Batu's campaign against southern Rus' The Russian people have suffered many raids, invasions and devastations since they settled along the Dnieper, Dvina, Oka, Volga, Volkhov, and along the rivers and lakes of the Beloozersky region. But such devastation as Batu’s invasion brought to North-Eastern Rus',

In 1237 - 1241 Russian lands were attacked by the Mongol Empire, a Central Asian state that conquered in the first half of the 13th century. vast territory of the Eurasian continent from Pacific Ocean to Central Europe. In Europe, the Mongols began to be called Tatars. This was the name of one of the Mongol-speaking tribes that roamed near the border with China. The Chinese transferred its name to all Mongolian tribes, and the name “Tatars” as a designation for the Mongols spread to other countries, although the Tatars themselves were almost completely exterminated during the creation of the Mongol Empire.

The term “Mongol-Tatars”, widespread in historical literature, is a combination of the self-name of the people with the term by which this people was designated by its neighbors. In 1206, at the kurultai - a congress of the Mongolian nobility - Temujin (Temuchin), who took the name of Genghis Khan, was recognized as the great khan of all Mongols. Over the next five years, Mongol troops, united by Genghis Khan, conquered the lands of their neighbors, and by 1215 they conquered Northern China. In 1221, the hordes of Genghis Khan defeated the main forces of Khorezm and conquered Central Asia.

Battle of Kalka.

First encounter Ancient Rus' happened to the Mongols in 1223, when a 30,000-strong Mongol detachment for reconnaissance purposes marched from Transcaucasia to the Black Sea steppes, defeating the Alans and Polovtsians. The Polovtsy, defeated by the Mongols, turned to the Russian princes for help. At their call, a united army led by the three strongest princes of Southern Rus' set out in the steppe: Mstislav Romanovich of Kyiv, Mstislav Svyatoslavich of Chernigov and Mstislav Metis-lavich of Galicia.

May 31, 1223 in the battle on the river. Kalka (near the Sea of ​​Azov), as a result of uncoordinated actions of its leaders, the allied Russian-Polovtsian army was defeated. Six Russian princes died, three, including the Kiev prince, were captured and brutally killed by the Mongols. The conquerors pursued the retreating right up to the Russian borders, and then turned back to the Central Asian steppes. Thus, for the first time in Rus', the military power of the Mongol hordes was felt.

Invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in Rus'.

After the death of the founder of the Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan (1227), according to his will, at the kurultai of the Mongol nobility in 1235, it was decided to begin an aggressive campaign against Europe. The grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu Khan (called Batu in Russian sources), was placed at the head of the united army of the Mongol Empire. The prominent Mongol commander Subedei, who participated in the Battle of Kalka, was appointed its first military commander.

Campaign to North-Eastern Rus' (1237 - 1238).

A year after the start of the campaign, having conquered Volga Bulgaria, the Polovtsian hordes between the Volga and Don rivers, the lands of the Burtases and Mordovians in the Middle Volga in the late autumn of 1237, Batu’s main forces concentrated in the upper reaches of the Voronezh River to invade North-Eastern Rus'.

The number of Batu's hordes, according to a number of researchers, reached 140 thousand soldiers, and the Mongols themselves numbered no more than 50 thousand people. At this time, the Russian princes could gather no more than 100 thousand soldiers from all lands, and the squads of the princes of North-Eastern Rus' amounted to no more than 1/3 of this number.

Inter-princely strife and strife in Rus' prevented the formation of a united Russian army. Therefore, the princes could only resist the Mongol invasion individually. In the winter of 1237, Batu's hordes ravaged Ryazan Principality, whose capital was burned and all its inhabitants exterminated. Following this, in January 1238, Mongol troops defeated the army of the Vladimir-Suzdal land near Kolomna, led by the son of the Grand Duke Vsevolod Yuryevich, captured Moscow, Suzdal, and on February 7 - Vladimir. On March 4, 1238, on the City River in the upper Volga, the army of Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodich was defeated. The Grand Duke himself died in this battle.

After the capture of the “suburb” of Veliky Novgorod, Torzhok, which bordered the Suzdal land, the road to North-Western Rus' opened before the Mongol hordes. But the approach of the spring thaw and significant human losses forced the conquerors to turn back to the Polovtsian steppes. An unprecedented feat was accomplished by residents of the small town of Kozelsk on the river. Zhizdre. For seven weeks they held the defense of their city. After the capture of Kozelsk in May 1238, Batu ordered that this “evil city” be wiped off the face of the earth and all its inhabitants destroyed.

