Management research methods are the tools necessary to solve management problems in any company. The article presents the main approaches to the study of organizational management issues.
The very concept of “research” includes a set of actions to identify problematic issues, establish their role and place in the area under study, study and describe the relationships and patterns of change in objects, phenomena and their properties. As well as the search and justification of solutions for using the acquired knowledge to improve the system under study or solve the problems posed in the study.
Any research has a specific purpose. In management, research is aimed at improving the efficiency of the management system. At the same time, a variety of tasks can be set to solve existing management problems or improve the quality of the latter.
Subject and object of research in management
All research methods in management are aimed at studying the object - the management system. What is she like?
Management is based on a person whose leadership qualities allow him to form around himself a network of interconnected management elements that work according to established regulations. If the object of management research is the management system, then the object of management is the company (organization). Thus, the well-being and development of the latter is also included in the object of study.
The subject of research in management is usually a contradiction or problem of the management process.
Fundamentals of research methodology in management systems
The methodology and methods of research in management depend entirely on the chosen approach. The latter can be conceptual, aspectual and systemic.
The same problem may have different aspect, for example social or economic, depending on the “perspective” of its consideration.
Concept is a broader concept and includes the development of basic principles for research before starting the process of studying the problem.
The most popular today is systems approach to research. The system, as mentioned above, is a network of interconnected elements, so this approach allows for the most broad and comprehensive study of the object of study and achieving the goal. also involves the study of external factors, phenomena and objects that can affect the object under study. Specifying the integrity of the system also leads to a more thorough study of its internal relationships, stability, and risks.
Goal setting is one of the key aspects research methodologies in management. Any management system needs two groups of goals - external and internal, which must be interconnected and not contradict each other.
The research approach may also be empirical or scientific in nature. Empirical, or experimental, is an approach that includes specific experimental tools for obtaining new knowledge.
The second approach includes methods scientific research in management. This approach allows you to more accurately study management problems in an organization and select a reasonably effective solution.
What are the different research methods in management?
There are many tools, methods for studying control systems. How to make sense of such diversity? What should you pay attention to?
Each manager looks for the answer to all these questions independently, but the search process can be simplified through proper grouping.
The classification of research methods in management includes two main clusters: theoretical and empirical.
Theoretical methods are based on the knowledge base and logical conclusions contained in books, textbooks, monographs, and articles. Empirical (experimental, pragmatic) methods rely on experiments and expert opinions. It is impossible to say with authority which methods are better because they approach the same problem differently. Therefore, in management practice, as a rule, there is a synthesis of several methods and tools.
Theoretical methods
Methods for studying management problems are often based on management theory as a key scientific basis.
The first group includes the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete. He invites the researcher to go from the general to the specific, that is, based on objective knowledge, draw conclusions about solving a specific management problem.
Abstraction as a research method suggests ignoring minor elements of the control system to identify key relationships, including by modeling business processes.
A group of theoretical methods cannot but include analysis and synthesis, which make it possible to divide (decompose) the object of study for subsequent independent study and reunification to recreate the previous design with awareness of the processes occurring within the system.
Deduction and induction are also prominent representatives of the first group, which are based on logical expressions: from particular to general (induction), from general to particular (deduction), from particular to particular (transduction).
Practical methods
Pragmatic methods for researching organizational management are often used for an initial assessment of the problem.
Observation is the most obvious of the empirical methods. Information is collected from all departments of the company involved in the management process. The main criterion is the researcher’s non-interference in the business process during the observation process.
It assumes the presence of an analogue or standard with which the indicators of the object under study can be compared.
The method of polemics (discussion) is also considered pragmatic. Such a reasoned discussion of organizational management issues, as a rule, is carried out as part of an initial assessment of the current situation (a planned meeting with the director). Controversy can also take place between researchers.
Modeling methods
Modeling is one of the most popular theoretical methods for assessing the effectiveness of a control system and conducting research to improve it.
The model is an “image” of a real object, but not in a static state, but in a functioning position close to actual conditions. To model, one has to resort to the abstraction method, that is, to exclude non-key factors and processes from consideration. Running a model can show not only existing problems management, but also to predict the action negative factors on the system in the future.
Expert methods
The method of expert assessments is a widely used method based on the opinions of competent specialists. Despite the ease of obtaining such estimates, there are many examples of their incorrect collection or interpretation, which leads to negative research results.
The expert research process includes several stages.
Firstly, they are carried out preparatory work to assemble a group of experts and prepare the necessary documents.
Then a detailed study of the problem takes place.
The research continues by developing options for solving the problem.
Implementation ready-made solution does not happen without the participation of experts.
As a rule, a group examination is carried out, and therefore the process of selecting specialists is of paramount importance. To do this, it is worth deciding on the form of examination: experts can discuss the problem together and come up with a ready-made collective solution, or work independently and present their ideas in writing, each individually.
Whatever research methods are used in management, the final document is the most important conclusion of the entire work. Likewise, in the examination method, it is important to correctly fill out forms and write down opinions and ideas, accurately highlighting the essence.
Foreign methods of management research
Research methods in management have recently included such an expert method as SWOT analysis. This is the foreign practice of four-phase analysis, which includes the assessment of strong and weaknesses the company, as well as its opportunities and external threats.
The method is also often used brainstorming. Its essence is to find the maximum number of ideas on a given topic within one or several hours. This is also a subtype of the expert method, however, an analysis of research methods in management has shown that when solving creative problems, the method of “throwing ideas in a matter of minutes” shows itself to be one of the best.
In conclusion, it is worth noting that today there is a lot of literature containing a wide variety of research methods in management. A textbook or monograph on this topic will certainly be useful for choosing a research tool, but do not forget about the specifics of management systems in various organizations.
Control system analysis methods
Method of analysis control systems is a set of methods and techniques performed in a certain sequence to solve specific analytical problems.
Technology analysis - the sequence of stages and procedures for collecting, processing, organizing data, understanding the problem, determining its limitations and criteria, searching for solution options and presenting the results. These procedures precede the decision selection stage and are characteristic of all management functions. If the analysis is performed by enterprise specialists or external consultants, then its results are expressed as options for solving the problem. Based on the results of the analysis, the manager selects a solution option to be implemented.
Analysis methods the subject of management are the methods and techniques by which the solution of analytical problems is ensured.
Most problems in the analysis of management systems have a high degree of uncertainty, which is also due to the lack of practical experience in solving organizational problems within the framework of an independent business entity. Uncertainty is also explained by the lack of information and the difficulty of obtaining it due to high cost or lack of time.
The peculiarity of organizational tasks lies in the illegitimateness of a strict approach to them based on the use of deterministic techniques. Thus, a quantitative assessment of the business activity of an enterprise with the traditional approach is carried out in two directions: according to the degree of implementation of the plan (according to the main indicators of their growth rates) and according to the level of efficiency in the use of resources. However, these indicators mainly assess internal factors that influence the rate of economic development of the system. At the same time, the qualitative components of business activity, such as the reputation of the enterprise and management style, remain outside of consideration as not amenable to formalization. However, it is possible to determine the current level of development of an organization, explain the reasons for successes and failures, and also predict trends in changes in its condition only by relying on the listed factors.
The most adequate for such tasks are heuristic methods. Heuristic methods mean a variety of procedures - volitional decisions, not supported by objective models, based largely on intuition, the experience of specialists, conclusions by analogy, fuzzy logic, methods of qualitative analysis of systems (on active and collective work). The use of heuristic methods is explained by the alternative nature of searching in a real range of options, the lack of a clear data transformation algorithm, and the focus on the satisfaction of acceptable solutions.
Non-traditional heuristic methods have become more relevant in recent times, when the so-called “soft” components of competition are becoming increasingly important for the survival of business organizations. Among them we can highlight such as openness to the external environment, key competencies, work ethics, organizational culture and other components
However, when using a qualitative approach based on heuristic methods, care should be taken to introduce measurable performance parameters. Dimensions are a store of company-wide rules, values and views, i.e. organization culture. Measurements must become part of the general culture, otherwise they will be meaningless. An organization must base its activities on facts. This approach allows us to identify key processes and makes it possible to assess their driving force. There should be ongoing measurement, identifying which key elements can be identified and by which parameters.
Conducting an analytical study is associated with a targeted choice of a set of methods that ensure the functional completeness of the analysis while limiting the time and money spent on its implementation.
The choice of methods adequate to the situation is influenced by the following factors:
purpose and depth of analysis;
the essence of the problem to be solved;
features of the research object;
dynamic characteristics of the object of analysis;
the type and nature of information available to analysts;
requirements for analysis results;
technical capabilities of performing calculations;
analyst qualifications.
To solve specific problems, computational and heuristic methods are usually used in some combination and interpretation.
The choice of methods for solving specific analytical problems is simplified under certain conditions: firstly, with careful systematization of the entire arsenal of methods; secondly, with a clear definition of the prerequisites for the use of each analytical technique; thirdly, with a detailed description of the technology for implementing the most complex methods.
The classification of methods for analyzing control systems is presented in Fig. 2.2. As argued earlier, it is proposed to divide all analytical methods into two groups: computational and heuristic.
The first group includes calculation methods, using strict rules of logic, which are designed to obtain numerical values and are based on economic and mathematical modeling and computational operations performed on economic indicators. Among them, methods of comparison, ordering and modeling stand out. Most of the listed calculation methods are included in the traditional tools of technical and economic analysis and are demonstrated in detail using the example of solving specific problems. Calculation methods are well developed, calculations in accordance with them are included in method- and problem-oriented software.
Heuristic methods, used to analyze the management system, can be divided into evaluative and evaluative-search.
The conditions that predetermine the need to use heuristic methods can be described as follows:
the qualitative nature of the initial information, described using economic and social parameters;
lack of sufficiently representative and reliable information on the characteristics of the research object;
high uncertainty of initial data for analysis;
lack of a clear substantive description and mathematical formalization of the subject of assessment;
lack of time and funds for research using formal models;
absence technical means with characteristics appropriate for analytical modeling;
extremity of the analyzed situation.
Analytical assessment individual elements or control systems as a whole is associated with a parametric comparison, which is carried out on the basis of certain criteria or without their designation. The criteria-free methods are ranking, paired comparison, scoring and expert evaluation, expert commission, Delphi method, questioning and interviewing.
For equivalent objects, it is convenient from a technological point of view to assign identical ranks equal to the arithmetic mean of the ranks assigned to equivalent objects. Ranks as numbers do not make it possible to draw a conclusion about how much or how many times an object is preferable in comparison with another.
The advantage of the method is its ease of implementation, the disadvantage is the practical impossibility of ordering a large number of objects. As experience shows, when the number of objects is greater than 10-15, difficulties arise in constructing a ranking. This is explained by the fact that in the ranking process it is necessary to establish the relationship between all objects, considering them as a single set. As the number of objects increases, the number of connections between them increases in proportion to the square of the number of objects. Storing in memory and analyzing a large set of relationships between objects is limited by the psychological capabilities of a person, beyond which significant errors are made.
Paired preferences are presented in the form of a matrix (Table 3.1
An intermediate position between paired comparisons and ranking is occupied by multiple comparisons, which differ in that not pairs of objects are compared sequentially, but triplets, quadruples, etc.
Score is a procedure for assigning numerical values to objects of analysis at a given scale.
Continuous and discrete scales can be used. In the first case, the estimates belong to any point of some limited numerical interval, in the second, the estimates correspond to integers. The scales are characterized by a minimum and maximum number of points. The upper and lower limits of the scale can have both positive and negative values. The object with the maximum rating value is considered the best
For example, on a scale from 0 to 10 points, the assessment results may look like
For the first case, an example of an assessment using a 10-point system is presented in Table. 3.3, for the second - in table. 3.4
When recruiting experts, the following requirements should be taken into account:
level of general erudition;
possession of special knowledge in the analyzed area;
presence of certain practical and (or) research experience on the problem under consideration;
the ability to adequately assess development trends of the object under study;
lack of bias, interest in a specific assessment result.
Favorable conditions for the work of experts are created as a result of preliminary instruction, training in research methods, and provision of additional information about the object of analysis.
When implementing the method, the following sequence of actions is assumed:
selection of experts;
determination of the scoring scale;
assessment by experts for all compared objects of analysis;
calculation of group assessment for each object;
ranking of objects.
To quantify the degree of agreement between expert opinions, the concordance coefficient (w) is used, which allows us to assess how consistent the opinions of the examination participants are. Its value is within
When using the expert commission method, not only statistical processing of the results of the individual scoring of all experts is carried out, but also an exchange of opinions on the results of the examination and clarification of the assessments. The disadvantage of this procedure is the strong influence of authorities on the opinion of the majority of participants in the examination.
In the Delphi method direct contact between experts and, consequently, group influence that arises during joint work and consists in adapting to the opinion of the majority is excluded. An individual survey is conducted anonymously in several stages, the results are processed using statistical methods. All experts are exposed to judgments that differ significantly from the general values.
The method allows experts in each round to compare their opinions with the answers and arguments of their colleagues. The possibility of revising one's previous assessments based on the considerations of colleagues encourages respondents to take into account factors that were initially considered unimportant.
When applying the Delphic method, the influence of such psychological factors as joining the majority opinion and reluctance to publicly express one’s opinion is reduced. The disadvantage of this method is that it requires more time than previous assessment methods. In addition, the need for the expert to repeatedly revise his answers, causing him to have a negative reaction, affects the results of the examination.
While using the method surveys experts fill out questionnaires previously compiled by specialists, which must meet the following requirements:
the wording eliminates semantic uncertainty;
generally accepted terms are used;
a uniform and unambiguous interpretation of the survey results is ensured.
The form of answers can be open or closed. In the first case, the expert’s answer is not regulated; in the second, he chooses one of the specified answer options. The answers proposed by experts allow analysts to identify not only average, but also prevailing estimates.
Interviewing involves conducting an oral dialogue between the interviewer and the respondent on the subject under discussion. Pre-compiled programs can be refined during the dialogue process. The method is effective in selection problems for narrowing the range of working alternatives, in assessment tasks with ambiguous interpretations, large differences in expert opinions.
The value of the methods increases with the regular nature of their use. In this case, the results take the form of traditional time series.
Questionnaires and interviews can significantly expand the composition of data and improve the information content of analysts. By using these methods, you can collect not only quantitative, but also qualitative information (for example, about management style, level of satisfaction with the organization, goals of specific managers, etc.).
The group of methods that use assessment criteria includes target assessment, "spider web", test questions, hierarchy analysis method, typology and repertory grids.
Essence target method, also called sum method
places, consists of evaluating the objects of analysis according to certain criteria (components of the target system). When using the target assessment method, the following sequence of actions is performed:
criteria (components of the target system) for assessing objects of analysis are selected;
all objects for each criterion are assigned a preference rank (ordinal number of acceptability);
For each object of analysis, the total rank is calculated for all criteria;
An example of the method implementation is presented in table. 3.5.
The method of multicriteria comparison is also graphical quantitative-qualitative "spider web" method. The technology of its use, in our opinion, includes nine operations:
the compared objects of analysis are determined; their number on one diagram should not exceed 5;
two concentric circles are drawn; for orientation within a small circle, it is preferable to mark zones: “good” or “bad”;
criteria for assessing objects are determined; their number can be from 5 to 12;
on circles, as many radii are drawn (sectors of the circle must be equal) as there are selected criteria;
each radius is assigned to a certain criterion; criteria can be both quantitative and qualitative;
each radius has its own scale for measuring the values of the criteria;
various marks are made on the radii corresponding to the assessments of the objects being compared;
identical marks corresponding to criteria assessments for each object are combined;
the criterion for preferring objects is the area allocated to them. The best object will be one with a smaller area if the inner circle is marked “good”, or a larger area otherwise.
Test question method involves the use of a tabular document containing in each line a question (parameter) and answer options (parameter values) for a certain aspect of the analysis.
Answers in questionnaires are presented on ordinal (low, medium, high) or nominative (listing of factors) scales. It is believed that they “rougher” describe the processes under study compared to data presented in quantitative scales. Ordinal data requires the use of specific generalization techniques that are not as developed as methods for assessing quantitative data.
However, thanks to the availability of questionnaires, the time required for analysis is significantly reduced, and the dependence of its results on the analyst’s skill level is reduced. Obtaining more correct results when using this method than with scoring and expert assessment is explained by the following circumstances. Within this method, instead of assigning points, the expert selects the statement that most clearly characterizes the object of assessment. The answers can be provided by quantitative data (reflecting, for example, the age of the employee). They can characterize the trend of change in any parameter (growth, decline) or give an assessment (excellent, satisfactory, etc.).
Selection by comparison is usually more accurate than direct measurement when specific situation Each expert has his own concept of the optimal state of the estimated parameters. Certain psychological characteristics play a role. For example, when evaluating employees using the expert method, colleagues tend to be lenient towards the usual, common shortcomings of the person being assessed and not take them into account. Experts will definitely take these into account when using the comparative approach inherent in the test question method.
According to the author, it is useful to leave two empty cells in the questionnaire. In one of them, called “other,” notes are made in the case when the expert believes that none of the formulations reflects the true state of affairs. In this cell, the expert indicates his statement. If the expert does not clearly know the severity of some quality, he makes a mark in another cell that has the meaning “I don’t know.” The introduction of such items allows not only to make a more correct assessment, but also to clarify and supplement the basic questionnaires.
The main problem for analysts is to find well-designed questionnaires, adapt them to specific conditions if necessary, or develop the survey document themselves.
The author's experience suggests that it will not be possible to create very effective questionnaires initially. Analysts need to be prepared for the fact that only after repeated surveys with a thorough analysis of both assessment results and analytical documents will it be possible to create methods that contain not only universal initial lists of dictionaries, but also highly specialized questionnaires.
