possible to establish that changes in external factors have little effect on the body, however performance labor increases sharply from the fact that a person is respected, consulted with, and is an accomplice in a scientific experiment.

At the end of the Hawthorne Study, Mayo formulated 8 principles:

Work is the activity of a group.
The social world of a person is mainly determined by work activities.
The need for recognition, security and a sense of belonging are more important in determining worker morale and productivity than the physical conditions of work.
A complaint is not necessarily an objective listing of facts; it is usually a symptom indicating interference with the social status of the individual.
A worker is a person whose opinion and effectiveness are determined by external and internal social factors.
Informal groups have strong social control over the habits and opinions of workers.
The transition from an initially established society to an adaptive one tends to destroy the social organization of the work of an enterprise and the entire industry as a whole.
Collaboration in a group does not appear suddenly.

Sociologist, psychologist and management theorist Mary Parker Follett(09/03/1868-12/18/1933) was primarily a political scientist who supported the idea of creating contiguous groups, which she considered as the main unit of self-government and the most effective method achieving a just civil society that is more high performance labor.

Exploring the problem of leadership, Follett places great emphasis on the influence of the situation on relationships between people.

Follett's theory states that leadership does not exist on its own, much less is it a static process involving one person. Leaders and followers are in some kind of relationship, hence it is a dynamic force between people. The role of a leader occurs when and where it is needed. When the problem is solved and the leader is no longer needed, leadership disappears.

Follett distinguishes 3 forms of conflict resolution:

Dominance is the victory of one side over the other.
Compromise is an agreement reached through mutual concessions.
Integration is the most constructive reconciliation, when neither side sacrifices and both benefit.

German and American psychologist Hugo Munstrberg(07/01/1863-12/16/1916) proposed two principles for selecting managers:

The first principle was to answer the question: under what psychological conditions can the greatest and most satisfactory result be obtained from the work of each employee?

The second principle is to answer the question: how can an enterprise influence workers in order to get the most out of them? great results?

Behavioral School of Management

Appearance behavioral school management was predetermined by the following provisions:

A sharp increase in the number of workers in the management system.
Growing attention to the personality of the management system employee due to the deep differentiation of management workers.
An increase in the number of employees of the enterprise with the advent of professional managers.
The impact on the employee's position in the management system was the changes that occurred in the management itself.

Within the behavioral school of management, there are two areas of research:

Research focused on interpersonal relationships and personality psychology.
Research oriented to a sociological approach - research into group behavior.

The founder of the behavioral school of management was an American business practitioner Chester Irving Bernard(07.11.1886-07.06.1961).

Power, as Bernard understood it, contrary to popular belief, moves from the bottom up to the highest level of the organizational structure. The extent to which this power is perceived by subordinates depends on the following conditions:

How far does the subordinate understand the meaning of the message coming from the manager? Often a manager has to interpret his command in order for the staff to understand him better.
To what extent the order corresponds to the purpose of the organization.
The extent to which the message is consistent with the personal needs of subordinates and the interests of the staff.
What are the mental and physical abilities subordinate.

Quantitative School of Management

A key characteristic of management science (the quantitative school) is the replacement of verbal reasoning and descriptive analysis with models, symbols and quantitative values. Its representatives view management as a logical process that can be described in mathematical language.

The formalization of management functions, the integration of labor, people and computers required a revision of the structural elements of the organization (accounting services, planning, marketing, etc.). Methods of modeling, analysis under conditions of uncertainty, software assessments of multi-purpose management decisions formed the basis of the forecasting function.