Batu spent the summer of 1238 in the Don steppes, restoring his strength for further campaigns. In the spring of 1239 he destroyed the Pereyaslavl principality, and in the fall the Chernigov-Seversk land was devastated.

This is an article about the Mongol invasions of Rus' in 1237-1240. For the 1223 invasion, see Battle of the Kalka River. For later invasions, see List of Mongol-Tatar campaigns against Russian principalities.

Mongol invasion of Rus'- invasions of the troops of the Mongol Empire into the territories of the Russian principalities in 1237-1240. during the Western campaign of the Mongols ( Kipchak campaign) 1236-1242 under the leadership of Genghisid Batu and the military leader Subedei.

Background

For the first time, the task of reaching the city of Kyiv was set to Subedei by Genghis Khan in 1221: He sent Subeetai-Baatur on a campaign to the north, ordering him to reach eleven countries and peoples, such as: Kanlin, Kibchaut, Bachzhigit, Orosut, Machzharat, Asut, Sasut, Serkesut, Keshimir, Bolar, Rural (Lalat), to cross the high-water the rivers Idil and Ayakh, as well as reach the city of Kivamen-kermen When the united Russian-Polovtsian army suffered a crushing defeat in the battle on the Kalka River on May 31, 1223, the Mongols invaded the southern Russian border lands (the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary calls it the first Mongol invasion of Russia), but abandoned the plan to march on Kyiv, and then were defeated in Volga Bulgaria in 1224.

In 1228-1229, having ascended the throne, Ogedei sent a 30,000-strong corps to the west, led by Subedei and Kokoshay, against the Kipchaks and Volga Bulgars. In connection with these events, in 1229 the name of the Tatars reappears in Russian chronicles: “ Bulgarian watchmen came running from the Tatars near the river, whose name is Yaik"(and in 1232 Tatarov arrived and winter did not reach the Great Bulgarian City).

The “Secret Legend”, in relation to the period 1228-1229, reports that Ogedei

However, in 1231-1234 the Mongols waged a second war with Jin, and the movement to the west of the united forces of all uluses began immediately after the decision of the kurultai of 1235.

Gumilyov L.N. estimates the size of the Mongol army similarly (30-40 thousand people). In modern historical literature, another estimate of the total number of the Mongol army in the western campaign is dominant: 120-140 thousand soldiers, 150 thousand soldiers.

Initially, Ogedei himself planned to lead the Kipchak campaign, but Munke dissuaded him. In addition to Batu, the following Genghisids took part in the campaign: the sons of Jochi Orda-Ezhen, Shiban, Tangkut and Berke, the grandson of Chagatai Buri and the son of Chagatai Baydar, the sons of Ogedei Guyuk and Kadan, the sons of Tolui Munke and Buchek, the son of Genghis Khan Kulhan, the grandson of Genghis Khan's brother Argasun. The importance the Chingizids attached to the conquest of the Russians is evidenced by Ogedei’s monologue addressed to Guyuk, who was dissatisfied with Batu’s leadership.

The Vladimir chronicler reports in 1230: “ That same year, the Bulgarians bowed to Grand Duke Yuri, asking for peace for six years, and make peace with them" The desire for peace was supported by deeds: after the conclusion of peace in Rus', famine broke out as a result of a two-year crop failure, and the Bulgars brought ships with food to Russian cities free of charge. Under 1236: " The Tatars came to the Bulgarian land and took the glorious Great Bulgarian City, slaughtered everyone from old to young and even to the last child, and burned their city and captured all their land" Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky accepted Bulgarian refugees on his land and resettled them in Russian cities. The Battle of the Kalka River showed that even the defeat of the combined forces in a general battle is a way to undermine the forces of the invaders and force them to abandon plans for a further offensive. But in 1236, Yuri Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky and his brother Yaroslav of Novgorod, who had the largest military potential in Rus' (under 1229 in the chronicle we read: “ and bowed to Yuri, who is his father and master"), did not send troops to help the Volga Bulgars, but used them to establish control over Kiev, thereby putting an end to the Chernigov-Smolensk struggle for it and taking into their own hands the reins of the traditional Kyiv collection, which at the beginning of the 13th century was still recognized by all Russian princes . Political situation in Rus' in the period 1235-1237 was also determined by the victories of Yaroslav of Novgorod over the Order of the Sword in 1234 and Daniil Romanovich of Volyn over the Teutonic Order in 1237. Lithuania also acted against the Order of the Sword (Battle of Saul in 1236), resulting in its remnants uniting with the Teutonic Order.