Typology method is based on positioning theory. The main idea of this theory is the existence of standard situations and recommended solutions for them. The analyst's task is to select a position that corresponds to the object of analysis according to certain parameters and obtain a standard solution proposed by the developers of the method. Practical applications of this theory are the BCG, McKinsey, etc. matrices. The technology for implementing the method includes the following stages:
assessment of the analyzed object according to certain specified parameters;
positioning the object in the typological scheme in accordance with the parameter values;
When constructing a typological scheme, you can use two parameters and get a table, examples of which are given in sections 4 and 5 of the work. It is also possible to construct a three-dimensional diagram with three parameters. In both situations, parameters can reflect both simple properties and complex ones. An example of a complex property is the prospects of a market, characterized by size, growth rate, level of satisfaction of user needs, competition, price level, profitability, etc. IN in this case parameters can have both quantitative and qualitative assessment. Positioning of the analyzed object (objects) on the typological grid is possible in the form of one or another mark (points, circles, etc.).
If there are developments in specific areas, the use of typological grids allows you to determine the type of object being analyzed and use ready-made recommendations for its improvement. However, one must be extremely careful with the typology method. Universal “recipes” are quite tempting in their simplicity, which contrasts with solving creative problems, but the benefits of applying the recommendations received are very limited. It is better to know how to identify and solve problems than to believe in ready-made recipes for success. According to the author, only in combination with other assessment techniques does the typology method allow one to characterize the situation and find acceptable options for predictive management decisions
Brainstorm a method that allows you to find solutions in problematic situation. Brainstorming is based on the separation in time of the process of searching for ideas and their evaluation. To carry out the second stage of analysis, one or more of the previously discussed methods for assessing and selecting solutions can be used.
Of particular interest is the organization of the first stage - the stage of generating ideas. Depending on the number of participants in this process, there are individual (1 person), group (7 ± 2 people), and mass (unlimited number of participants) attacks. In the case of a mass assault, all participants are divided into groups and the work is carried out in groups, followed by its continuation with representatives of the groups. The number of participants in each group is no more than 9 people.
Depending on the admissibility of criticism, a distinction is made between forward and reverse brainstorming. During a direct assault, criticism is not allowed. When reverse brainstorming the main focus is on identifying and neutralizing shortcomings in proposals for improving the object of analysis. The reverse brainstorming method is especially appropriate at the early stage of analysis, when the main task is to identify as many losses as possible and reveal the maximum of available reserves.
Along with open (oral) brainstorming, closed (written) brainstorming takes place. It is carried out in a situation where it is difficult to bring together all the necessary subjects of analysis. In this case, questionnaires are sent to specialists on the problem to be solved.
QUANTITATIVE METHODS
PARAMETRIC METHOD
The parametric method is based on a quantitative and qualitative description of the studied properties of the control system (research object) and the establishment of relationships between parameters both within the control and controlled subsystems and between them. This allows, using a pre-selected nomenclature of parameters based on actual data, to quantitatively assess the object under study. Dependencies between parameters can be both functional and correlational.
Each control system has a number of specific properties that make it possible to distinguish it from any others. A control system property is an objective feature of a system that manifests itself during its creation and operation.
The properties of the future control system are formed and taken into account when drawing up the design assignment and directly during the design itself. While creating new system these properties are realized and specified. During operation, the properties of SU are manifested and maintained. The more complex the control system, the more complex set of properties it has, the more more complex form their manifestations.
Properties can be simple or complex. A simple property is, for example, the number of management personnel, the service life of technical controls, etc. An example complex properties may serve as the productivity of managers, which includes the volume of functions performed and the number of personnel.
Any property of the system can be characterized verbally, numerically, graphically, in the form of a table, function, i.e. using its signs.
Sign - distinguishing feature, characteristic of any set of objects. An example of qualitative characteristics can be the type of operating system, management method, method of assessing the operating system, method of calculating the number of personnel, etc. Of significant importance among qualitative characteristics are alternative characteristics that have only two mutually exclusive options, for example, the presence or absence of errors in the work of personnel. In addition to qualitative alternative signs of CS properties, there may be multivariate signs.
To objectively evaluate any system, it is necessary to quantitatively characterize its properties. Quantitative characteristics of the properties of the research object are provided by the parameters . A special case of the CS parameter is an indicator - a quantitative characteristic of the essential properties of the system that are significant for its existence and functioning. Consequently, a system parameter should be perceived as a broader concept, since it can characterize any properties of the system or its components.
Qualitative features can also influence the type of functional dependence of CS indicators on its parameters. For example, the method used for distributing management functions in a department, which is a qualitative feature, has a significant impact on the dependence of the level of quality of personnel functions performed on the available professional staff (economists, marketers, engineers, etc.) - a structural parameter of the management system. In addition to structural ones, there are geometric and other parameters.
In the parametric method, parameters are one of the most important basic characteristics of both the elements of the control system and the entire system as a whole. They reflect the relationships of elements, states and trends in their development.
Parametric study sections:
- General characteristics systems characterizing purposefulness, reliability, adaptability, self-control, consistency.
- Structure parameters: number of levels, number of components by level, structure of personnel, capacities, funds, financial portfolio, equipment fleet, etc., product portfolio, etc., organizational structure, number of main connections, intensity of connections, degree of continuity.
- Process parameters: duration (duration of the cycle and its phases), intensity, speed, effectiveness, efficiency.
- Environmental parameters and the organization’s position in the environment: market volumes and the enterprise’s share in the market, the size of accounts payable and receivable, the degree of consumer commitment to the enterprise’s products.
- Parameters of the material base: the size of production capacity, incl. for individual types of equipment and technological transitions, specific parameters of equipment (repair complexity, maintainability), capital-to-weight ratio, power-to-weight ratio, size of production reserves.
- Personnel parameters: total number, including by department, number by transition, number by stream, number by professional and qualification groups, number by educational level, according to demographic characteristics.
- Product parameters: volume of product produced in physical terms by individual types, product or product groups, product quality parameters: product cost, price, production volume in value terms.
- Parameters of economic efficiency: productivity (multiple values: gross, net, sold, etc.), profitability (sales, capital, costs, etc.), capital productivity.
Qualitative and quantitative characteristics of CS are closely interrelated. When studying CS, the following are mainly used:
- quantitative absolute and relative parameters (as special cases - indicators). Indicators in absolute terms are used to describe the objects under study (number of staff, number of divisions, personnel costs, etc.), and relative indicators are used to characterize, for example, the growth rate of sales, profits, headcount, staff productivity, etc. ;
- qualitative features that descriptively characterize one or another property of the system (method of influencing the controlled object, assessment method, etc.);
- classification characteristics (parameters) that characterize those properties of the system that cannot take part in the assessment, but allow the object under study to be classified into a certain class (list of employee specialties, list of TSU brands, types of TSU);
- ordinal (rank) parameters that make it possible to qualitatively distinguish the objects being studied from each other, which is expressed in assigning them, for example, points (assessment of academic performance, assessment of an athlete’s performance), categories (for workers, athletes, officials), job ranks (engineer 3, 2 and 1st category, senior, leading and chief engineer).
SU indicators can be single, complex, integral and generalized.
A single CS indicator is an indicator that relates to only one of the CS properties. For example, single indicators are the number of staff members and the number of management functions. Its variety is a relative single indicator, which is the ratio of a single indicator to a standard (basic) indicator, expressed in relative units or percentages.
Standard (basic) indicator - an indicator taken as the initial (reference) indicator when comparative assessments SU. For example, the indicators of progressive control systems or competitors are taken as basic.
Basic indicators can also be single, complex, integral and generalized.
A complex indicator is an indicator related to several product properties. Using this indicator, one can generally characterize a subsystem, an element of the control system.
A type of complex indicator that makes it possible to evaluate the totality of system properties from an economic point of view can be an indicator that reflects the ratio of the total beneficial effect from the operation of the control system and the total costs of its creation and operation, determined by the formula:
Complex indicators also include group and generalized (defining) indicators.
A complex indicator of a control system related to a specific group of its properties is called group.
Generalized indicator SU- an indicator related to such a set of its properties by which it was decided to evaluate the system.
The entire system of indicators considered (Fig. 21), as a rule, is used to evaluate the control system. 
Rice. 21
Due to the fact that each control system can have countless properties and indicators, accordingly, there can be the same set. Depending on the purpose of use, a certain number of indicators are selected and used. To facilitate the practical use of indicators, they are classified.
Of great importance in this case is the unity of methods of classification, definition and application of indicators.
The classification of indicators can be made:
- by the number of characterized properties, i.e. they can be individual and complex (group, integral, generalized);
- by the method of expression (dimensional and dimensionless units of measurement, including using points, percentages);
- by determination method (sociological, expert, calculation, experimental);
- by the impact on quality when the absolute value of the indicator changes (positive, negative);
- by type of restriction (no less, no more, no less and no more);
Indicators with restrictions, characterizing a certain property of the control system, when exceeding the permissible numerical value reduce the effect to zero. Therefore, such indicators should be taken into account when assessing Special attention. These can be called effect veto indicators. For the most part, this relates to indicators of purpose, reliability, safety and environmental friendliness.
- at the stage of determination - research and design and operational indicators (indicators determined during research and design are called research and design, and those formed during the operation of systems are called operational);
- by application for assessment (basic, relative);
- in relation to various properties (adaptability, efficiency, flexibility, continuity, etc.).
Of particular importance for an objective assessment are those indicators that are classified according to the types of restrictions of normative and technical documentation (NTD) and their numerical values (Fig. 7.8). In some cases, the values of permissible restrictions are determined by specialists based on the conditions of use and the corresponding consumer requirements.
When performing an assessment, it is necessary to stipulate (both in manual and machine calculations) that for indicators with restrictions the following conditions must be met. 1. For positive indicators:
Rice. 7.8. Management system indicators classified by type of limitation by scientific and technical documentation of their numerical values
Indicators with limitations
Unlimited (non-critical, i.e. having no restrictions in the technical documentation on changing the numerical values of indicators)
Unlimited positive (uncritically positive, i.e. having no restrictions in the scientific and technical documentation on changing the numerical values of indicators; with an increase in their numerical values the effect increases)
Unlimited negative (uncritically negative, i.e., having no restrictions in the scientific and technical documentation on changing the numerical values of indicators; with an increase in their numerical values, the effect the effect decreases)
Limited (critical, i.e. having restrictions in the technical documentation on changes in the numerical values of indicators)
Limited positive (critically positive, i.e. having restrictions in the scientific and technical documentation on changes in the numerical values of indicators “from below” and “not less”, for which, when increasing them numerical value tends to increase the effect)
Limited negative (critically negative, i.e. having restrictions in the scientific and technical documentation on changes in the numerical values of indicators “from below” and “no more”, for which, with an increase their numerical value is characterized by a decrease in the effect)
Limited positive-negative (critical positive-negative, i.e. having restrictions in the scientific and technical documentation on the change in the numerical values of indicators from the existing nominal value “from below - from above” and “no less - no more”, for which, with an increase and decrease in the numerical value from nominal tends to reduce the effect)
This means that if the restrictions are not met, this indicator is equal to zero and the level of SS also becomes equal to zero. For the most part, this relates to indicators of purpose, reliability, safety and environmental friendliness, since their values must comply with the requirements of standards or other normative and technical documentation of the countries that consume these products.
Objective assessment SU can be given only on the basis of a system of interrelated parameters and indicators. In this case, each indicator must meet the requirements:
- specification and modification depending on the purposes of the assessment;
- development and improvement of the object of assessment;
- ensuring the unity of quantitative and quality characteristics;
- targeting;
- comparability;
- interconnectedness;
- you just;
- information content;
- reliability and objectivity.
Considering that control systems are intended for long-term operation, it is advisable to take the maximum probabilities of proper operation and failure as the main indicators of the reliability of a system producing products of the first category. These probabilities can be expressed as relative proportions of time during which the system will respectively provide uninterrupted control.
The general procedure for using the parametric method when studying CS objects involves the following actions.
- build a tree of properties of the research object and its components;
- identify the properties of the properties of the object under study by class;
- determine the nomenclature of parameters characterizing the properties of the studied CS object;
- group selected parameters;
- carry out scaling (by types of scales: ordinal; intervals; ratios; differences; absolute) parameters;
- carry out normalization of parameter values;
- measure parameter values;
- develop models of mutual correspondence of compared components and parameters of the object (Fig. 22);
- calculate generalized assessments of the state of the object and its components.
Rice. 22. Model of parametric mutual correspondence of parameters control systems
STATISTICAL METHODS CONTROL SYSTEMS RESEARCH
In statistical analysis, a certain random sample is processed, which means the results of N consecutive and independent experiments with a random variable or event. The sample should ensure the representativeness of the study. The volume of information processed must be sufficient to obtain results with the required accuracy and reliability.
It is used to study processes and objects based on mass data obtained from statistical or accounting documentation, based on the results of various types of surveys and experiments.
Statistical analysis can be used to study both internal and external environment. When studying the internal environment highest value has research: influences various factors on profit generation (formation of economic indicators due to the influence of a combination of significant factors): formation and development of the organization’s personnel; formation and development of the organization's potential; product quality, etc.
As part of the study of the external environment great importance has a statistical analysis of the market state, analysis of demand differentiation, assessment of consumers (their solvency), competitors, suppliers, business partners.
The most commonly used methods of statistical analysis of control systems are: regression analysis; correlation analysis; analysis of variance; time series analysis; factor analysis.
Regression analysis
Regression analysis sets as its task the study of the dependence of one random variable on a number of other random and not random variables(regression is the dependence of the mathematical expectation of a random variable on the values of other random variables). For example, after N experiments on a statistical model, a set of realizations of random variables was obtained { X i Y i ,}, i= 1, 2, 3, …, n, whereX is an independent variable, and Y- function. Processing this array of random variables allows them to be represented in the form of a deterministic linear regression model of the type:
Y= a 0 + a 1 X,(3.1)
Where a 1
–
regression coefficient, the average number of units by which the resulting characteristic will increase or decrease when the value of the factor changes by one unit;
a 0
–
the minimum value of the resulting characteristic with a factor value of zero. 
(3.2)
where x j(0) are the "base" values of all k variables in the vicinity of which the nature of the process under study is analyzed.
Expression (3.3) is a linear function, however, if the values Δх j,- are large enough or function Y is significantly nonlinear, then we can use an expansion more high order.
When analyzing the regression model (3.3), the coefficient values a j show the degree of influence j th variable per function Y, which allows us to divide all variables into “significant” and “non-significant”. The regression model is of greatest interest for predicting the behavior of functions Y. IN practical activities regression analysis is often used to create a so-called empirical model, when, processing the results of observations (or characteristics existing systems), obtain a regression model and use it to evaluate promising systems or system behavior under hypothetical conditions.
The accuracy and reliability of the resulting estimates depend on the number of observations and the location of the predictive values X j relatively basic (i.e. known at some point in time) X j (0) The greater the difference Δх j , the lower the forecast accuracy.
Correlation analysis
The correlation method is one of the economic and mathematical research methods that makes it possible to determine the quantitative relationship between several phenomena of the system under study. It is used to determine the degree of relationship between random variables (correlation is a dependence between random variables, expressing the tendency of one value to increase or decrease when another increases or decreases).
Correlation dependence, unlike functional dependence, can manifest itself only in the general, average case, i.e. in most cases - observations. That's why correlation represents a probabilistic relationship between phenomena in which average value the parameters of one of them changes depending on the others. The correlation between two phenomena is called paired, and between several - multiple.
When using the correlation method, we distinguish funktion, those. the resulting indicator under study and the factor characteristics on which the resulting indicator depends - arguments. This classification is carried out on the basis of qualitative analysis, i.e. all possible variables are divided into dependent and independent of the phenomenon being studied.
Correlation connections in dependent variables cannot be rigid and are in the nature of incomplete connections. If, in the case of an increase (or decrease) in the argument, the resulting indicator (function) also increases (or decreases, respectively), then the correlation relationship is called direct (positive), and if vice versa - inverse (negative). In the absence of any dependence of the function on the argument, there is no correlation.
The closeness of the correlation relationship in the case of a linear dependence is assessed by the correlation coefficients, and in the case of a nonlinear dependence - by the correlation ratio.
The correlation characteristic is the correlation coefficient equal to the mathematical expectation of the products of deviations of random variables x i And X j from its mathematical expectations and normalized relative to the standard deviations of these random variables.
If the number of random variables is more than two (r > 2 ), then a square correlation matrix of size (r x r), elements of which are correlation coefficients k ij , and the diagonal elements are equal to one (i.e. k ij =1 ). The correlation coefficient varies from zero to one, and the larger its value, the closer the relationship between random variables.
The assessment of correlation coefficients is calculated based on the values of estimates of mathematical expectations and standard deviations obtained by statistical processing of the results of realizations of random variables.
It should be noted that the correlation coefficient can range from 1 to 0 and from 0 to + 1. The closer the calculated correlation coefficient is to +1 (for direct dependence) and to -1 (for inverse dependence), the higher the closeness of the connection. Accordingly, with correlation coefficients of +1 or -1, functional connections take place.
The most important task of the correlation method is to determine the type of correlation equation (regression equation).
The simplest form of such an equation, characterizing the relationship between two parameters, can be a straight line equation (Fig. 7.1):
Y= a + bX, (7.1)
where X, Y are the independent and dependent variables, respectively;
a, b are constant coefficients (a determines the origin, b is the angle of inclination of the straight line).
An example of a one-factor nonlinear dependence can also be a formula of another type, for example, in the presence of a power dependence:
The conclusion about the linear nature of the dependence can be verified by simply comparing the available data or graphically (registration in rectangular system coordinates of the Y and X values, the location of which on the graph allows one to draw a conclusion about the correctness or incorrectness of the idea of the linear nature of the relationship between the two parameters being studied).
Another task of the method correlation analysis- determination of constant coefficients of connection between variable parameters that the best way will correspond to the available actual values of Y and X.
In this case, as a criterion for assessing the adequacy of the linear dependence to the actual data, you can use the minimum sum of squared deviations of the real statistical values of Y from those calculated by the equation of the straight line accepted for use.
Analysis of variance
Analysis of variance is used to test statistical hypotheses about the influence of qualitative factors on indicators, i.e. factors that cannot be measured quantitatively (for example, a qualitative factor - the organization of production, influencing a quantitative indicator - profit from production). This is its difference from regression analysis, in which factors act as parameters that have a quantitative measure (for example, a quantitative factor - production costs).
In analysis of variance, the qualitative factor is represented j- possible states (for example, possible schemes for organizing production), for the assessment of which for each of them it is carried out n j experiments.
Next, statistical estimates are calculated in each n j group of experiments and in the general sample N, and then the relationship between them is analyzed. Based on this ratio, the hypothesis about the influence of a qualitative factor on the indicator is accepted or rejected.
Time series analysis is used in the study of a discrete random process occurring over a time interval T.
The results of experiments or observations obtained over a given interval are presented in the form of a time series, each value Y i which includes a deterministic f(t) and random z(t) components:
The deterministic component describes the influence of deterministic factors at a point in time t, the influence of many random factors is described by the random component. The deterministic part of a time series is called a trend. This time series is described by a trend model:
k - number of time functions, linear combination
which are determined by the deterministic component ( i from 1 to k);
φ i (t) - function of time.
During the analysis, the form of the time function φ i (t) <0 постулируется исследователем в виде рабочей гипотезы. Это может быть степенная функция t n , or trigonometric. Trend coefficients and estimates of the dispersion of the random component are determined by statistical processing of the results of an experiment or observations.
By representing a random process in the form of time series, it is possible, firstly, to study the dynamics of this process, secondly, to identify factors that significantly influence the indicators and determine the frequency of their maximum impact, and thirdly, to carry out an interval or point forecast of the indicator Y for some period of time Δ t (a point forecast indicates only the point near which the predicted indicator may be located, an interval forecast indicates the interval where this indicator is found with a certain specified probability).
Factor analysis
In order to ensure the effective functioning of the organization, it is necessary, when making management decisions, to take into account all significant factors influencing the functioning and development of the enterprise, both external (influencing at the level of the macroenvironment and contact environment) and internal.
Factor analysis is part of multivariate statistical analysis, which is part of mathematical and statistical methods. The essence of the factor analysis method is to select the most significant from the many factors being studied that influence the object under study.
A factor is usually an independent variable, often called a cause, and is in a logical relationship with the consequence of the phenomenon being studied and determines its value.
For example, the computer equipment used and its software are a significant factor in the productivity of management workers (accountants, managers, economists, etc.); changing factors of labor costs and labor productivity affect changes in production volumes.
The factor can be single, i.e. influencing the consequence of one variable, or complex, i.e. influencing several variables simultaneously. A complex factor associated with all variables is called general.
Unlike correlation analysis, the method under consideration does not require dividing all variables into dependent and independent, since in it all variables (factors - causes) that determine the phenomenon are considered as equal. It should be taken into account that some of the variables may be stable over a certain period of time, i.e. not changing.
For example, an increase in production volumes, with the number of employees remaining unchanged during the analyzed periods of time and with increasing labor productivity, is a consequence of a change in only one factor - labor productivity.
Description of the influence of factors on the activities of an organization is highly complex, since the effect of many factors is of a latent (hidden) nature.
The selection of factors influencing the object under study is carried out, as a rule, on the basis of their classification, theoretical justification and through their qualitative analysis. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the interaction of factors with each other. The number of factors should be limited to the required minimum. You need to abstract yourself from unimportant factors.
For each selected factor, the possibility of its quantitative assessment should be provided, since it will be required in the future when determining correlations between them and assessing their influence on the object of study.
The factor analysis method is widely used in analyzing the influence of various factors (labor, use of equipment, use of production facilities in general, use of raw materials and supplies, organization of production, technology, etc.) on production volumes, quality of products, wages, and results of economic activity. and development of the enterprise as a whole.
1. Concept of control system
Each organization has a specific management system, which is also the object of study.
Control system - is a set of elements and management decisions designed to collect, analyze and process information in order to obtain the maximum final result under certain restrictions (availability of resources, for example).
At present it is possible to distinguish at least five types of system views: microscopic, functional, macroscopic, hierarchical and procedural.
Microscopic view of the system is based on understanding it as a set of observable and indivisible elements. The structure of the system fixes the location of the selected elements and their relationships with each other.
Under functional representation of the system is understood as a set of actions (functions) that must be performed to achieve the goals of the system.
Macroscopic view characterizes the system as a single whole located in the “system environment” (environment). Consequently, the system can be represented by many external connections with the environment.
Hierarchical view is based on the concept of “subsystem” and considers the entire system as a set of subsystems connected hierarchically.
Procedural representation characterizes the state of the system over time.
Hence, control system as an object of study has the following signs: consists of many (at least two) elements arranged hierarchically; elements of systems (subsystems) are interconnected through direct and feedback connections; the system is a single and inextricable whole, which is an integral system for lower hierarchical levels; there are fixed connections between the system and the external environment.
When studying the management system as an object of research, it is necessary to highlight requirements for control systems:
* determinism of system elements;
* system dynamism;
* presence of a control parameter in the system;
* presence of a control parameter in the system;
* the presence of (at least one) feedback channels in the system.
In control systems determinism (first a sign of the organization of a system) manifests itself in the organization of interaction between divisions of management bodies, in which the activity of one element (management, department) affects other elements of the system.
Second control system requirement is dynamism, those. the ability, under the influence of external and internal disturbances, to remain for some time in a certain unchanged qualitative state.
Under control parameter in a control system, one should understand such a parameter (element) through which the activities of the entire system and its individual elements can be controlled. Such a parameter (element) in a socially managed system is the head of a department at a given level. He is responsible for the activities of the unit subordinate to him, perceives control signals from the organization’s management, organizes their implementation, and is responsible for the implementation of all management decisions.
The next, fourth requirement for control systems should be the presence in it controlling parameter, those. such an element that would constantly monitor the state of the subject of management without exerting a control influence on it (or on any element of the system).
The presence of direct and feedback connections (the fifth requirement) in the system is ensured by clear regulation of the activities of the management apparatus in receiving and transmitting information when preparing management decisions. The presence of feedback allows you to evaluate the effectiveness of management.
2. Organization tion as a bureaucratic system
The objects of analysis when studying a management system can be subjects involved in economic relations: the state, population, shareholders, investors, consumers, suppliers, competitors, trade unions, etc.; - and processes: economic, scientific and technical, social, political, demographic, environmental, etc.
The following types of control systems exist:
· Organization as a bureaucratic system.
· Organization as a system.
· Organization as a social technology.
Organization as a bureaucratic system.
Historically, bureaucratic organization has existed since ancient times, but it was formalized scientifically by the German sociologist Max Weber at the beginning of the 20th century. The term "bureaucratic organization" comes from the words<бюро (письменный стол с полками, ящиками и крышкой)> + <власть> = <господство (приоритет) столоначальника, канцелярии.
Features of bureaucracy:
1) a clear division of labor, promoting the emergence of highly qualified specialists in each position, as well as high labor productivity;
2) hierarchy of management levels, where each lower level is controlled by a higher one and is subordinate to it;
3) the presence of a system of formal rules and standards, which promotes the coordination of various tasks;
4) hiring in strict accordance with qualification requirements and, accordingly, protecting the position from the low qualifications of the specialist who occupies it, and employees from arbitrary dismissals.
A bureaucratic organization is characterized by inflexibility in behavior. The rigid behavior of such a management system is manifested both in relation to both the external environment and within the organization.
A bureaucratic organization consists of departments. Each department is assigned a manager who is given the right to establish staff working methods. The size of the unit, such as the number of employees, is the main indicator in determining the number of managers.
Authority is exercised through a hierarchical structure of command and subordination. The decision-making function is limited to determining the powers and responsibilities of managers.
3. Organization as a system
There are two types of systems: closed and open. Closed systems are relatively independent from the environment and have strict boundaries of action. Open systems more interconnected with the external environment. They energetically exchange information, energy, and materials with her. Open systems are focused on adaptation to environmental conditions. Active interaction allows them to survive and develop. Management as a management style shapes and deals with open systems.
When researching under system components understand the inputs, processes or operations, outputs of the system, as well as personnel, finances, technical means, documents. The main functions of the management system are to perceive the problems of the organization (inputs), as well as perform actions (operations, processes), the result of which are decisions (outputs). In this case, the control system is presented as a set, a set of operations. Operation is a sequence of actions for processing system inputs. Thus, the system can be represented as a “black box” with an input, a processor and an output. At the input, the organization receives various kinds of resources from the external environment, then transforms them into the final product.
It is accepted that decisions made in the management system should increase the organization's profit or optimize some function of all its inputs and outputs. It is believed that the management system gives the organization the ability to adapt to the external environment, as well as the ability to learn and self-organize. In general, the output (product) of a management system is considered to be the total impact of decisions per year, for example, the amount of profit growth that arose as a result of the activities of the company’s management.
4. Organi ation as a social technology
Social technology- This is a way of mastering social space and maintaining social balance in it. There are various ways of developing social space: tradition; intuition; organized socialization, eg family, education, activity.
Socialization is understood as the process of a person’s assimilation of a certain system of knowledge, norms, goals, patterns of behavior that correspond to the culture of society. Mastering these norms and knowledge allows a person to act as an active subject of social relations. The main way of socialization is socialization through activity, work.
This approach to describing management systems is based on the idea that the priority in an organization is human resources, intellectual property and management know-how. There is a transition to knowledge-intensive social technologies. They ensure social inheritance based on scientific data, technologization and informatization of social space, and not on the basis of intuition and traditions, as before.
And most importantly, this approach contributes to the transparency of management systems. The term "transparency" comes from the word "transparent" and means "transparency" of management. The significance of the characteristic “transparency of management” is a consequence of the transition of many corporations and countries to an innovative type of development of society, in which innovation is considered the most significant source of development of the life of society. Innovation is a means of social change that makes it possible to adapt the life of society to the conditions of the natural, geographical environment, and general civilizational processes in the most rational way.
The innovative type of development, in turn, contributes to the transition to a participatory management style, i.e. interaction with staff and other business agents on the basis of cooperation and added contribution to achieving the goal.
5. Characteristics of classes of systems
By the nature of the elements systems are divided into real and abstract.
Real(physical) systems are objects consisting of material elements.
Among them, mechanical, electrical (electronic), biological, social and other subclasses of systems and their combinations are usually distinguished
Abstract systems consist of elements that have no direct analogues in the real world. They are created by mental abstraction from certain aspects, properties and (or) connections of objects and are formed as a result of human creative activity. Examples of abstract systems are ideas, plans, hypotheses, theories, etc.
Depending on origin distinguish between natural and artificial systems.
Natural systems, being a product of the development of nature, arose without human intervention. These include, for example, climate, soil, living organisms, the solar system, etc. The emergence of a new natural system is very rare.
Artificial systems are the result of human creative activity; their number increases over time.
By duration of existence systems are divided into permanent and temporary. TO permanent usually refer to natural systems.
TO temporary These include artificial systems that, during a given period of operation, retain essential properties determined by the purpose of these systems.
Depending on the degree of variability of properties systems are divided into static and dynamic.
TO static These include systems in the study of which changes over time in the characteristics of their essential properties can be neglected.
A static system is a system with one state. Unlike static dynamic systems have many possible states that can change.
Depending on the degree of difficulty systems are divided into simple, complex and large.
Simple systems can be described with a sufficient degree of accuracy by known mathematical relationships. Examples of simple systems include individual parts, elements of electronic circuits, etc.
Complex systems consist of a large number of interconnected and interacting elements, each of which can be represented as a system (subsystem). Complex systems are characterized by multidimensionality (a large number of composed elements), the diversity of the nature of elements, connections, and heterogeneity of structure.
A complex system is one that has at least one of the following characteristics:
§ the system can be divided into subsystems and each of them can be studied separately;
§ the system operates under conditions of significant uncertainty and environmental influence on it, which determines the random nature of changes in its indicators;
Complex systems have properties that none of the constituent elements (humans, computers) possesses.
Large systems are complex systems in which subsystems (their components) belong to complex categories (industrial enterprises, industries). Additional features that characterize the larger system are:
· big sizes;
· complex hierarchical structure;
· circulation in the system of large information, energy and material flows;
· high level of uncertainty in the description of the system.
According to the degree of connection with the external environment systems are divided into open and closed.
Depending on the reaction to disturbing influences There are active and passive systems.
Active systems are able to withstand environmental influences and can themselves influence it. U passive systems do not have this property.
Depending on the degree of human participation in the implementation of control actions, systems are divided into technical, human-machine, and organizational.
TO technical These include systems that operate without human intervention. As a rule, these are automatic control systems, which are complexes of devices for automatically changing, for example, the coordinates of a control object in order to maintain the desired mode of its operation (satellite).
Examples man-machine systems can be automated control systems for various purposes. Their characteristic feature is that a person is associated with technical devices, and the final decision is made by a person, and automation tools only help him in justifying the correctness of this decision.
TO organizational systems include social systems - groups, groups of people, society as a whole.
6. Research as a component I am part of the organization's management
The research process concerns all aspects of an organization's activities. The strengths and weaknesses of the organization, the production and sales process (at the enterprise), financial condition, marketing services, personnel, as well as organizational culture are subject to research.
The method used to diagnose internal problems is called management survey. This method is based on a comprehensive study of various functional areas of the organization. For strategic planning purposes, it is recommended to include five functional zones:
* marketing;
* finance (accounting);
* production;
* staff;
* organizational culture;
* image of the organization.
When analyzing marketing activities highlight a number of the most important elements of the study: market share and competitiveness of the enterprise; variety and quality of product range; market demographics; market research and development; pre-sales and consistent customer service; sales, advertising, product promotion.
Financial The state of the organization largely determines what strategy management will choose for the future. A detailed analysis of the financial condition helps to identify existing and potential weaknesses of the organization.
During the analysis production the emphasis is on the following questions: can the enterprise produce goods at lower costs compared to competitors; does the organization have access to new material resources, what is the technical level of the enterprise; does the enterprise have an optimal product quality control system; How well the production process is organized and planned.
When studying human resources potential, it is analyzed staff organizations at the moment and the need for personnel in the future; competence and training of the enterprise's top management; employee motivation system; compliance of personnel with current and strategic goals and objectives.
Research in the field organizational culture and company image provide an opportunity to evaluate the informal structure of the organization; system of communication and behavior of employees; consistency of the enterprise in its activities and achievement of goals; the position of the enterprise in comparison with other organizations; ability to attract highly qualified specialists.
The above applies to internal environmental factors organizations. However, ongoing research as an integral part of management also analyzes factors in the organization’s external environment.
External environment analysis serves as a tool by which strategy developers monitor factors external to the organization in order to anticipate potential threats and new opportunities.
When analyzing economic factors inflation (deflation) rates, tax rates, international balance of payments, employment levels, and the solvency of enterprises are considered.
Analysis political factors makes it possible to observe the current situation, taking into account: agreements on tariffs and trade between countries; customs policies directed against other countries; regulatory acts of authorities, credit policies of authorities, etc.
Market factors include numerous characteristics that have a direct impact on the effectiveness of the organization. Their analysis allows managers to develop an optimal strategy for the organization and strengthen its position in the market. At the same time, the demographic conditions of the enterprise’s activity, the level of income of the population and their distribution, the life cycles of various goods and services, the level of competition, the market share occupied by the organization and its capacity are examined.
When analyzing social factors take into account heightened national feelings, the attitude of the bulk of the population towards entrepreneurship, the development of the movement to protect consumer rights, changes in social values, changes in the role of managers in production and their social attitudes.
Control for technological external environment allows you not to miss the moments when changes occur in it that pose a threat to the very existence of the organization. Analysis of the technological external environment must take into account changes in production technology, construction materials, in the use of computer technology for the design of new goods and services, in management, changes in the technology of collecting, processing and transmitting information, in communications.
Factor analysis competition, involves constant monitoring by management over the actions of competitors. The competitor analysis identifies four diagnostic zones:
* analysis of future goals of competitors;
* assessment of their current strategy;
* assessment of preconditions regarding competitors and industry development prospects;
* studying the strengths and weaknesses of competitors.
Monitoring the activities of competitors allows the organization's management to constantly be prepared for potential threats.
Analysis international factors has become important for domestic organizations after the abolition of the state monopoly on foreign trade. At the same time, the policies of the governments of other countries, the direction of development of joint entrepreneurship and international relations, and the level of economic development of foreign partner firms are monitored.
Thus, research as an integral part of the management of an organization is a set of methods for organizational and technical and economic research of all the above factors and system characteristics of a particular organization.
Such characteristics from the perspective of general management include:
* goals of the management system;
* management functions;
* management decisions;
* managment structure.
The basis research as an integral part of the organization's management the following principles .
* systems approach, meaning the study of a specific object as a system that includes all the constituent elements or characteristics of an organization as a system, i.e. characteristics of "input", "process" and "output".
This also includes management methods, management technology, organizational structure, management personnel, technical management tools, and information. The connections of an object between elements are considered, as well as the external connections of the object, allowing it to be considered as a subsystem for a higher level:
* functional approach, which means the study of management functions that ensure the adoption of management decisions of a given level of quality with minimal costs for management or production;
* whole-of-government approach to assessing the results of management activities and the costs of maintaining the management apparatus;
* creative team approach to find the most economical and effective option system improvement management;
The research is carried out in the following cases:
* at improving the system management of the operating organization;
* at system development management of a newly created organization;
* at improving the system management of production associations or enterprises during the period of reconstruction or technical re-equipment;
* when improving the management system due to a change in the form of ownership.
TO research objectives as an integral part of management include:
1. Achieving an optimal balance between the managed and control subsystems (this includes indicators of controllability standards, indicators of the efficiency of the management apparatus, reducing management costs);
2. Increasing the labor productivity of management employees and workers in production departments;
3. Improving the use of material, labor, financial resources in the control and managed subsystems;
4. Reducing costs for products or services and improving their quality.
As a result of the research, specific proposals for improving the organization's management system should be formulated.