First stage. North-Eastern Rus' (1237-1239)

Invasion 1237-1238

The fact that the Mongol attack on Rus' at the end of 1237 was not unexpected is evidenced by the letters and reports of the Hungarian missionary monk, Dominican Julian:

The Mongols directed the main attack on the Ryazan principality (see Defense of Ryazan). Yuri Vsevolodovich sent a united army to help the Ryazan princes: his eldest son Vsevolod with all the people, the governor Eremey Glebovich, the forces retreating from Ryazan led by Roman Ingvarevich and the Novgorod regiments - but it was too late: Ryazan fell after a 6-day siege on December 21. The sent army managed to give the invaders a fierce battle near Kolomna (on the territory of Ryazan land), but was defeated.

The Mongols invaded the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Yuri Vsevolodovich retreated to the north and began to gather an army for a new battle with the enemy, waiting for the regiment of his brothers Yaroslav (who was in Kyiv) and Svyatoslav (before that last time mentioned in the chronicle in 1229 as a prince sent by Yuri to reign in Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny). " Within the land of Suzdal"The Mongols were caught up by those returning from Chernigov" in a small squad“The Ryazan boyar Evpatiy Kolovrat, together with the remnants of the Ryazan troops and thanks to the surprise of the attack, was able to inflict significant losses on them (some editions of “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu” tell about the solemn funeral of Evpatiy Kolovrat in the Ryazan Cathedral on January 11, 1238). On January 20, after 5 days of resistance, Moscow fell, which was defended by Yuri’s youngest son Vladimir and governor Philip Nyanka “ with a small army", Vladimir Yuryevich was captured and then killed in front of the walls of Vladimir. Vladimir himself was taken on February 7 after a five-day siege (see Defense of Vladimir), and the entire family of Yuri Vsevolodovich died. In addition to Vladimir, in February 1238, Suzdal, Yuryev-Polsky, Starodub-on-Klyazma, Gorodets, Kostroma, Galich-Mersky, Vologda, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Kashin, Ksnyatin, Dmitrov and Volok Lamsky were taken, the most stubborn resistance except Moscow and Vladimir were supported by Pereyaslavl-Zalessky (taken by the Chingizids together in 5 days), Tver and Torzhok (defense of February 22 - March 5), which lay on the direct route of the main Mongol forces from Vladimir to Novgorod. One of the sons of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich died in Tver, whose name has not been preserved. The Volga region cities, whose defenders had gone with their princes Konstantinovich to Yuri on the Sit, were attacked by the secondary forces of the Mongols, led by Temnik Burundai. On March 4, 1238, they unexpectedly attacked the Russian army (see Battle of the City River) and were able to defeat it, however, they themselves “ suffered a great plague, and many of them fell" In the battle, Vsevolod Konstantinovich Yaroslavsky died along with Yuri, Vasilko Konstantinovich Rostovsky was captured (later killed), Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich and Vladimir Konstantinovich Uglitsky managed to escape.

Summing up the defeat of Yuri and the ruin of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, first Russian historian Tatishchev V.N. says that the losses of the Mongol troops were many times greater than the losses of the Russians, but the Mongols made up for their losses at the expense of prisoners (prisoners covered their destruction), who at that time turned out to be more numerous than the Mongols themselves ( and especially the prisoners). In particular, the assault on Vladimir was launched only after one of the Mongol detachments that took Suzdal returned with many prisoners. However, eastern sources, which repeatedly mention the use of prisoners during the Mongol conquests in China and Central Asia, do not mention the use of prisoners for military purposes in Rus' and Central Europe.