7. Concept and types of research
Control systems research - This is a type of activity aimed at developing and improving management in accordance with constantly changing external and internal conditions. In the conditions of the dynamism of modern production and social structure, management must be in a state of continuous development, which today cannot be ensured without exploring the ways and possibilities of this development, without choosing alternative directions.
By purpose research can be highlighted practical And scientific and practical. Case studies designed for quick, effective decisions and achieving the desired results. Scientific and practical research focused on the future, a deeper understanding of trends and patterns of development of organizations, increasing the educational level of employees.
According to the methodology First of all, research should be highlighted emAndric nature And based on a system of scientific knowledge.
Various studies and on resource use (own or attracted, resource-intensive and non-resource-intensive), by labor intensity, duration. By time : long-term and one-time. According to the criterion of information support : research based only on inside information; research using extensive external information. According to the degree of organization and participation O nala in their implementation . They can be either individual or collective, spontaneous or organized.
Research as a type of activity in the management process of organizations includes the following work:
* recognition of problems and problematic situations;
* determination of the reasons for their origin, properties, content, patterns of conduct and development;
* establishing the place of these problems and situations (both in the system of scientific knowledge and in the system of practical management);
* finding ways, means and opportunities to use new knowledge about this problem;
* development of problem solving options;
* selection of the optimal solution to the problem according to the criteria of effectiveness, optimality, efficiency.
Conducting research and analysis of any specific management system as an object is necessary, first of all, to ensure the competitiveness of the enterprise in the market for goods (services), to improve the efficiency of the functioning of departments and the organization as a whole.
Research must be carried out not only when organizations are facing bankruptcy or a serious crisis, but also when organizations operate successfully and consistently achieve certain results. In this case, timely research will help maintain this stable level of the organization’s work, find out what is hindering or stimulating its work to a greater extent, so that the desired results are even better.
The need for research is also dictated by the constantly changing goals of the functioning of organizations, which is inevitable in conditions of market competition and constantly changing consumer demand.
8. Main categories and directions of research. Set of research characteristics
Research is carried out in three main areas: technical and technological, structural, social.
Technical and technological The direction of the research is related to the fact that any organization or enterprise belongs to a certain technological type and solves corresponding problems.
Within structural direction decisions made at the enterprise, organizational management structures are examined and organizational design is carried out.
Social direction studies the social structure of an enterprise, including labor incentives and the use of motivation systems, personnel selection, and advanced training.
1) Logic - a thinking mechanism that ensures the effectiveness of human intellectual activity.
2)Concept - a set of key provisions that sufficiently fully, holistically and comprehensively reveal the essence and features of the phenomenon under study, its existence in reality or in human practice.
3)Hypothesis - a presumptive judgment about the natural (causal) connection of phenomena.
4) System - a complex of interconnected elements that form a certain integrity.
5) System analysis - a certain set of methods and tools used in the study of complex social, economic and technical systems.
6) Systems approach - a methodological direction in science that develops methods for researching and designing complex objects - systems of different types and classes.
7) Synergy - an effect (system effect), characteristic only of a group of interconnected elements, cannot be derived directly from the properties of individual subsystems.
8) Information - information necessary for organizing management. Information can be classified as a priori and current. Initial knowledge about an object forms a priori information. The results of observations about an object are a set of current information.
Any study has a set of characteristics that must be taken into account when conducting and organizing it. The main ones of these characteristics are the following
A. Research methodology - a set of goals, approaches, guidelines, priorities, means and methods of research.
B. Organization of the study - the procedure for conducting it, based on the distribution of functions and responsibilities enshrined in regulations, standards and instructions.
B. Research resources are a set of means and capabilities (for example, informational, economic, human, etc.) that ensure the successful conduct of research and the achievement of its results.
D. Object and subject of research. The object is a management system belonging to the class of socio-economic systems, the subject is a specific problem, the resolution of which requires research.
D. Type of research - its belonging to a certain type, reflecting the originality of all characteristics.
E. The need for research is the degree of severity of the problem, professionalism in approaches to solving it, management style.
H. The effectiveness of the research is the proportionality of the resources used to conduct the research and the results obtained from it.
9. The role of research I am in the development of management systems
When organizing the management system of a new company, the study is focused on solving the following problems:
Studying the competitive advantages of the new organization, as well as identifying its weaknesses;
Study of the situation in the proposed market, as well as the study of social, economic, political, demographic aspects of the economic situation;
Development of management system options suitable for the company’s management and for the prevailing conditions;
Choosing a control system option for a new company.
During the study, modeling of control system options is carried out.
When examining control systems, it is important to identify points of danger and warn about the consequences of failure to eliminate them. By danger point we mean the desire to “squeeze” an unmodeled situation into one of the known models. Consequences of such a decision; can be ruinous.
Having a set of options, taking into account the preferences of the management of the company, they choose a management system. The choice is made based on pre-developed criteria.
It is known that in conditions of rational behavior, choice is made according to certain rules and criteria. Previously, when choosing, they usually relied on the personal opinion of a manager or a theorist-researcher of control systems. There is still no generally accepted agreement on a set of effective criteria. The most common modern position is: in the set criteria should include effectiveness, efficiency, flexibility of the management system, i.e. its ability to respond to changing situations, as well as measurability, reliability, applicability, impact.
Under performance is understood as the maximum possible achievement of external, final results of the enterprise. Sometimes this criterion is called external efficiency. Examples include the creation of new markets, opportunities to increase income in the future, increasing the competitiveness of products, and increasing the company's rating.
Performance is seen as the long-term basis of success and is development-oriented.
Economical shows the degree of actual use of resources in comparison with the best performance of the leader in the world, the leader in the industry, in relation to the nearest competitor, to the plan. Sometimes this indicator is called internal efficiencyVness. Profitability is seen as supporting efficiency; it is focused on reducing costs and production costs. Profitability gives an ordinary return (a few percent), while efficiency is focused on an extraordinary return of tens and hundreds of percent.
Flexibility- the ability of the system to maintain the level of output by adapting to internal and external changes occurring in the organization and its environment.
Measurability is the system’s ability to evaluate qualitatively or quantitatively its own work.
Credibility is the degree to which the actual operation of the system corresponds to the estimates made during its design.
Applicability means the real feasibility of the system, i.e. The management system must correspond to the ability of personnel to master and use it. An unrealistic system may require qualities and qualifications of leaders that they do not possess and that are not easy for them to acquire. For example, all the managers were charismatic leaders. But such people are quite rare, and the presence of charismatic qualities is difficult to determine.
Under return understands the benefits added by the management system to the results of the enterprise's activities.
10. Methodology and organization
The methodology for studying management systems is based on the reasonable organization of the activities of managers and managers of an enterprise to rationalize the management system. It involves determining the goals, the subject of research, the boundaries of research, the choice of means and methods of research, means (resources) and stages of research work.
The methodology and organization of research into management systems requires accounting row system characteristics , which include: need for research; object and subject of research; research resources; efficiency researchOvaniya; research results.
Let's reveal these characteristics.
1. Need for research predetermines the scale and depth of the study of system characteristics, the implementation of which has the greatest impact on achieving the set goals.
2. Object of research is the management system of a specific organization. To study it, you need to know the approved management schemes, job descriptions, and the Regulations on departments. Subject of research are the relationships between employees of the management apparatus, as well as between divisions located at different levels of the management system. In this case, the subject of research is a specific problem (or set of problems), the solution of which requires research. These problems may include the following:
* development of management structure;
* staff motivation;
* motivation of technology and information management systems;
* development of management decisions;
* personnel training, etc.
3. Resources -- This is a set of tools that ensure successful research. These are, first of all, material resources, labor resources, financial resources, information resources, technical means necessary for processing the results, as well as legal documents characterizing the object of research.
4. Research efficiency requires a comparison of the costs of research and the results obtained.
5. Research results can be presented in various forms. This could be a new model of the management system, new regulatory documents, adjusted calculation formulas, a new corporate culture.
From a practical point of view research methodology usually includes three main section : theoretical, methodological, organizational.
IN theoretical section the main goals, objectives, subject and object of research are determined.
Methodical section contains the rationale for choosing a method for conducting research, collecting and processing data, analyzing the results obtained, and methods for their presentation.
Organizational section represents, first of all, the research plan, the formation of a team of performers, the distribution of labor and financial resources.
The systems analysis team should include:
* specialists in the field of systems analysis - group leaders and future project managers;
* production organization engineers;
* economists specializing in economic analysis, as well as researchers of organizational structures and document flow;
* specialists in the use of technical means and computer equipment;
* psychologists and sociologists.
In general organization of the study can be represented as follows stages :
* research preparation, i.e. developing a program, determining observation units, determining methods for collecting information, conducting a pilot study;
* collection of necessary information;
* preparing information for processing;
* information processing and analysis;
* preparation of research results.
Data collection is the main stage of the study.
For these purposes, a number of methods are used, among which the most effective are:
* conversations with management staff specialists;
* study of technical, economic and statistical information on the development of production of the enterprise in question;
* studying the experience of development of related enterprises.
It can be said that organization of the study -- this is a system of regulations, standards, instructions that determine the procedure for its implementation, i.e. distribution of funTotions, duties, responsibilities and authority to carry out research work.
There are various forms of organization.
1. Increased staff workload with additional research responsibilities. Such research is possible if management personnel have time reserves and their research potential is sufficiently high. Then it is necessary to conduct appropriate consultations, organize a system of control and motivation, and organize coordination of activities on these tasks. You can organize a project competition and additional remuneration. Possible voluntary or mandatory form.
2. Creation of specialized groups from the most creative and active part of the staff with the release of the participants of these groups for a certain time from their main work.
3. Inviting consulting firms on a contractual basis and providing them with organizational and information capabilities to conduct research and develop appropriate recommendations.
4. Creation of our own consulting, or better yet, educational and research structures in the management system, allowing us to combine the improvement of staff professionalism with the development of research and ensuring its required quality.
5. A combination of these forms is possible, and in many cases it turns out to be very useful and effective. For example, the creation of creative teams consisting of both our own employees and invited specialists from a consulting company. At the same time, it is very important to take into account the socio-psychological aspects of the formation of such groups.
11. Research program and plan
Research program -- this is a set of provisions that define the goals and objectives of the study, the subject and conditions of its conduct, the resources used, as well as the expected result.
The program is considered as a means of achieving a goal, a form of its concretization, and a plan is considered as an organizing factor of consistent movement towards the goal.
Program, usually consists of the following sections: the purpose of the research, the content of the problem, its relevance and importance, the working hypothesis for solving the problem, providing the research with resources, the expected result and effectiveness of the research.
Study plan is a set of indicators reflecting the connection and sequence of key activities leading to the full implementation of the program and resolution of the problem.
For complex research problems, a research algorithm is developed that allows for possible reversals in case of unsuccessful solutions. Algorithm - this is a technology for solving a problem, which provides not only the sequence and parallelism of various operations, but also the possibility of their failure, the search for new ways to solve the problem within the framework of a given program, and the adjustment of the meaningful interaction of problems.
Main planning principles The studies can be named as follows:
1. The principle of specificity in the formulation of tasks. The plan must consist of tasks that must be formulated extremely specifically and clearly. They should not require additional explanations and clarifications.
2. The principle of organizational significance. The plan must correspond to the existing organization of the research groups' activities or introduce pre-developed new organizational forms necessary for its successful implementation.
3. The principle of measured and calculated labor intensity. Study - This is the work of specialists, which can be completed successfully only when the tasks correspond to a certain complexity of their implementation.
4. The principle of integration of activities. The plan should take into account the need for interaction between various performers and departments, become a factor in unifying their work, and, if possible, eliminate duplication and conflict situations.
5. The principle of controllability. All tasks and indicators of the plan must meet the needs of monitoring its implementation, and the control system must be included in the plan. Provisions that are difficult to control should not be included in the plan.
6. The principle of responsibility. As a rule, the plan includes a column of persons and departments responsible for the implementation of its provisions or tasks. There should not be tasks in the plan that do not have an address and an executor.
7. The principle of reality. The reality of fulfilling the plan’s tasks should be assessed by the availability of resources, time estimates, qualifications of researchers, the use of experience of similar work, the possibilities of organizing activities, the availability of appropriate equipment, etc.
12. Characteristics of research stages
At the first stage, it is necessary to identify the needs for research, analyze the problems facing a specific management system, and select the main one that determines the importance and priority of the research. To do this, the problem must be clearly formulated.
Under a problem is understood as a discrepancy between the actual state of a managed object (for example, production) and the desired or specified (planned) state.
A set of factors and conditions, causing the appearance of a particular problem is called situation, and considering the problem taking into account the situational factors influencing it allows us to describe the problem situation. Description of the problem situation, usually contains two parts: characterization itself Problems(place and time of its occurrence, essence and content, boundaries of distribution of its impact on the work of the organization or its divisions) and situational factors leading to the emergence of a problem (they can be external and internal to the organization).
Internal factors depend to the greatest extent on the enterprise itself. These include: goals and development strategy, production and management structure, financial and labor resources, etc. Internal factors influence the management system and significantly contribute to the achievement of its goals. Therefore, a change in one or more factors simultaneously necessitates the urgent adoption of measures aimed at maintaining the equilibrium state of the system.
External factors are less susceptible to influence by the organization's managers, since they are formed by the external environment in which the organization operates. External factors have different impacts on the work of organizations. For example, suppliers, consumers, competitors, regulatory authorities, creditors, other organizations and public institutions directly related to the area of activity in which this organization is engaged provide direct influence on its work, the nature of the problems encountered and their solution.
Another large group of external factors that are practically beyond the control of the organization’s managers, but have an indirect (mediated) impact on the organization’s activities that must be taken into account. This group of factors includes the state of the economy of the country (or region), the level of scientific, technical and social development, the sociocultural and political situation, events in other countries that are significant for this organization, etc. Analysis of situational factors allows you to consider the problem in connection with the events that caused it and changes in the internal and external environment and begin to search for a solution.
Thus, to define a problem means to establish the boundaries of the system within which it is considered and the level at which it should be solved.
When defining a problem, a purely logical difficulty arises in identifying causes and consequences. A manager may face several problems in a particular situation. It is very important to establish their hierarchy, i.e. determine which of them is the main one, and which are subordinate or derivative from it. Determining the main problem will allow you to correctly formulate purpose of the decision tasks.
So on first stage conducting research, problems and the totality of all factors that need to be identified and taken into account when solving problems are analyzed.
On third stage it is necessary to choose a research methodology, by which we mean a set of goals, methods, management techniques when conducting research, as well as the approach of managers to decision making and taking into account the traditions of the organization.
On fourth stage an analysis of the resources required to conduct the research is carried out. Such resources include material, labor, financial resources, equipment, and information. Resource analysis is essential to successfully conduct research and achieve its results.
Fifth stage involves choosing research methods taking into account available resources and research goals.
Sixth stage is to organize research. Here it is necessary to determine the procedure for conducting research, distribute powers and responsibilities and reflect this in regulatory documents, for example, in job descriptions. Here it is also necessary to clarify or determine the technology for preparing and approving management decisions when conducting research.
On seventh At the (final) stage, the results obtained should be recorded and analyzed. Such results may be individual recommendations, a new model of the management system, improved controllability standards, more advanced techniques that contribute to the prompt and successful resolution of the problem. At this stage, it is necessary to first calculate the effectiveness of the research, i.e. balance the costs of research and the results obtained.
13. Sources of information information about the activities of the organization
The main sources of information about the activities of the organization are:
Regulatory and methodological documents - organization charter and other regulatory documents; regulations on the functions and responsibilities of departments; job descriptions; other descriptions of the organization (business plan, publications);
Statistical reporting of the enterprise;
Employees of the organization describing its activities during conversations and surveys;
Direct observations of specialists over the process of the organization’s activities.
You can finally verify the completeness and correctness of the information obtained after a system model has been built and its adequacy has been verified by comparison with the existing system.
Documents reflecting the activities of the organization can be divided into the following groups:
1) official regulations and instructions regulating the functions of an organization or division and defining the timing and procedures for processing information and making decisions;
2) input documents arising outside the system;
3) systematically updated records (arrays) in the form of card files or books, used in the process of work;
4) intermediate documents received and (or) used in the process of data processing;
5) outgoing documentation.
After the analyst has obtained a general idea of the organization or division being studied based on the documents, he proceeds to the stage of surveys and conversations with employees.
Survey and study, detailed information about the system can continue indefinitely, especially if you consider that the system lives and develops simultaneously with the survey and at the end of the survey differs from the original version. Therefore, it is very important to complete the study of the organization on time. In the process of studying, it is necessary to find out not only how the system works, but also why it works this way and not otherwise. The ability to select the necessary information develops as experience is gained.
14. Control systems research technology
Any research is an organized process. Its organization is based on a certain technological scheme, which reflects the sequence and combination of using research methods.
Technologyis a variant of rational construction of the research process.
Depending on the nature of the problem under study, as well as specific conditions, such as time, resources, qualifications, severity of the problem, etc., technological schemes may be different. Therefore, it is important to choose effective technological schemes.
1) The simplest, most elementary technology is linear technology. It consists of sequentially conducting research on the stages of formulating a problem, formulating problems for solving it, choosing research methods, conducting analysis and finding positive solutions, experimental testing of a solution, if possible, and developing innovations.
Each stage is characterized by an original set of research methods and time restrictions. This determines the success of the research. This technology can be very effective when solving relatively simple research problems.
2) type of cyclic study. It is characterized by returns to the completed stages and repetition of what has been passed to ensure the reliability of the results.
3) Many rational technology schemes assume the possibility of parallel execution of work or operations. This approach also exists in research technology. This parallel research technology. It saves time, allows for more efficient use of personnel, and increases competence and productivity.
4) Exists technology of rational branching of activities. Its rationality lies not only in dividing research into aspects of the problem or functions of its solution, but also in conducting identical non-parallel studies on certain types of problems. In this case, different ways and strategies for finding solutions are possible.
5)adaptive technologies. Their essence lies in the sequential adjustment of the technological scheme as each stage of the study is carried out. This is a technology for a related problem: what to do next, what can be done in this situation?
Each stage in this process flow is evaluated by its results and this evaluation is necessary to determine a new stage.
6) To implement not complete, but partial changes, the technology of consistent changes in the quality of activity is used. It is built on assessing the existing quality of management (managerial activities) and searching for unprincipled, insignificant, but real changes in quality. This technology makes it possible to conduct research with insignificant resources, avoid the risks of innovation, and increase the reliability of transformations.
7) In the field of study there are random search technologies. At the first stage of this technology, it is not expected to pay much attention to the formulation of the problem, its selection, and justification. Any problem is taken and, on its basis, research is carried out on related problems, connections are established, the “field of problems” is filled with solutions, and the development trajectory is thus determined. It shows the main problem that needs to be focused on.
8) One more research technology can be mentioned, this is the technology of criterion adjustment. Its essence lies in the fact that when preparing a study, it is not the technological scheme itself that is developed, but a set of criteria for its possible adjustment during the study.
If we get such and such a result, then we will do such and such; if we don’t get it, then we’ll go back to the previous stage or some other one and continue the search from there. This flowchart is often called a research algorithm.
15. Consulting as a form of research organization control systems
One of the forms of organizing and conducting research on management systems is consulting activities.
Consultation - This is a form of service provided to a person or company for the purpose of explaining situations and solving related problems.
There are consulting firms that specialize in certain types of consulting activities, have authority and achievements in it, and have methods. They conduct research on a contractual basis and develop a set of recommendations.
Technologically, this work includes the following stages:
Upon receipt of the order, specialists conduct a general acquaintance with the company,
Assess her counseling needs,
Choose a form of consulting work and conclude an agreement for its implementation,
Carry out diagnostics of company management, develop recommendations and consulting proposals,
Monitor their implementation.
The consulting firm, in collaboration with the client, forms a research group. Very often, consultants act as experts.
There are external and internal consultants. Often there are needs for consulting activities that are irrational to implement by attracting external consultants. This occurs in the case of a small amount of research work, high prices for using external consultants, fear of disclosing information about the state of the company, distrust of the consulting firm, etc. In these cases, internal consultants are used. Many companies even organize training for such consultants.
Internal consultants can be the most experienced employees from management personnel who have undergone special training and are able to skillfully diagnose the situation, as well as develop practically valuable recommendations for developing management or solving any problem. As a rule, the selection of such consultants is done on a competitive basis, using testing. They work either on requests or on special assignments.
There may be different types of consulting and research activities. In addition to dividing them into external and internal consulting, one can distinguish its various types according to the degree and forms of intervention in management processes.
You can explore the management of the problem posed and without interfering with the management process, using only the possibilities of observation, study of existing documents, information about similar situations in similar companies and conditions. On this basis, develop recommendations and subsequently propose them for practical implementation by management personnel.
But there may be research with active intervention in management processes: conducting experiments, sociological surveys, testing, etc. Such studies are based on constructive cooperation between the researcher and management personnel. In this case, the researcher becomes, as it were, the leader of a research group, which includes all management personnel. Such research requires special and well-thought-out organizational forms. It has, among other things, a learning effect.
16. Principles of research effectiveness
Creation creative research group is based on the following principles :
1).The principle of heterogeneity, in other words, heterogeneity in typological characteristics of creative potential and personality.
Grouping people with the same creative abilities and characteristics into a group will not ensure the success of their activities.
It is desirable that various types of creative individuals be more fully represented in the collective intelligence. Here are their typological characteristics:
Pioneer ), able to see the problem and formulate it before others. He can uh then do it even when the situation does not seem problematic to many others. He is generally capable of thinking in problematic ways, i.e. look for contradictions in everything.
Encyclopedist, quickly finding analogues of the problem under consideration in various fields of knowledge . This allows you to do a comparative analysis, determine paradigms for solving a problem, build hypotheses, and formulate unconventional approaches.
Idea's generator . This is a person who is able to construct a concept that allows one to combine many ideas and, therefore, types of research activities .
Enthusiast, he is sometimes considered or called a "fanatic" of the idea. This is a person who charges others with optimism and confidence in the success of the research and achievement of results.
Skeptic, sometimes he is called a “bore”, doubting the success of any undertaking and plan, cooling his ardor in ill-considered actions and making hasty decisions.
Forecaster. Its function is to foresee consequences as accurately as possible, sense trends, and calculate all possible scenarios for the development of events.
Informant, which in the system of collective intelligence very often acts on the principle of “overtaking without catching up.” It collects and classifies information and, as it were, protects against “opening a bicycle”, repeating what has been passed, it promotes the search for new fields of searching for a solution to the problem.
Esthete, looking for elegant ideas and solutions.
Psychologist -- it is necessary for the accumulation of a certain psychological atmosphere in the activities of researchers. At the same time, he is engaged not only in solving psychodiagnostic problems, but is also called upon to provide a certain “uncomfortable comfort” necessary for the collective intelligence. This is not only an atmosphere of cooperation, mutual understanding and goodwill, but also an atmosphere of search, inspiration, and enthusiasm.
Independent, which most often works and likes to work individually and independently. At the same time, he studies other people's ideas, but looks for his own. He works alone but makes a significant contribution to overall activities and results.
Translator -- This is a person who, due to his qualifications, experience, peculiarities of thinking, level of education, is able to simply and intelligibly, but at the same time, explain a problem, solution, idea to specialists in different fields of knowledge with the utmost accuracy.
Developer, inclined to bring research results to the final and concrete, practically implementable stage.
Implementer, “tying” the results of joint work to specific conditions and achieving their practical application .
The listed types of personalities in collective intelligence do not necessarily have to appear in the form of an individual person.
2).The principle of active compatibility. It is a complement to the first principle. Its essence is that To form collective intelligence, it is necessary to attract researchers who are inclined and capable of working together even with those people who, for one reason or another, may not appeal to them.
3).The principle of a rational combination of formal and informal organization of activities Also determines the formation of collective intelligence. In creative groups, informal organization often plays a large role. It gives the necessary freedom in the manifestation of abilities, creates an atmosphere of trust and goodwill, and allows you to react flexibly to changes in creative activity and the emergence of new ideas.
4). One of the important principles of organizing collective intelligence is principle of permanence, in other words, the continuity and necessary rhythm of conducting research activities, including new problems, switching attention to new problems. This principle also includes the necessary rotation of researchers.
5). There is also principle of imitation. This is the principle assessment, use and motivation of the abilities to reproduce the approach, and the hypotheses of other members of the creative team. This is an opportunity to master the type of thinking of another person, and based on this, assume, anticipate what questions he may pose, how to evaluate this or that decision, what to pay attention to first, what arguments to put forward.
There are the following principles of effective construction of research technology :
1. The principle of scientific equality -- free expression of ideas, opinions, assessments, proposals, hypotheses. Formal signs of a person’s position should be excluded from this area - age, position, title, scientific degree, etc. The significance, value, truth and practical applicability of ideas should be assessed regardless of who and under what circumstances they were expressed. The value of an idea cannot be tied to its source.
2. The principle of consultativeness. Everyone should have the opportunity to be a consultant in the field of knowledge and activity in which he has developed his abilities to the maximum. A consultant is an assistant in the development and correction of an idea. In joint research activities, free choice of consultants and consultations is necessary.
3. The principle of creative activity. It is about giving everyone the right to creative activity. One should not strive to turn a person only into a performer of tasks of a scientific supervisor, or limit his ability to experiment.
4. The principle of organizing resources, their distributions and combinations according to purpose, structure, size and time parameters.
5. The principle of constructive criticality. Criticism of ideas is possible and useful in the work of a research group. It facilitates the search for new arguments, sharpens formulations, corrects positions, and enriches the search. But criticism can be different. Ambitious, unsubstantiated criticism, transferring criticism from an idea to a person, criticism that kills initiative is unacceptable.
The peculiarity of constructive criticism is that it is not built on naked denial or destruction, but on proposals for new approaches.
6. The principle of combining local and general discussion of problems.
What is important is the manifestation of individuality in common work, the harmony of individuality and collectivity. This is exactly what needs to be achieved when building the technology of integrated intelligence.
7. The principle of thought experimentation on erroneous, absurd, dubious decision options. In the technology of research activity, the right to erroneous opinion and fantasy must apply. After all, mistakes and fantastic options are sometimes an impulse to search for and identify rational solutions.
8. The principle of minimal control, which is necessary for all kinds of adjustments to research technology, for feedback and communication in general among various types of activities, but at the same time it cannot and should not be a deterrent to creative activity.
9. The principle of forming psychological comfort of research. There is a concept of “warming up” in the activity of integral intelligence. This is an important stage of activity that contributes to the formation of a certain work atmosphere, swaying thoughts, removing psychological restrictions, and motivating creativity.
17. The essence of the research method
The concept of “method” unites a set of techniques and operations of practical activity or theoretical development of reality. A method represents a rational basis for a course of action. For the method to exist, you need:
rules of behavior or rules of interaction with an object that is being studied or transformed;
disciplined obedience to the rules of the chosen method;
description of the situation in which it is advisable to use this method.
Scientific (experimental) research method. The scientific research method involves performing the following sequence of actions:
observation,
When studying control systems, where practical aspects are primarily significant, the following sequence of actions is usually called: identifying a problem, formulating a hypothesis, conducting observations, experimenting, developing recommendations.
The scientific method was born in the natural sciences, where there are quite wide opportunities for experimentation. Social sciences are a different matter, where it is difficult and often simply impossible to experiment. Under these conditions, the role of observation increases.
First stage The scientific method - observation - in the social sciences requires special training and a distinction between at least three types of observations. First of all, this is an unsystematized observation in which facts and descriptions of events that can suggest the direction or idea of research are collected more or less randomly.
This is followed by prepared observation, which is systematic. In this case, the researcher selects facts, data, information in a predetermined area and related to certain factors and conditions.
And finally, observation can be carried out using special means, such as tests, questionnaires, etc.
Second phase -hypothesis- represents a preliminary formulation of connections, relationships between a number of essential facts in the form of a pattern, a more or less general law. The meaning of a hypothesis, even if it is not very accurate, greatly influences the selection of observed facts.
Hypotheses usually arise from questions posed, contradictions that have arisen between new observations, facts and previously established concepts. Hypotheses depend on the researcher, on his personal qualities: imagination, efficiency, knowledge, accumulated experience and how he comprehended it.
Hypotheses can be used under certain conditions, namely:
§ The hypothesis must be testable. To do this, for example, two terms related by a hypothesis must be defined in such a way that it is possible to observe and measure these characteristics.
§ The hypothesis must relate to real facts and not contain value judgments. Vague terms such as “good”, “bad”, etc. should be avoided, since what is good from one position may be assessed as bad from another.
§ Finally, the hypothesis must correspond to the modern content of science. A hypothesis does not arise without connection with previously accumulated knowledge.
Third stage - experiment or hypothesis verification. In the physical and natural sciences, the researcher's control or manipulation of various variables and factors form an artificial experiment. This is the main stage of the research and is aimed primarily at proving hypotheses. The method is named after the main stage - experimental. Since proof can only be obtained under strictly defined conditions, the experiment is considered as a guarantee of the method.
Based on the stages of scientific research carried out, recommendations are developed.
18. Concept of research system
WITHsystem - it is an interconnected collection of elements.
Features of the study of an object as a system are as follows:
1. The description of the elements that make up the object must take into account their place and functions in the system.
2. The study of a system, as a rule, is inseparable from the study of the conditions of its existence (external environment).
The distinctive features of any system are connection, integrity and the resulting stable structure of the system elements.
Under the system element understand its minimal components, the totality of which adds up directly or indirectly to the system. An element of a system is the limit of division of an object as a system; its own structure is not taken into account in this system: the components of the element are not considered as components of this system.
Integrity - description of the elements of the system as a whole.
Each part of the system is connected to another part in such a way that a change in one part causes a change in all other parts and in the entire system.
An additional characteristic of integrity is the characteristic of the object of study as an organized system. Organization refers to the property of a whole being greater than the sum of its parts. The more the whole differs from the sum of its parts, the more organized it is.
Connection - This is the interdependence of system elements. The following types of connections are distinguished:
interaction connections [connections between people, the specificity of which is that they are mediated by the goals of each party to the interaction (among these connections, cooperative and conflict are distinguished)];
connections of generation or genetic, when one object brings to life another;
transformation connections, for example, of the states of objects or the objects themselves;
functioning connections that ensure the actual operation of the enterprise;
development connections;
management connections, which, depending on their specific type, can form a variety of either functional connections or development connections.
So, to form a system means to legally and organizationally consolidate the relationships between participants in the activity.
19. Change Contrasting the research results
To measure means to use numerical symbols instead of verbal symbols. Measurement is the act of assigning numerical values to objects, events, characteristics of objects or processes in accordance with some system of rules. There are direct and indirect measurements. Examples of direct measurement are the number of machines or products manufactured, the amount of project financing. Examples of indirect measurements can be the degree to which the buyer's needs of any equipment or material are satisfied, or an assessment of the reliability of manufactured equipment.
There are four levels of measurement or types of scales:
naming scales;
order scales;
interval scales;
relationship scales.
The higher the level of the scale, the more statistical and mathematical operations can be performed on the numbers obtained during measurement.
Naming scales and order scales are called qualitative scales. Measurement on a qualitative scale allows you to divide the objects being studied into classes, within which they have the same value of the measured indicator.
If the classes are not ordered, the scale is called a nominal or denomination scale. It carries information only about whether two objects have the same value of a given attribute or not.
If the classes can be ordered in accordance with the severity of the property being measured, then the scale is called ordinal or rank, but it does not make sense to compare how much or how many times the value of the indicator in one class is greater than the value of the indicator in another class.
When using qualitative scales, numbers do not indicate the amount of property that objects have, so performing arithmetic operations on them does not make sense.
The values of indicators measured on a quantitative scale are comparable not only in terms of more (less) but also show how much one value is more (less) than another. Quantitative scales are characterized by the presence of a unit of measurement. If, in addition to the unit of measurement, there is a natural reference point (that is, the zero point of the scale corresponds to the absence of the property being measured), then the quantitative scale is called relative ( relationship scale). For a ratio scale, it makes sense to compare not only by how much, but also how many times one value is greater than another. When there is no absolute reference point, such as time reference, the quantitative scale is called interval.
20. Building a model and formulating a problem situation
Model is an analogue of a real object or process. Typically, an analogue is presented in the form of a diagram, a sign system, for example, mathematical formulas, computer programs, or in other material different from the original material. The results of analysis and study of models with certain amendments are transferred to the original.
In management systems, the most common types of models for the space of activity of managers and personnel are programs, projects, and business plans.
The main characteristic of the model is the simplification of the real situation that it represents. Purpose models:
increase the researcher’s capabilities in understanding and searching for solutions to enterprise management problems;
help the researcher combine his experience and his ideas about the situation or problem with the experience and ideas of the enterprise’s managers, its staff, and experts;
save significant money and time, since modeling, as a rule, requires less costs than the implementation of real production processes;
expand the researcher's ability to navigate future situations, since modeling is the only way to see future options, determine the consequences of decision options and compare them.
Model building stages:
1). Statement of the problem, i.e. description of a problem situation in the form of a set of factual data necessary for the development of solution options and their analysis.
The most important element of this stage is the possible more accurate diagnosis of the problem.
2). Building a model. At this stage the following are determined:
Main purpose, purpose of model development;
output information that is given to the user (manager, planner, etc.);
initial information needed for the model (sometimes it needs to be collected from different sources);
choice of model type (mathematical, simulation, physical, etc.);
the cost of time and other resources to build a model (a model that costs more than the problem itself for which it is being developed does not make sense and is not economical);
staff reaction to the use of the model (the user may refuse an overly complex model). To soften the perception of the model, model designers should work on it with the user, starting early in the development process. When the model and its characteristics are understood, it is easier to implement.
3) Checking the model for reliability. Typically, the test should answer the following questions: Are the essential components of the actual situation taken into account? To what extent does the model actually help the manager cope with the problem? A good way to test a model is to test it on a real situation from the past for which all the necessary data is available.
4). Application of the model. This is the most alarming moment of development. Surveys show that, at best, 40-60% of all developed models are actually used. The main reasons are mistrust and misunderstanding. To increase the applicability of models, significant time must be devoted to training personnel in their use, studying their capabilities and limitations.
5). Correction, updating of the model. Typically, adjustments involve adapting output forms to the manager’s requirements.
When modeling there are many danger points. Let's note the main ones:
· incorrect initial assumptions, for example, an assumption about the growth of product sales in a year or two, an assumption about the inflexible behavior of the main competitor, etc.
· incorrect understanding of the situation by the specialist developing the model based on the descriptions of experts and documentation;
· the passion of a modeling specialist for his technological problems (for example, a programmer for his problems that he solves during the development of the model);
· excessive complexity or too high cost of models;
· incorrect application of models, sometimes outside the situation for which they were developed.
There are many classifications of models. The most common distinction between models is by the way they display reality (physical, mathematical, simulation, graphic) and by the types of objects in the activity space (enterprise, market, environment).
I. Physical models (models of structures, workshops, made on a certain scale in relation to the real object).
II. Mathematical (symbolic) models reflect the relationships between the properties, characteristics of objects, processes, for example, in the form of differential equations, linear equations, etc.
III. Simulation (computer) models: simulators for operators of complex power systems, chemical plants, pilots; computer games, including for mastering the activities of a manager.
IV. Graphic models: drawings, block diagrams, electrical diagrams, various options for network diagrams and others. Their advantages: visibility and accessibility of formation, division of areas of responsibility between participants in the activity, convenient control.