After the capture of Torzhok on March 5, 1238, the main forces of the Mongols, having united with the remnants of Burundai’s army, did not reach 100 versts to Novgorod and turned back to the steppes (according to different versions, due to the spring thaw or due to high losses). On the way back, the Mongol army moved in two groups. The main group traveled 30 km east of Smolensk, stopping in the Dolgomostye area. The literary source - “The Tale of Mercury of Smolensk” - talks about the defeat and flight of the Mongol troops. Next, the main group went south, invaded the Chernigov principality and burned Vshchizh, located in close proximity to the central regions of the Chernigov-Seversky principality, but then turned sharply to the northeast and, bypassing the large cities of Bryansk and Karachev, besieged Kozelsk. The eastern group, led by Kadan and Buri, passed by Ryazan in the spring of 1238. The siege of Kozelsk dragged on for 7 weeks. In May 1238, the Mongols united near Kozelsk and took it during a three-day assault, suffering heavy losses both in equipment and in human resources during the attacks of the besieged.

Yaroslav Vsevolodovich was succeeded by Vladimir after his brother Yuri, and Kyiv was occupied by Mikhail Chernigovsky, thus concentrating in his hands Principality of Galicia, Principality of Kiev and Principality of Chernigov.

Invasions 1238-1239

At the end of 1238 - beginning of 1239, the Mongols led by Subedei, having suppressed the uprising in Volga Bulgaria and Mordovian land, again invaded Rus', ravaged the outskirts of Nizhny Novgorod, Gorokhovets, Gorodets, Murom, and Ryazan again. On March 3, 1239, a detachment under the command of Berke ravaged Pereyaslavl South.

The Lithuanian invasion of the Grand Duchy of Smolensk and the campaign of Galician troops against Lithuania with the participation of 12-year-old Rostislav Mikhailovich also date back to this period (taking advantage of the absence of the main Galician forces, Daniil Romanovich Volynsky captured Galich, establishing himself in it completely). Considering the death of the Vladimir army in the City at the beginning of 1238, this campaign played a certain role in the success of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich near Smolensk. In addition, when in the summer of 1240 the Swedish feudal lords, together with the Teutonic knights, launched an attack on Novgorod land, in the battle on the river. Neva, the son of Yaroslav, Alexander Novgorod, stops the Swedes with the forces of his squad, and the beginning of successful independent actions of the troops of North-Eastern Rus' after the invasion dates back only to the period 1242-1245 (Battle of the Ice and victories over the Lithuanians).

Second stage (1239-1240)

Principality of Chernigov

After the siege that began on October 18, 1239, using powerful siege technology, the Mongols captured Chernigov (an army led by Prince Mstislav Glebovich unsuccessfully tried to help the city). After the fall of Chernigov, the Mongols did not go north, but took up robbery and destruction in the east, along the Desna and Seim - archaeological studies showed that Lyubech (in the north) was untouched, but the towns of the principality bordering the Polovtsian steppe, such as Putivl, Glukhov, Vyr and Rylsk were destroyed and devastated. At the beginning of 1240, an army led by Munke reached the left bank of the Dnieper opposite Kyiv. An embassy was sent to the city with a proposal to surrender, but it was destroyed. Prince of Kyiv Mikhail Vsevolodovich left for Hungary in order to marry the daughter of King Bela IV Anna to his eldest son Rostislav (the wedding would take place only in 1244 to commemorate the alliance against Daniil of Galicia).

Daniil Galitsky captured in Kyiv the Smolensk prince Rostislav Mstislavich, who was trying to take over the great reign, and put his thousandth Dmitry in the city, returned Mikhail’s wife (his sister), captured by Yaroslav on the way to Hungary, gave Mikhail Lutsk to feed (with the prospect of returning to Kyiv), his ally Izyaslav Vladimirovich Novgorod-Seversky - Kamenets.

Already in the spring of 1240, after the devastation of the Dnieper left bank by the Mongols, Ogedei decided to recall Munke and Guyuk from the western campaign.

The Laurentian Chronicle records in 1241 the murder of the Rylsky prince Mstislav by the Mongols (according to L. Voitovich, the son of Svyatoslav Olgovich Rylsky).