The construction of a model is aimed at formulating a problem situation. Problem situation- this is a configuration of circumstances under which the activities of an enterprise or division ceased to be effective.
To get out of a problematic situation, it is necessary to move to a higher level of operational efficiency. The usual method of moving to a new level of efficiency is to create an innovation (innovation) and apply it in a problem situation.
21. Research Levels
When studying control systems, the following levels of research are most often encountered, which differ in the depth of the goal: description, classification, explanation.
Description
The description corresponds to the observation stage, that is, the initial stage of the study. Usually, description contains a documented overview of the components of the management system, the main relationships between them and the interaction of the system with the external environment. In addition, the description is accompanied by a summary of the main characteristics of the system, their analysis (usually in comparison with an analogue or with a better example), an analysis of the facts, as well as a conclusion about possible problem areas or problems.
Various schemes are used to describe processes:
a schematic diagram showing the main provisions of a process or processing method;
flowchart containing the sequence of necessary processing; Attention is paid to the following points:
a) starting point (objects, storage media);
b) actions (processing with or without the help of equipment);
c) the desired result (a new information medium, for example an analytical table);
d) the relationship between the treatments and the objects used.
Classification
Classification is a system of subordinate concepts (classes of objects, phenomena, characteristics) in any branch of knowledge or activity. A classification can also be formed for a specific research purpose, for example, dividing control systems into closed and open. Often the classification is presented in the form of tables and diagrams. It is used as a means to establish connections between concepts or classes of objects. In addition, it allows you to navigate the variety of concepts or phenomena. Scientific classification fixes natural connections between classes of objects. This makes it possible to determine the place of an object in the system, thereby learning its properties, features of behavior or control of the object.
Distinguish natural and artificial classifications. A classification is called natural if the essential features of objects are taken as the basis for division into classes, from which the maximum of derived properties of these objects follows. This classification serves as a source of knowledge about the classified objects.
If unimportant features are used in the classification, then it is considered artificial. Examples of artificial classifications:
alphabetical and subject classifiers in libraries, name catalogs, etc. It is useful to remember that artificial classifications are developed for specific studies or applications.
Explanation
To explain or understand something means to know the object of study as a whole, as well as to identify the reasons for its behavior and the patterns of development of the object.
The most common methods for obtaining explanation in the study of control systems are:
1). Statistical method Usually limited to the analysis of digital data and allows you to make a forecast based on it.
The following factors can be identified that prevent reliable data from being obtained:
errors associated with negligence (for example, those who have died or moved to another place of residence are often retained on the electoral lists);
insufficient consideration of the interests of those who fill out statistical documents (for example, those filling out documents often overestimate their education, commit tax fraud, etc.);
weak control over the collection of statistical data, inaccurate calculation and recording of information;
inattention to checking the comparability of statistical data. For example, if you change the levels of taxable income, the number of people who are exempt from paying taxes will change.
2). Functional method focused on identifying the functions of each component of the research object and its purpose in the system. Functional explanation means understanding what causes give rise to certain consequences, what constituent elements of the management system, for example, the procedure for accounting for a specific indicator, perform one or another function in the organization.
3). Comparative method operates with types and, as a rule, the explanation given to him does not reach a high scientific level.
To compare means to examine and compare two or more objects (objects of analysis) in order to discover their similarities or differences.
It is important to distinguish between two types of system comparisons:
The first is a comparison of two systems relative to one given goal, for example, the cost of two control system options;
The second is a comparison of two goals of a particular system, such as cost and quality of the system.
22. The concept of control systems analysis. His whole
The methodological foundations of the study of control systems are analysis and synthesis. Under analysis understands the process of studying a control system, based on its decomposition with the subsequent determination of the static and dynamic characteristics of the constituent elements, considered in relation to other elements of the system and the environment.
Goals of Analysis control systems:
A detailed study of the management system for more efficient use and making decisions on its further improvement or replacement;
Study of alternative options for a newly created control system in order to select the best option.
TOanalysis tasks control systems include:
definition of the object of analysis;
system structuring;
determination of functional features of the control system;
research of information characteristics of the system;
determination of quantitative and qualitative indicators of the management system;
assessment of the effectiveness of the management system;
generalization and presentation of analysis results.
Let us briefly consider the content (solution) of these problems of system analysis.
Definition of the object of analysis
To solve this problem you need to do the following:
highlight the analyzed control system;
determine management goals and objectives;
carry out a primary decomposition of the system, highlighting the control subsystem (controls), control objects (executors) and the environment.
The researcher can choose one of two directions of analysis: the first is to determine the state of the management system (in management, to determine the starting point) to identify areas requiring improvement and stimulate change; another is the study of alternative options for a newly created system in order to select the best option. In management, the following groups for determining the reference point are distinguished:
work of competitors - systematic analysis of their work allows you to improve your own;
best practice - search for best practices related to the company's operating methods;
quality of work - assessing the quality of work of the company and its departments;
setting a standard - creation of instructions for the development of adequate or increased working standards.
If necessary, subsystems and environmental factors that influence the functioning of the system are identified.
System structuring
The systems currently being studied, created and designed are characterized by exceptional complexity. The complexity of a system is determined by a large number of elements and the functions they perform, a high degree of interaction between elements, the complexity of algorithms for selecting certain control actions, and large volumes of information processed.
One of the main features of control systems is considered to be hierarchy and complex structural and functional relationships between system elements.
Depending on the research objective, various issues are included in the concept of management system structure.
The structure of a production organization is understood as a stable spatio-temporal distribution of economic decisions and the resources that ensure their implementation with corresponding relationships.
The structure of an organizational system refers to the form of distribution of tasks and decision-making powers between individuals or groups of individuals (structural units) that make up the organization, which is aimed at achieving its goals.
Purpose structuring is a detailed study of the management system, establishing connections and relationships between its elements.
The task of structure analysis is understood as determining the main characteristics of a system for a certain selected structure.
The main characteristics of the system structure can be divided into two groups
characteristics associated with the hierarchy of systems (the number of subsystems of the system under consideration, the nature of the relationships between levels, the degree of centralization and decentralization in management, signs of dividing the system into subsystems);
characteristics of the operating efficiency of a system of a particular structure (efficiency (cost), reliability, survivability, speed and throughput, ability to be rebuilt, etc.).
Determining the functional features of the system
The task of determining the functional features of the system is strictly related to the task of structuring. Taking into account the structuring, a list of particular tasks and functions of each element of the system, the order of their interaction, and the necessary input and output data are determined.
Study of information characteristics of the system
Information connections between subsystems of different levels are usually called vertical, and between subsystems of the same level - horizontal.
In the process of researching information characteristics, the following are determined:
The essence and quality of information used to develop management decisions;
Sufficiency of information for making management decisions;
The total volumes of incoming and outgoing information per unit of time for the system as a whole and separately for the main elements;
The amount of information permanently stored in the system;
Methods of transmission or delivery of information;
Main directions of information flows, etc.
Determination of quantitative and qualitative indicators of the system
After understanding the task at hand, defining the object of analysis and drawing up its multi-level description, the following is done:
Preliminary selection of a list of indicators for each level;
Development of models and methods for determining indicators at various levels;
Clarification of the conditions for determining indicators, including the expected impacts of the supersystem, the possibility of integration with other management systems and the presence of duplicate systems.
As a result of solving this problem, particular qualitative and quantitative indicators of structures, functioning processes and information are systematized, and generalized indicators are determined that characterize the external properties of the analyzed system and its individual elements.
Efficiency mark
This problem is solved in order to determine the results achieved during the functioning of the management system and the material and time resources spent to achieve these results.
It should be noted that the concept of an indicator that evaluates the functioning of the system is used in two senses.
Firstly, these are indicators that measure certain results of the real (or simulated) functioning of the system. These are experimental performance indicators.
Another option is theoretical estimates of the possible values of experimentally determined indicators - theoretical indicators of functioning. (In this case, it is indicated what the obtained indicators could be)
The values of theoretical and experimental performance indicators may not coincide. The discrepancy may be due to the imperfection of the method for constructing theoretical estimates, insufficient awareness of the person giving the corresponding theoretical estimates, the possibility of several options for the course of the functioning process, etc.
Generalization and presentation of analysis results
The task of documenting and recording the results of the analysis includes:
§ brief description of the structure, functioning processes and information flows of the system;
§ generalized meaning of indicators and results of assessing the effectiveness of the system (values of indicators are given);
§ generalized identified deficiencies and preliminary recommendations for further use of the system, improvement or replacement.
23. The concept of synthesis of control systems. His whole and and tasks. Stages of problem solving
In contrast to the analysis under synthesis process is understood creating a new system by determining its rational or optimal properties and corresponding indicators.
Objectives of synthesis control systems:
Creation of a new management system based on new achievements of science and technology;
Improving the existing management system based on identified deficiencies, as well as the emergence of new tasks and requirements.
In general, the tasks of synthesizing control systems are to determine the structure and parameters of the system, based on the specified requirements for the values of indicators of the effectiveness of its functioning, as well as ways to ensure the goals of the system.
Synthesis, or structural synthesis, is the central link in creating a management system. It includes the following components.
Synthesis of the structure of the controlled system, those. determination of the optimal composition and interrelations of system elements, optimal breakdown of a set of managed objects into separate subsets that have specified characteristics of connections.
Synthesis of the control system structure:
a) selection of the number of levels and subsystems (system hierarchy);
b) choice of management organization principles, i.e. establishing correct relationships between levels (this is due to the coordination of the goals of subsystems at different levels and optimal stimulation of their work, distribution of rights and responsibilities, and creation of a decision-making framework);
c) optimal distribution of functions between people;
3. Synthesis of the structure of the information transmission and processing system. Includes the organization of information flows and the structure of the information management complex (who and what ensures the exchange of information).
Synthesis is a multi-step process, including the sequential solution of the following basic tasks:
formation of the plan and purpose of creating a management system;
formation of options for the new system;
bringing descriptions of system options into mutual compliance;
assessing the effectiveness of options and making a decision on choosing an option for a new system;
development of requirements for the management system;
development of programs for implementing the requirements for the management system;
implementation of the developed requirements for the control system.
Solving control system synthesis problems
Formation of the plan and purpose of creating a management system
The idea arises on the basis of a task received, the identification of shortcomings of the existing management system, the emergence of a practical need or new scientific achievements.
The formation of a plan begins with a historical analysis of the problem, practical possibilities, scientific achievements, needs, analysis of similar systems, the current situation, other people's opinions and all related factors. This is a creative stage, poorly structured and poorly formalized.
The results of solving the problem of forming the concept and goal of creating a system should be:
Determining the purpose of the control system;
Determination of the goal (target function);
Definition of system objectives;
Formulating the main idea of creating a system;
Determining directions for system development.
Formation of options for the new system
System options are formed based on an analysis of the general goal of creating the system, studying social needs, and studying similar domestic and foreign systems.
Let's consider the procedure for constructing a conceptual model of a variant of a new control system.
Several stages can be distinguished.
Onfirst stage the level of detail of the conceptual model of the system option is determined.
A system model is a collection of subsystems (elements). This set includes all subsystems (elements) that ensure the integrity of the system is maintained. The exclusion of any elements should not lead to the loss of the basic properties of the system when performing its intended functions.
In turn, each subsystem consists of a set of elements that can also be divided into elements, i.e. Each system is in turn a subsystem of a more complex system. Thus, the problem of choosing the level of detail can be solved by constructing a hierarchical sequence of models.
The choice of level of detail depends on the goals of the modeling and the degree of prior knowledge of the properties of the elements.
Onsecond stage After constructing a conceptual model, its localization is carried out (establishing the boundaries of interaction with the supersystem, for example, the national economy). Here it is necessary to take into account that the external environment can have a much greater impact on the modeled system compared to how the system itself can influence the external environment.
On third stage The construction of the model structure is completed, indicating the connections between its constituent elements. Connections can be divided into material and informational.
In control systems information links are of paramount importance. Moreover, first of all, it is necessary to highlight the functionally necessary internal connections that determine the integrity of the model.
Each generated version of the system includes various types of descriptions: structural, functional, informational and parametric.
Structural description includes a description of the structure and types of support for the management system, the purpose, composition and placement of its elements.
Functional Description includes the tasks solved by the system, the order of the system’s functioning.
Information Description includes a description of input and output information, information flows, methods of presentation and transmission.
Parametric description includes a list of quantitative indicators (parameters) characterizing individual properties of the system that must be ensured during the process of its creation.
On fourth stage controlled characteristics are determined, i.e. The model should include those parameters (indicators) of the system that allow their values to vary without damaging the system.
On fifth stage describes the dynamics of the system. The previously obtained model must be supplemented with a description of the functioning of the system. It should be noted that in complex systems several processes often occur simultaneously. Each process represents a certain sequence of individual elementary operations, some of which can be performed in parallel by different elements (resources) of the system.
Bringing descriptions of system options into mutual conformity
Bringing the descriptions of the system option into mutual compliance includes:
1) comparison of descriptions (structural, functional, informational, parametric);
2) elimination of contradictions;
3) combining the above descriptions.
1) Comparison of descriptions. First, the issue of compatibility of the information description is resolved, which needs to be described structurally (morphologically), i.e. which department of the system will work with this or that block of information. All blocks of the structural description must be covered by a functional description and contain methods and formulas for calculating all output and intermediate parameters. Next, it is necessary to find out to what extent the information description is provided functionally and structurally. Some of the results that can be considered as requirements will turn out to be structurally unrealizable or will require the development of new elements (subsystems). Based on the structural and functional description, the closest achievable parameters included in the parametric description are calculated. There can be two cases: 1) the required parameter values are unattainable; 2) the required parameter values are achievable separately, but are incompatible.
Elimination of contradictions. Nomination of ideas for effective replacement of elements of the structural (morphological) description is carried out on the basis of the functional properties of the system. To do this, it is necessary to identify the fundamental contradiction that prevents the achievement of a positive result. Functional failure is the initial impetus for the discovery of a fundamental contradiction. Identifying the essence of the contradiction requires an analysis of the morphological and information properties of the system. Resolving a contradiction through compromise is rarely promising. Therefore, new ideas are often required, e.g. inclusion of subsystems or elements with fundamentally new properties into the system, radical restructuring of the structure and connections, creation of new processes, etc. The stage is multi-step and ends with a new description of the system.
Combining descriptions. Drawing up a single description covering morphological, functional, information properties and parameters in full.
Assessing the effectiveness of options and making a decision on choosing a new system option
The solution to this problem includes:
Determination of the values of selected performance indicators for each investigated version of the system being created;
Comparative assessment of effectiveness, which is carried out in accordance with a given preference rule and an established criterion;
Deciding on choosing the best system option.
Development of requirements for the control system
For artificial systems of the organizational type, it is very difficult to clearly formulate a goal. The goal is developed in the form of quantitative and qualitative requirements for the properties of the system.
Requirements are formed in the form of indicators (quantitative requirements) and characteristics (qualitative). As a rule, requirements are specified in the form of restrictions on the permissible limits of indicator values.
The development of requirements is carried out in the process of solving all the above problems. First, the general requirements for the control system are documented, and then the individual requirements for its elements are specified, including the elements identified in the morphological (structural), functional, informational and parametric description of the system.
Development of programs for implementing requirements for the management system
Typically, a requirements implementation program or plan includes:
a list of goals and objectives (tasks) for the performers (responsible for creating the management system), deployed in time, interconnected in relation to the general goal of creating a new system and balanced in terms of resources;
schedule (procedure) for providing performers with resources (information, material, energy, etc.).
Resource balance means that there are no tasks that are not provided with resources, and that limited resources are rationally distributed among all performers.
Implementation of the developed requirements for the control system
There are the following conditional stages of implementing the developed requirements for the control system:
Modeling (mathematical, physical, scenario) of subsystems and the system as a whole;
System layout;
System design;
System design;
Manufacturing of the system;
System testing;
Assessment of modernization paths;
Return to the analysis of the idea of creating a system and the prospects for its development in connection with the creation of a new system.
Let us briefly describe these stages.
Modeling of subsystems and the system as a whole. At this stage, the conceptual description of the system is implemented using a mathematical model. The purpose of modeling is to test its stability in relation to external factors and evaluate the effectiveness (by functional and physical criteria) of its functioning under different operating conditions. Based on the simulation results, a conclusion is made about moving to the next stage of development or clarifying the requirements.
Layout of the system.
A distinction is made between full and partial prototyping. Partial prototyping is used in cases where the main subsystems are clear and individual blocks need to be clarified. The results of partial prototyping are used to re-simulate the system and further refine it based on new data. Complete prototyping of the main and auxiliary subsystems is used when developing new systems. The prototyping stage is decisive and final for the creative part of the development, and then the technological part begins.
System design. The design goal is to cover the entire system and the means and methods needed to create and support it.
System design. The design determines the spatiotemporal arrangement of system elements, their mating, connection and docking.
The design task is to develop a technology for manufacturing a system or indicate the possibility of using a ready-made technology.
Manufacturing of the system. The production of a new system refers to element-by-element and block-by-block (subsystem) development.
For new systems, there may be cases when the production of subsystems with the required parameters (preparing the process, recruiting personnel, working on team coordination) turns out to be an impossible task, and then corresponding additional work is inevitable (improving production, training personnel, changing conditions) or returning to one of the original stages .
System testing.
During the tests, the method of using the system and increasing the maximum permissible value of its efficiency are tested. Tests determine how well the system corresponds to its intended purpose.
Assessment of modernization paths.
In the conditions of scientific and technical progress, the basis for extending the life cycle of a system is its timely and repeated modernization, the ideas of which should be laid down at the stage of creating the system.
The system is being modernized in order to improve its performance.
The assessment of the values of indicators of essential properties is carried out, as a rule, in two ways: “direct measurements” on the system and using a model of its functioning.
An important point is the formation of rules for determining the fact and magnitude of discrepancy between the values of indicators of essential properties of the system process and their required values.