Southwestern Rus'

On September 5, 1240, the Mongol army led by Batu and other Chingizids besieged Kyiv and only took it on November 19 (according to other sources, December 6; perhaps it was on December 6 that the last stronghold of the defenders, the Tithe Church, fell). Daniil Galitsky, who owned Kiev at that time, was in Hungary, trying - like Mikhail Vsevolodovich a year earlier - to conclude a dynastic marriage with the King of Hungary, Bela IV, and also unsuccessfully (the marriage of Lev Danilovich and Constance to commemorate the Galician-Hungarian union would take place only in 1247) . The defense of the “mother of Russian cities” was led by Dmitry Tysyatsky. The “Biography of Daniil Galitsky” says about Daniil:

Dmitry was captured. Ladyzhin and Kamenets were taken. The Mongols failed to take Kremenets. The capture of Vladimir-Volynsky was marked by an important event in internal Mongolian politics - Guyuk and Munke left Batu for Mongolia. The departure of the tumens of the most influential (after Batu) Chingizids undoubtedly reduced the strength of the Mongol army. In this regard, researchers believe that further movement to the west was undertaken by Batu on his own initiative.
Dmitry advised Batu to leave Galicia and go to the Ugrians without cooking:

The main forces of the Mongols, led by Baydar, invaded Poland, the rest led by Batu, Kadan and Subedei, taking Galich to Hungary in three days.

The Ipatiev Chronicle under 1241 mentions the princes of Ponizhye ( Bolokhovsky), who agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols in grain and thereby avoided the destruction of their lands, their campaign together with Prince Rostislav Mikhailovich against the city of Bakota and the successful punitive campaign of the Romanovichs; under 1243 - the campaign of two military leaders Batu against Volyn up to the city of Volodava in the middle reaches of the Western Bug.

Historical meaning

As a result of the invasion, about half of the population died. Kyiv, Vladimir, Suzdal, Ryazan, Tver, Chernigov, and many other cities were destroyed. The exceptions were Veliky Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, as well as the cities of Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities. The developed urban culture of Ancient Rus' was destroyed.

For several decades, stone construction practically ceased in Russian cities. Complex crafts, such as the production of glass jewelry, cloisonne enamel, niello, grain, and polychrome glazed ceramics, disappeared. “Rus was thrown back several centuries, and in those centuries, when the guild industry of the West moved to the era of primitive accumulation, the Russian handicraft industry had to go through part of that again historical path, which was done before Batu."

The southern Russian lands lost almost their entire settled population. The surviving population fled to the forested northeast, concentrating in the area between the Northern Volga and Oka rivers. There were poorer soils and a colder climate than in the completely devastated southern regions of Rus', and trade routes were under the control of the Mongols. In its socio-economic development, Rus' was significantly thrown back.

“Military historians also note the fact that the process of differentiation of functions between rifle formations and heavy cavalry units specializing in direct impact cold steel, in Rus' ended immediately after the invasion: there was a unification of these functions in the person of the same feudal warrior, forced to shoot with a bow and fight with a spear and sword. Thus, the Russian army, even in its selected, purely feudal in composition part (princely squads), was thrown back a couple of centuries: progress in military affairs was always accompanied by the division of functions and their assignment to successively emerging branches of the military, their unification (or rather, reunification) is a clear sign of regression. Be that as it may, Russian chronicles of the 14th century do not contain even a hint of separate detachments of riflemen, similar to the Genoese crossbowmen, the English archers of the Hundred Years' War. This is understandable: such detachments of “dacha people” cannot be formed; professional shooters were required, that is, people separated from production who sold their art and blood for hard cash; Rus', thrown back economically, simply couldn’t afford mercenaries.”

The first principality to be mercilessly devastated was the Ryazan land. In the winter of 1237, Batu's hordes invaded its borders, ruining and destroying everything in their path. The princes of Vladimir and Chernigov refused to help Ryazan. The Mongols besieged Ryazan and sent envoys who demanded submission and one-tenth “part in everything.” Karamzin also points out other details: “Yuri of Ryazan, abandoned by the Grand Duke, sent his son Theodore with gifts to Batu, who, having learned about the beauty of Theodore’s wife Eupraxia, wanted to see her, but this young prince answered him that Christians do not show their wives wicked pagans. Batu ordered to kill him; and the unfortunate Eupraxia, having learned of the death of her beloved husband, together with her baby, John, rushed from the high tower to the ground and lost her life.” The point is that Batu began to demand from the Ryazan princes and nobles “daughters and sisters on his bed.”

The Ryazantsev’s courageous answer to everything followed: “If we are all gone, then everything will be yours.” On the sixth day of the siege, December 21, 1237, the city was taken, the princely family and surviving residents were killed. In its old place, Ryazan was no longer revived (modern Ryazan is new town, located 60 km from old Ryazan, it was previously called Pereyaslavl Ryazan).

The grateful people's memory preserves the story of the feat of the Ryazan hero Evpatiy Kolovrat, who entered into an unequal battle with the invaders and earned the respect of Batu himself for his valor and courage.