24. Structuring methods for researching control systems
The effectiveness of control systems research is largely determined by the research methods chosen and used.
Research methods are methods and techniques for conducting research. Their competent use contributes to obtaining reliable and complete results from the study of problems that have arisen in the organization. The choice of research methods, the integration of various methods when conducting research is determined by the knowledge, experience and intuition of the specialists conducting the research.
The entire set of research methods can be divided into three large groups: methods based on the use of knowledge and intuition of specialists; methods of formalized representation of control systems (methods of formal modeling of the processes under study) and integrated methods.
First group -- methods based on identifying and summarizing the opinions of experienced experts, using their experience and non-traditional approaches to analyzing the activities of an organization include: the “brainstorming” method, the “scenarios” method, the method of expert assessments (including SWOT analysis), the “Delphi” method, the “goal tree” methods, “business games”, morphological methods and a number of other methods.
Second group -- methods of formalized presentation of control systems, based on the use of mathematical, economic-mathematical methods and models for studying control systems. Among them the following classes can be distinguished:
analytical(include methods of classical mathematics - integral calculus, differential calculus, methods for searching for extrema of functions, calculus of variations and others, methods of mathematical programming, game theory);
statistical(include theoretical sections of mathematics - mathematical statistics, probability theory - and areas of applied mathematics that use stochastic representations - queuing theory, methods of statistical tests, methods for putting forward and testing statistical hypotheses and other methods of statistical simulation modeling);
set-theoretic, logical, linguistic, semiotic views (sections discrete mathematics, constituting the theoretical basis for the development of various types of modeling languages, design automation, information retrieval languages);
graphic(include graph theory and various kinds of graphical representations of information such as charts, graphs, histograms, etc.).
The most widespread in the economy at present are mathematical programming And statistical methods. True, to present statistical data and extrapolate trends in certain economic processes, graphical representations (graphs, diagrams, etc.) and elements of the theory of functions (for example, the theory of production functions) have always been used.
When trying to more adequately depict a problem situation, in some cases it is advisable to use statistical methods by which, based on a sample study, statistical patterns are obtained and extended to the behavior of the system as a whole. This approach is useful when displaying situations such as organizing the repair of equipment, determining the degree of its wear, setting up and testing complex instruments and devices, etc. Statistical simulation modeling of economic processes and decision-making situations is increasingly used.
Recently, with the development of automation tools, attention has increased to methods discrete mathematics: knowledge of mathematical logic, mathematical linguistics, set theory helps to accelerate the development of algorithms, languages for automating the design of complex technical devices and complexes, languages for modeling decision-making situations in organizational systems.
Currently, almost all groups of methods for formalized representation of systems are used in economics and production organization. For the convenience of their selection in real conditions, corresponding applied methods are being developed on the basis of mathematical directions.
To the third group include integrated methods: combinatorics, situational modeling, topology, graphosemiotics, etc. They were formed through the integration of expert and formalized methods.
Methods for studying information flows stand somewhat aside.
The scheme for structuring the methods is shown in Fig. 3.
25. Methods based on the use of knowledge and intuition of specialists
The development of systems analysis is inextricably linked with such concepts as “brainstorming”, “scenarios”, “goal tree”, morphological methods, etc. The appearance of the listed terms is usually associated with specific research conditions, or even with the name of the author of the approach.
Let's give a brief overview of expert methods.
Concept brainstorming has become widespread since the early 50s. Methods of this type are also known as brainstorming, idea conferences, collective idea generation (CGI).
Usually, when conducting a brainstorming session, or CGI sessions, they try to follow certain rules, the essence of which boils down to ensuring as much freedom as possible for the participants to think and express new ideas; To do this, it is recommended to welcome any ideas, even if they seem dubious or absurd at first (discussion and evaluation of ideas is carried out later), criticism is not allowed, an idea is not declared false, and discussion of no idea is stopped. It is required to express as many ideas as possible (preferably non-trivial ones), try to create chain reactions of ideas.
Depending on the adopted rules and the rigidity of their implementation, there are different direct brain attack, method exchange of views, methods like commissions, courts(when one group (idea generators) makes as many proposals as possible, and the second tries to criticize them as much as possible), etc.
In practice, various types of meetings are similar to “brainstorming” - meetings of scientists and scientific councils, specially created temporary commissions.
Methods " scenarios " . Methods of preparing and coordinating ideas about a problem or an analyzed object, set out in writing, are called scenarios. Initially, this method involved the preparation of a text containing a logical sequence of events or possible solutions to a problem unfolded over time. However, later the mandatory requirement of time coordinates was removed, and a script began to be called any document containing an analysis of the problem under consideration and proposals for its solution or for the development of the system, regardless of the form in which it is presented. As a rule, in practice, proposals for the preparation of such documents are first written by experts individually, and then an agreed text is formed.
The scenario provides not only meaningful reasoning that helps not to miss details, but also contains, as a rule, the results of quantitative technical, economic or statistical analysis with preliminary conclusions. The group of experts preparing the scenario usually enjoys the right to obtain the necessary certificates from enterprises and organizations and the necessary consultations.
In practice, forecasts in industrial sectors were developed based on the type of scenarios.
Recently, the concept of a scenario has been increasingly expanding in the direction of areas of application, forms of presentation and methods of their development: quantitative parameters are introduced into the scenario and their interdependencies are established, methods for preparing the scenario using computers (machine scenarios) are proposed.
Methods of expert assessments. Studying the possibilities and features of application expert assessments a lot of work has been devoted to it. They discuss forms of expert surveys (various types of questionnaires, interviews), approaches to assessment (ranking, norming, various types of ordering, etc.), methods for processing survey results, requirements for experts and the formation of expert groups, issues of training experts, assessments their competence (when processing assessments, coefficients of experts’ competence and the reliability of their opinions are introduced and taken into account), methods for organizing expert surveys.
Selection of forms and methods for conducting expert surveys, approaches to processing survey results, etc. depends on the specific task and conditions of the examination. However, there are some common issues that the systems analyst needs to keep in mind. Let's look at them in more detail.
During expert assessment, it is proposed to divide the problems being solved into two classes. TO first class These include problems that are fairly well provided with information and the solution of which is quite within the power of an expert with a large amount of information, and the group opinion of experts in this case is close to the true one. Co. second grade These include problems for which knowledge is insufficient to ensure the validity of the above assumptions. You cannot blindly rely on the opinion of an expert and you must be careful when processing the results of the examination. In this regard, for problems of the second class, qualitative processing of results should mainly be applied. The use of averaging methods (valid for the first class of problems) in this case can lead to significant errors.
One of the varieties of the expert method is the method of studying the strengths and weaknesses of an organization, opportunities and threats to its activities - the SWOT analysis method.
Type Methods " Delphi " .
The main means of increasing the objectivity of the results when using the Delphi method are the use of feedback, familiarizing experts with the results of the previous round of the survey and taking these results into account when assessing the significance of expert opinions.
The purpose of the method " Delphi" - development of a program of sequential multi-round individual surveys. An individual survey of experts is usually carried out in the form of questionnaires. At the first stage, a quantitative assessment is given to the phenomenon using ranking. Then the experts are given for analysis the reasonable anonymous conclusions of other experts on this issue and are allowed to supplement the initial opinion with their own opinion questionnaire. In the second round, the resulting “average” expert opinions are reported to the experts, and the third round is conducted
In the most developed methods, the experts themselves are assigned weighting coefficients of the significance of their opinions, calculated on the basis of previous surveys, refined from round to round and taken into account when obtaining generalized assessment results.
Idea goal tree method was first proposed by W. Cherman in connection with the problems of decision-making in industry.
The term "tree" implies the use of a hierarchical structure obtained by dividing the overall goal into subgoals, and these, in turn, into more detailed components, which can be called subgoals of lower levels.
When using the goal tree method as a decision-making tool, the term “decision tree” is often introduced. When using a “tree” to identify and clarify management functions, they speak of a “tree of goals and functions.”
The “goal tree” method is aimed at obtaining a complete and relatively stable structure of goals, problems, directions, i.e. a structure that has changed little over a period of time with the inevitable changes that occur in any developing system.
The term “morphology” in biology and linguistics defines the doctrine of the internal structure of the systems under study (organisms, languages)
Main idea of the morphological approach - systematically find the largest number, and within a given limit, all possible options for solving a given problem or implementing a system by combining the main (identified by the researcher) structural elements of the system or their features. In this case, the system or problem can be broken down into parts in different ways and viewed from different aspects.
Morphological analysis as a research method includes a number of techniques based on one principle - an orderly consideration of the influence of various factors on the behavior of the forecast object, without excluding any of them without a preliminary exhaustive study.
In this case, the general research problem is divided into parts, which to some extent can be considered independent, and since each of them can have several solutions, the general solution is obtained by combining all possible variants of particular solutions. This is a labor-intensive process and can be productive provided that clear, justified optimality criteria and technical means for processing research results are used. The construction of a “morphological tree” (means, goals, etc.), containing the hierarchy and sequence of problem solving, will be more effective the sooner unpromising solutions are eliminated.
The most effective methods of acquiring new knowledge, business and management methods are business games. Business games are a simulation method developed for making management decisions in various situations by playing according to given rules by a group of people or a person and a computer.
The development of a business game must begin with a clear formulation of its purpose. After this, you can begin to formulate the game scheme and its basic rules. In the chosen operating scheme, it is necessary to accurately reflect the operating experience of real systems, paying special attention to the structure of the system, the target functions of the subsystems and the system as a whole, the choice of control actions, etc. One of the main difficulties in constructing a model of the situation under study is that the desire for the most complete reflection of the situation under study can lead to excessive detailing of the model, which in turn will entail a complication of the information support of the constructed model. As a result, the time spent on the game increases and it becomes difficult to understand the processes taking place. All this leads to the fact that the effectiveness of the game is reduced. The best way to avoid this kind of danger is to always keep in mind the specific purpose of the game you are designing. But it should be taken into account that the situations analyzed in the game should not be simplified to such an extent that the necessary solution could be found directly without an in-depth analysis of the ongoing processes, since in this case the results obtained from the analysis of economic activity will be superficial character.
Experience in developing and conducting business games shows that it is advisable to present a business game as a description of a certain sequence of sections. Typically, the game description includes nine sections:
1. general characteristics
2. Description of the situation
3. Purpose of the game
4. The task of the center
5. The task of the game participants
6. Formal model
7. Analysis of the formal model
8. Guide for game participants
9. Results of the game
Section 6 is included in the description of the game if the formalization of the model allows us to better understand the essence of the game, or if further analysis of the formal model is intended.
Section 7 may be absent if it is either impossible or too cumbersome to analyze the model using known mathematical means.
Section 9 may also be missing if there is no experience in conducting a business game.
26. Methods for formalized presentation of control systems
Network method (network planning) formalized representation of control systems comes down to building a network model for solving a complex control problem. When analyzing the network model, a quantitative, time and cost assessment of the work performed is made. Parameters are set for each work included in the network by their performer based on regulatory data or their own production experience.
A network model, as a rule, is a list of events (displayed in circles on diagrams) and activities (arrows between them).
Let us illustrate this with a specific example. Let's assume that we have built a network model based on a set of works for holding a conference, congress, etc. Such a network has a clear initial event (for example, approval of an order to conduct an event), a clear final event (submission of a report on the event), and if specific organizational conditions are known (time and place of holding), then such a network is typical for conducting an event of a certain character, and the performers (employees of various organizations or departments) are always changing. It is not difficult to build a specific network model; it is specific, informative, introduces new performers to the content of specific management activities, and trains them.
The experience of building such networks suggests that they significantly increase the effectiveness of management, while labor costs for management are significantly reduced.
The whole process network planning can be roughly divided into three stages.
1) survey stage: survey results are presented in the form of network graphs;
2) calculation and analysis of network diagrams;
3) stage of operational management.
On first stage the following work is performed:
* drawing up block diagrams of departments involved in development;
* determination of the composition of the source documents necessary to perform a particular work;
* determination of the list of works included in this development;
* drawing up primary network diagrams by type of work;
* drawing up (stitching) a consolidated network diagram.
The breakdown of work, as a rule, should be carried out down to individual works and departments responsible for their implementation.
Stitching of primary network diagrams is necessary in order to combine primary network diagrams, which describe the process of performing individual works, into a free network diagram that reflects the process of the entire development as a whole.
Network model calculation carried out graphically or tabularly. The most obvious is the graphical method, but it is used for a limited number of events. At the same time, the duration and cost of the work are determined.
On third(last) stages creation and operation of the system, operational management of the facility is carried out using a network model.
The use of network models allows you to:
distribute work evenly over time, as well as between departments and performers, more clearly delineate the duties and responsibilities of each of them for the implementation of individual stages of work;
proceed in the future to the development of standard networks of schedules for the execution of work at any level of management of the system under consideration and to the creation of a unified system of network planning and management;
use network diagrams as mathematical models of the planning process, calculate on a computer all possible options for managing development processes, highlight the functions, rights and responsibilities of departments and responsible executives.
Recently, to solve problems of control and analysis of the functioning of various systems, the method simulation dynamic modeling.
Any system can be represented as a complex structure, the elements of which are closely related and influence each other in various ways. The connections between elements can be open and closed (or loop), when a primary change in one element, having passed through the feedback loop, again affects the same element.
The complexity of the structure and internal interactions determine the nature of the system's reaction to the influences of the external environment and the trajectory of its behavior in the future: after some time it may become different from the expected (and sometimes even the opposite), since over time the behavior of the system may change due to internal reasons. That is why it is advisable to first check the behavior of the system using a model, which allows you to avoid errors and unjustified costs in the present and future.
In dynamic simulation, a model is built that adequately reflects the internal structure of the system being modeled; then the behavior of the model is checked on a computer for an arbitrarily long time in advance. This makes it possible to study the behavior of both the system as a whole and its component parts. Simulation dynamic models use a specific apparatus that allows them to reflect the cause-and-effect relationships between system elements and the dynamics of changes in each element. Models of real systems usually contain a significant number of variables, so they are simulated on a computer.
Extrapolation methods.
They are understood as ways of spreading any patterns or trends observed in a certain time interval (base) to another time interval (forecast). Extrapolation is usually carried out on the basis of statistically established changes in the quantitative characteristics of the predicted object, subject to one or another functional dependence and described graphically by the corresponding curves.
27. Methods for studying information flows
Among integrated methods, the most widely used are methods for studying information flows.
The purpose of such research is to study and formalize information processes. Research is carried out according to a pre-developed program.
The program specifies what needs to be done and in what order. Let's give an example of such a program.
When studying documentation forms, techniques for filling and processing them, an approximate list of questions is highlighted:
* purpose of the document;
* number of simultaneously issued copies;
* name of mandatory details and indicators of documents;
* who fills in the details and their indicators;
* rules for the formation of indicators;
* the significance of each indicator;
* frequency of document preparation;
* frequency of development of indicators.
Simultaneously with the study of documentation flows, it is advisable to obtain maximum information about the functions that are performed by each division of the management body and for which the documentation information is intended.
In this regard, it is advisable to include in the research program questions that will help clarify the functions performed by specific divisions of the governing body and its individual working groups.
The objects of the study are documented and undocumented messages reflecting the processes of production and economic activity and management work, as well as the associated processes of generating indicators and documents and the routes of their movement.
When studying the data processing process in the management system and its divisions, the processes of calculating indicators and the processes of generating documents are distinguished. Calculation of indicators carried out on the basis of certain rules - procedures with initial data, which appear in the form of a sequence of their processing. Documents are generated based on certain rules for selecting sources of initial indicators, the data themselves and the sequence of recording in the document form.
Two main methods are applicable for examining incoming and outgoing documents. Method inventory and method typical groups. With the inventory method, information about all documents is collected. It allows you to obtain the most comprehensive information about information flows. However, due to its high labor intensity, the inventory method is used very rarely.
To examine systematized mass and regularly repeated documents, the method of typical groups is more often used, when not every document is subject to registration, but a certain type of homogeneous documents.
The most common is the analysis of information flows using a graphical method.
The main elements of the flow are documents. The relationship between them is depicted in the form of a graphical diagram. Procedures for converting flow moments (document processing) are written in the form of brief explanations on a flow diagram. The graphics coordinate system is two-dimensional. The names of the structural divisions of a particular organization are written in the column headings, and the names of moments or periods of time are written in the row headings. The scale can be uniform or uneven. Each document in the diagram is depicted as a rectangle indicating the document number. The arrow going to the document (from the document) shows the direction of movement of information. Brief explanations are given below the document:
* what procedures are carried out when processing a document;
* what information from the document is currently used in this place;
* how this information is used;
* what information is recorded or changed in the document and why;
* where you can find similar explanations.
Analysis of the diagram allows you to trace the paths of documents, identify the moments of their formation, the operations that are carried out with them, the order in which documents are combined or divided.
The graphical method is a simple, visual, universal and economical method for describing information flows at the macro level. However, as the flow dimension increases, the diagram may become so large that it loses its value as a means of analysis, or it may be so superficial in detail that it will not help in the analysis of information flows.
Thus, it is advisable to use this method to analyze the organization and improve the existing scheme of information flows at the macro level.
The information model allows you to symbolically express the technology for preparing management decisions, as well as information relationships between employees of a particular department, departments of the enterprise and the external environment.
The main purpose of the information model is that it characterizes existing flows of documented information that reflect the processes of management activities.
28. Marketing research as an applied direction control systems research
Methods and models for studying management systems are effectively used in marketing activities, primarily in strategic marketing and strategic management.
Marketing research is carried out for the purposes of: market analysis, study of its condition and dynamics; research into the behavior of product needs and suppliers, analysis of the activities of competitors and intermediaries; market segmentation; identifying target segments to forecast market conditions; to assess the organization's current strategy; analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the organization; for assortment research and other areas of research.
Analysis of the marketing environment and assessment of the organization's market opportunities is carried out in the course of marketing research, the purpose of which is to collect information about the market and study it to improve the process of developing and marketing goods
Marketing research is a prerequisite for the success of products offered in the market. They are effective when they are considered not only as a process for obtaining hard-to-access commercial information, but also as a means of providing the organization's management with analytical conclusions about changes in the marketing environment in order to improve the capabilities of the management system.
Purposes of marketing research are reducing the degree of uncertainty when making marketing decisions and ensuring continuous monitoring of their implementation. The research addresses the following: task groups:
Assessment of the state and trends in the development of market conditions;
Research of consumer behavior, analysis of the activities of competitors, suppliers and intermediaries of the organization;
Analysis of the organization's marketing activities, including product range management, pricing and development of price change strategies, organization of product sales channels and the use of sales promotion tools.
The marketing research needed to solve these problems can be standard, intended for various companies, and special, carried out on individual orders. Depending on the form of financing, there are multi-client and multi-sponsored (omnibus) studies. The former are funded by a group of different companies interested in solving the same analytical problem. The cost of the results of such research for one client is reduced, since the corresponding costs are distributed among several customers. The second ones are carried out for clients who are interested in different problems, but their solution can be combined into one comprehensive study. As a result, customers finance individual stages of a comprehensive (omnibus) study.
According to the degree of frequency there are ongoing and one-time research.
If it is necessary to explain the observed phenomena, qualitative research. Obtaining and analyzing reliable factual data, as well as testing the accuracy of hypotheses put forward in the process of qualitative analysis, is the goal quantitative research. Depending on the nature of the information used, marketing research can be office, based on published information, and field, using primary information specially collected for analysis.
A special place in the marketing research system is occupied by panel studies, conducted on the basis of periodic surveys of a specially designated group of individuals and (or) organizations.
When organizing marketing research, we are guided by the following: rules of thumb:
The analysis must correspond to the stated goal and be carried out to achieve it;
The information used should reflect the entire set of processes, trends and phenomena, and also contain not only published data, but also “field” information collected through surveys, observations and experiments;
When carrying out the analysis, not only the market being developed is assessed, but also the market of direct competitors and end consumers;
The constant need to improve products and other marketing elements is always taken into account, and similar actions of competitors are taken into account;
The market must be constantly researched for timely adaptation to its requirements;
During the analysis, it is important to take into account the level of reliability of information and the possibility of deliberate misinformation.
The following stages are distinguished in the process of marketing research:
1. Formation of the problem and research goals.
2. Determining the need for information and organizing its collection.
3. Information analysis.
4. Preparation of an analytical report.
Formulation of the research problem requires clarification of the organization's main priorities in the field of marketing. To do this, it is necessary to answer a number of questions that help to identify the main guidelines for production and economic activity: what changes have occurred in market conditions; in what direction should the organization develop; how to make the transition to a new state?
A precise formulation of the research objectives is required to draw up the analysis task. The task includes:
General characteristics of the organization and its activities in the market (when conducting research by a third-party marketing firm);
Information about the degree of market knowledge;
Description of the specifics of the problem posed and its relationship with the goals of the organization;
Specific aspects of marketing activity that should be studied;
Requirements for the accuracy and reliability of source data;
Time frames and costs for conducting the study.
To develop a task, it is fundamentally important to take into account restrictions that will avoid incorrect comparisons and increase the competitive focus of analytical work:
1) for the comparability of the objects of analysis, the competitors’ products (product lines) under study must belong to the same classification group;
2) to specify the objectives of the analysis, the geographical boundary of the analyzed market must be determined, taking into account the specifics of the use of the product, the reasonable alternativeness of its offer, the cost of transportation to the place of use, and the frequency of purchases. The geographic boundaries of the market expand with the increase in the degree of uniqueness of the product and its complexity. At the same time, they narrow with weak and expensive communication, short service life and a high degree of product unification;
3) to take into account possible seasonality of sales, the analysis time interval should include the full cycle of product sales (measured, for example, by the financial year).
The methodological basis for the analysis of marketing information is the formed bank of methods and models that make it possible to most fully reveal the interrelationships of the phenomena being studied and is based on:
On general scientific methods of system analysis and an integrated approach;
Analytical and predictive methods of linear programming of queuing theory, communication theory, probability theory, network planning, economic-mathematical and expert methods;
Methodological techniques borrowed from sociology, psychology, anthropology, ecology, aesthetics, design;
Models of statistical data processing and corresponding application programs;
Marketing research methods.
29. Managerially th accounting in systems research
One of the areas of research in management systems is management accounting.
In modern conditions, when enterprises are given independence in developing their production programs, development plans, and determining strategies in the field of pricing policy, the responsibility of managers for the management decisions they make increases significantly. In order for the decisions made on production management to be effective and efficient, managers need reliable information about the production and financial situation of the enterprise. The accounting service of the enterprise is responsible for solving the second part of this problem.
In the most general terms Accounting can be defined as an information system that measures, processes and communicates financial information. Speaking about any system, first of all it is necessary to determine what exactly it measures. Accounting is concerned with measuring the impact (in monetary terms) of business transactions on specific business units. The object of measurement in accounting is business transactions. They are facts of economic life that influence the financial position of the company.
One of the tasks of accounting is the generation of reports for:
1) external users;
2) purposes of periodic planning, control and evaluation;
3) decision-making in non-standard situations and when choosing a company policy.
The preparation of reports of the first group (external reports) relates to the field of financial accounting, which is strictly subject to standard principles
In this case, external users are the owners of shares and creditors (actual or potential), employees of the enterprise. Another important category of external users of accounting information includes suppliers, buyers, trade unions, financial analysts, statisticians, economists, representatives of tax authorities and extra-budgetary funds - the Employment Fund, the Pension Fund, etc.
Drawing up reports of the second and third groups is the prerogative of management accounting. These reports contain information not only about the general financial position of the enterprise, but also about the state of affairs directly in the production area. Such information is necessary for internal users of accounting information.
The transition from administrative methods of economic management to market economic conditions has changed the needs of users of accounting information.
In a market economy, the process of managing an enterprise has become significantly more complicated, and it has been granted complete economic and financial independence. The first is the independent choice of type of activity, business partners, determination of markets for sales of “service” products, etc. The financial independence of an enterprise consists of its complete self-financing, determination of a financial strategy, pricing policy, etc.
Under these conditions, the emergence of management accounting as an independent branch of economic activity related to the study of management systems.
An important prerequisite in the formation and development of management accounting was the separation from the accounting department of the enterprise calculation(managerial) accounting department
The need to create two independent accounting departments (financial and accounting) was associated primarily with the expansion of production, the growth of its concentration, the centralization of capital, and the formation of large companies.
Modern management accounting can be defined as Kind of activity V within one organization, which provides the management apparatus of the organization with information used For planning your own management And control over the activities of the organization. This process includes identifying, measuring, collecting, analyzing, preparing, interpreting, transmitting and receiving information.
Information is usually considered data, facts, observations, i.e. everything that expands our understanding of the object of study. In management accounting, it is possible to use both non-quantitative information (rumours, etc.) and quantitative information, which, in turn, is divided into accounting and non-accounting.
The following requirements apply to management accounting information:
1) be useful for making management decisions;
2) attract the attention of managers to areas of potential risk;
3) objectively evaluate the work of enterprise managers.
Management information is considered useful only when it positively influences the performance of enterprise managers.
20-30% of all management accounting information is accounting information; economic analysis accounts for 70-80% of the information. In financial accounting, the ratio is different: 40-50% of all information is accounting information, and analysis accounts for 50-60%.
Management accounting is only a means of ensuring planning, management and control. Users of management accounting information are managers at various levels of the enterprise.
The organization of management accounting at enterprises is carried out according to separate principles and, based on the goals and objectives of managers, is not regulated by the state. Management accounting serves only the interests of the company. This is its superiority over financial accounting. Management accounting is more based on logic and experience, or general acceptability.
In management accounting, the main attention is paid to organizational units - a structural element of the enterprise, headed by a manager who is responsible for the appropriateness of the expenses incurred. The level of detail of cost centers and their linkage with responsibility centers is established by the enterprise administration. Thus, in management accounting, attention is focused both on business activities as a whole and on individual functions.
Management accounting is more focused on the future. Thus, the purpose of financial accounting is to show “how it was,” and management accounting is “how it should be.”
The structure of management accounting information depends on the requests of users of this information.
Issues of management accounting are resolved today by our operational accounting (in the preparation of operational reporting) in the course of performing an economic analysis of the economic activity of an enterprise. From this it can be seen that various aspects of management accounting are currently dealt with by separate divisions of the enterprise, information is scattered among various services and there is no possibility of its operational integrated use. Analysis of economic activity, if carried out, is carried out with serious delays, when the main financial indicators of the enterprise have already been formed and the opportunity to influence them has been missed; The performance efficiency of individual structural units, as a rule, is not analyzed at all. Domestic accounting practice is not yet linked to marketing, deviations of actual costs from estimated ones are not determined, the reasons for the occurrence of these deviations are not identified, such a category as the “future ruble” is not used, although inflation processes seriously affect the economic life of the enterprise.
Peculiarities management accounting allows us to formulate its most important goals:
1) providing information assistance to managers;
2) control, planning and forecasting of the economic activity of the enterprise;
3) choosing the most effective ways to develop the enterprise;
4) making operational management decisions;
5) providing a basis for pricing.
The process of making management decisions involves comparing two or more options for solving a problem and choosing the best one. Management accounting should provide the necessary information to evaluate alternative solutions; in addition, management accounting has an arsenal of techniques and methods that allow it to properly process and summarize this information.
The second goal of management accounting deserves special attention - making decisions regarding the future activities of the company. Planning is a special type of decision-making process that concerns more than one event, but covers the activities of this enterprise.
A distinctive feature of management accounting is that responsibility for all types of production resources at all stages of the circulation of funds in the production or circulation process is assigned to someone personally. This technique is called accounting by responsibility centers.
Thus, management accounting differs from ordinary accounting primarily in that its data is not intended for external users (state, banks, business partners), but for internal “use”. The purpose of management accounting is to help the manager make the right decisions. Therefore, if an accountant must strictly follow the spirit and letter of countless instructions, then a management accounting specialist is free to choose the forms, methods and techniques of analysis; The main thing for him is to correctly grasp the essence of the economic processes taking place in the enterprise and give timely advice to the manager. Management accounting is nothing more than a management information support system.
1.1. Research and its role in scientific and practical activities 3
STUDY CONCEPT 3
OBJECT AND SUBJECT OF RESEARCH 5
SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL ROLE OF RESEARCH IN HUMAN ACTIVITY 6
1.2. Place of management systems in organizations 8
MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEM OF AN ORGANIZATION (ENTERPRISE) AND THE CONCEPT OF “MANAGEMENT SYSTEM” 14
FUNCTIONAL ROLE OF RESEARCH IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 18
1.3. Principles of construction and operation of control systems 20
GENERAL AND SYSTEM-WIDE PRINCIPLES 20
PERFORMANCE OF GENERAL MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS 23
BASIC SPECIAL PRINCIPLES 26
CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF SU 28
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR THE CONTROL SYSTEM 29
1.4. Composition and characteristics of elements and subsystems of the control system. Objects of study 30
COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ELEMENTS 30
COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBSYSTEMS 37
OBJECTS OF RESEARCH OF CONTROL SYSTEMS 41
Basic methodological provisions for the study of control systems 45
2.1. General provisions of the methodology for researching control systems 45
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF METHODOLOGY AND THE CONCEPT OF “PROBLEM” IN RESEARCH 47
MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE STUDY 50
2.2. Principles of Research 50
SET OF BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH 51
2.3. Classification and composition of research methods 53
COMPOSITION OF METHODS 55
SELECTION OF RESEARCH METHODS 59
2.4. Concept and development of control systems research hypothesis 59
HYPOTHESIS AND ITS ROLE IN THE RESEARCH 60
3.1. Dialectical approach to research 66
TYPES OF METHODOLOGIES AND POSSIBLE APPROACHES TO RESEARCH 66
BASIC PROVISIONS OF THE DIALECTICAL APPROACH 66
3.2. Process approach to research 68
ESSENCE OF THE PROCESS APPROACH 68
3.3. Situational approach to research 70
THE ESSENCE OF A SITUATIONAL APPROACH TO RESEARCH 70
3.4. Functional approach to research 71
THE ESSENCE OF A FUNCTIONAL APPROACH TO RESEARCH 71
3.5. Reflexive approach to research 72
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS IN THE FIELD OF REFLEXIVITY 72
THE ESSENCE OF THE REFLECTIVE APPROACH 74
3.6. Systematic approach to research 76
THE ESSENCE OF A SYSTEM APPROACH TO RESEARCH 76
COMPOSITION OF SCIENCES AND SCIENTIFIC DIRECTIONS THAT ARE THE BASIS OF THE SYSTEM APPROACH 77
INTEGRATIVE-CONVERGENT CHARACTER OF THE SYSTEM APPROACH 79
Chapter 4 Theoretical methods for studying control systems 81
4.1. Basic Basic Techniques 81
FORMALIZATION METHOD 81
METHODS OF AXIOMATIZATION, IDEALIZATION, ASSIGNMENT FROM THE ABSTRACT TO THE CONCRETE 82
SIMULATION METHOD 82
4.2. Linear programming method 83
ESSENCE OF METHOD 83
4.3. Point interpolation method 85
4.4. Monte Carlo method (statistical tests) 88
4.5. Graphical methods 89
ISHIKAWA DIAGRAM 89
PARETO DIAGRAM 90
GRAPHICS AND CONTROL CHARTS 91
PIE CHART 93
NETWORK GRAPHICS 93
Chapter 5 Logical-intuitive methods for studying control systems 97
5.1. Basic principles of methods 97
ESSENCE OF LOGICAL METHODS 97
SELECTION OF INTUITIVE SEARCH STRATEGIES 102
5.2. Expert methods for studying control systems 103
METHOD OF RANKING AND DIRECT EVALUATION 108
COMPARISON METHOD 110
Low 111
Control systemsas an object of study
Research and its role in scientific and practical activities The place of management systems in organizations Principles of construction and operation of management systemsComposition and characteristics of elements and subsystems of the control systemleniya. Objects of research
1.1. Research and its role in scientific and practical activities
CONCEPT OF RESEARCH
Study As scientific work, scientific study and the process of knowledge have always been under the close attention of scientists. In general, research can be understood as a scientific work or scientific study of the subject under consideration, any object (phenomenon) in order to determine the patterns of its occurrence, improvement, development and acquisition of new knowledge. Essentially, this is one of the main types of knowledge. At the same time, it can be interpreted as a type of cognitive activity of an individual or a group, a team of researchers, which allows, on the basis of certain theories, methods and techniques of cognition, to study and evaluate the essence, features and trends in the development of phenomena, and to find opportunities for using the acquired knowledge. This fully applies to the study of the theory and practice of management, which is associated both with a specialized scientific function and with practical professional work in various fields and spheres of human activity (management, economics, production, art, education, etc.).
Thus, study is a process of studying an object and obtaining new knowledge. It can also be considered as scientific work, a type of cognitive activity; the scientific study of a certain subject, a phenomenon (object) in order to determine the laws and patterns of its occurrence, functioning, improvement, development, features and trends of transition from one state to another, obtaining and applying new knowledge in theory and practice.
Research has fundamental characteristics that determine its focus and results. Such characteristics primarily include: the need for research (the severity and need to solve problems and problems); its purpose, object and subject; methodology, type of research, resources (a certain set of tools and capabilities that ensure the successful conduct of research and achievement of its goals); research results (as the final result and effectiveness of the research, which determines the ratio and proportionality of the resources used to conduct the research and the goals achieved), etc.
When conducting research, it is important to correctly and clearly define the purpose, object and subject of the study. The research process itself, which is a set of sequential operations, is also of great importance.
Any research is effective only when the established goals of the research work are achieved, subject to other conditions (terms and costs). In this regard, the meaning inherent in the content of the concept “goal” is of paramount importance.
It should be noted that the concept of goal is interpreted ambiguously in many literary sources, for example:
desired future state;
desired states or results;
ideal representation of the desired result of the activity;
ideal, mental anticipation of the result of an activity;
an ideal image of what a person or group of people wants to achieve, since a goal is something that will or should be, i.e. only the possible state of the object;
key results that the organization strives for in its activities over a long period of time;
specifying the organization's mission in a form accessible when managing the process of their implementation;
specific end states;
designation in consciousness of the anticipation of a certain result, towards the achievement of which the actions of the subject - the bearer of this goal - are aimed or will be directed;
one of the elements of human behavior and conscious activity, which characterizes the anticipation in thinking of the result of an activity and ways of implementation using certain means;
a necessary result of activity perceived by managers and performers, which has a quantitative and qualitative definition arising from promising and socio-economic laws, as well as requirements arising within the organization itself;
an object of human arbitrariness, the idea of which determines the actions to create this object;
object of aspiration, something that needs or is desirable to be accomplished;
some final state to which the system tends due to its structural organization;
the final state of the result towards which the organization’s activities are aimed;
what is presented in the mind and expected as a result of actions directed in a certain way;
a stable whole, preserved in the continuous change of parts;
good state of mind.
Thus, the term “goal” should be perceived as desired and expressed: 1) quantitatively (how much); 2) qualitatively (that) the future state of the object having; 3) deadline (when); 4) responsible executor (who); 5) resource limitations (than). A comprehensive justification of the goal in the context of tightening competition acquires key importance, since formulating a goal without the necessary justification can lead to losses at the stage of its implementation, many times greater than the savings obtained previously. In addition, properly formulated goals can act as an effective research tool.
In relation to research, it is most preferable to consider target as a desired new research result of the state of the subject of a certain research object, expressed qualitatively and (or) quantitatively, mainly indicating the timing of its achievement, performers and resources.
Obviously, the goal cannot be identical to the future result of the research, and therefore its achievement is probabilistic in nature.