Having ravaged the Ryazan land in January 1238, the Mongol invaders defeated the Grand Duke's guard regiment of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, led by the son of the Grand Duke Vsevolod Yuryevich, near Kolomna. Actually it was the entire Vladimir army. This defeat predetermined the fate of North-Eastern Rus'. During the battle for Kolomna, the last son of Genghis Khan, Kulkan, was killed. The Chingizids, as usual, did not take direct part in the battle. Therefore, the death of Kulkan near Kolomna suggests that the Russians; Probably, it was possible to deliver a strong blow to the Mongol rear in some place.

Then moving along frozen rivers (Oka and others), the Mongols captured Moscow, where the entire population put up strong resistance for 5 days under the leadership of governor Philip Nyanka. Moscow was completely burned, and all its inhabitants were killed.

On February 4, 1238, Batu besieged Vladimir. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich left Vladimir in advance to organize a rebuff to uninvited guests in the northern forests on the Sit River. He took two nephews with him, and left the Grand Duchess and two sons in the city.

The Mongols prepared for the assault on Vladimir according to all the rules of military science that they had learned in China. They built siege towers near the walls of the city in order to be on the same level with the besieged and at the right moment throw “crossbars” over the walls; they installed “vices” - battering and throwing machines. At night, a “tyn” was erected around the city - an external fortification to protect against attacks by the besieged and to cut off all their escape routes.

Before the storming of the city at the Golden Gate, in front of the besieged Vladimir residents, the Mongols killed the younger prince Vladimir Yuryevich, who had recently defended Moscow. Mstislav Yuryevich soon died on the defensive line. Last Son Grand Duke Vsevolod, who fought the horde in Kolomna, during the assault on Vladimir, decided to enter into negotiations with Batu. With a small squad and large gifts, he left the besieged city, but the khan did not want to talk to the prince and “like a ferocious beast did not spare his youth, he ordered him to be slaughtered before him.”

After this the horde rushed towards final assault. Grand Duchess, Bishop Mitrofan, other princely wives, boyars and some ordinary people, last defenders Vladimir took refuge in the Assumption Cathedral. On February 7, 1238, the invaders broke into the city through breaks in the fortress wall and set it on fire. Many people died from fire and suffocation, not excluding those who took refuge in the cathedral. The most valuable monuments of literature, art and architecture perished in fire and ruins.

After the capture and devastation of Vladimir, the horde spread throughout the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, ravaging and burning cities, towns and villages. During February, 14 cities were plundered between the Klyazma and Volga rivers: Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Galich, Dmitrov, Tver, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Yuryev and others.

On March 4, 1238, across the Volga on the City River, a battle took place between the main forces of North-Eastern Rus', led by the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich and the Mongol invaders. 49-year-old Yuri Vsevolodovich was a brave fighter and quite an experienced military leader. Behind him were victories over the Germans, Lithuanians, Mordovians, Kama Bulgarians and those Russian princes who laid claim to his grand-ducal throne. However, in organizing and preparing Russian troops for the battle on the City River, he made a number of serious miscalculations: he showed carelessness in the defense of his military camp, did not pay due attention to reconnaissance, allowed his commanders to disperse the army over several villages and did not establish reliable communications between disparate detachments.

And when a large Mongol formation under the command of Barendey completely unexpectedly appeared in the Russian camp, the result of the battle was obvious. Chronicles and archaeological excavations in the City indicate that the Russians were defeated piecemeal, fled, and the horde cut people like grass. Yuri Vsevolodovich himself also died in this unequal battle. The circumstances of his death remain unknown. Only the following testimony has reached us about the prince of Novgorod, a contemporary of that sad event: “God knows how he died, for others say a lot about him.”

From this time on in Rus' it began Mongol yoke: Rus' became obliged to pay tribute to the Mongols, and the princes had to receive the title of Grand Duke from the hands of the khan. The term “yoke” itself in the meaning of oppression was first used in 1275 by Metropolitan Kirill.

The Mongol hordes moved to the north-west of Rus'. Everywhere they met stubborn resistance from the Russians. For two weeks, for example, the Novgorod suburb of Torzhok was defended. However, the approach of the spring thaw and significant human losses forced the Mongols, before reaching Veliky Novgorod about 100 versts, to turn south from the stone Ignach Cross to the Polovtsian steppes. The withdrawal was in the nature of a “round-up”. Divided into separate detachments, the invaders “combed” Russian cities from north to south. Smolensk managed to fight back. Kursk was destroyed, like other centers. The greatest resistance to the Mongols was provided by the small city of Kozelsk, which held out for seven (!) weeks. The town stood on a steep slope, washed by two rivers - Zhizdra and Druchusnaya. In addition to these natural barriers, it was reliably covered by wooden fortress walls with towers and a ditch about 25 meters deep.

Before the horde arrived, the Kozelites managed to freeze a layer of ice on floor wall And entrance gate, which made it much more difficult for the enemy to storm the city. Residents of the town wrote a heroic page in Russian history with their blood. It’s not for nothing that the Mongols called it “the evil city.” The Mongols stormed Ryazan for six days, Moscow for five days, Vladimir a little longer, Torzhok for fourteen days, and little Kozelsk fell on the 50th day, probably only because the Mongols - for the umpteenth time! They used their favorite trick - after another unsuccessful assault, they imitated a stampede. The besieged Kozelites, in order to complete their victory, made a general sortie, but were surrounded by superior enemy forces and all were killed. The Horde finally burst into the city and drowned the remaining residents there in blood, including the 4-year-old Prince Kozelsk.

Having devastated North-Eastern Rus', Batu Khan and Subedey-Baghatur withdrew their troops to the Don steppes to rest. Here the horde spent the entire summer of 1238. In the fall, Batu’s troops repeated raids on Ryazan and other Russian cities and towns that had so far escaped devastation. Murom, Gorokhovets, Yaropolch (modern Vyazniki), and Nizhny Novgorod were defeated.

And in 1239, Batu’s hordes invaded Southern Rus'. They took and burned Pereyaslavl, Chernigov and other settlements.

On September 5, 1240, the troops of Batu, Subedei and Barendey crossed the Dnieper and surrounded Kyiv on all sides. At that time, Kyiv was compared with Constantinople (Constantinople) in terms of wealth and large population. The city's population was close to 50 thousand people. Shortly before the arrival of the horde, the Galician prince Daniil Romanovich took possession of the throne of Kyiv. When she appeared, he went west to defend his ancestral possessions, and entrusted the defense of Kyiv to Dmitry Tysyatsky.

The city was defended by artisans, suburban peasants, and merchants. There were few professional warriors. Therefore, the defense of Kyiv, like Kozelsk, can rightfully be considered a people’s defense.

Kyiv was well fortified. The thickness of its earthen ramparts reached 20 meters at the base. The walls were oak, with earthen backfill. There were stone defensive towers with gateways in the walls. Along the ramparts there was a ditch filled with water, 18 meters wide.

Subedei, of course, was well aware of the difficulties of the upcoming assault. Therefore, he first sent his ambassadors to Kyiv demanding its immediate and complete surrender. But the Kievans did not negotiate and killed the ambassadors, and we know what this meant for the Mongols. Then a systematic siege began ancient city in Rus'.

The Russian medieval chronicler described it this way: “... Tsar Batu came to the city of Kyiv with many soldiers and surrounded the city... and it was impossible for anyone to leave the city or enter the city. And it was impossible to hear each other in the city from the creaking of carts, the roar of camels, from the sounds of trumpets... from the neighing of horse herds and from the screams and screams of countless people... Many vices beat (on the walls) incessantly, day and night, and the townspeople fought hard, and there were many dead... the Tatars broke through the city walls and entered the city, and the townspeople rushed towards them. And one could see and hear the terrible cracking of spears and the knocking of shields; the arrows darkened the light, so that the sky could not be seen behind the arrows, but there was darkness from the multitude of Tatar arrows, and the dead lay everywhere, and blood flowed everywhere like water... and the townspeople were defeated, and the Tatars climbed the walls, but from great fatigue they settled on walls of the city. And night came. That night the townspeople created another city, near the Church of the Holy Virgin. The next morning the Tatars came against them, and there was a vicious slaughter. And the people began to be exhausted, and they ran with their belongings into the church vaults and the church walls fell down from the weight, and the Tatars took the city of Kyiv on the month of December, the 6th day...”

In the works of the pre-revolutionary years, the fact is cited that the courageous organizer of the defense of Kyiv, Dimitar, was captured by the Mongols and brought to Batu.

“This formidable conqueror, having no idea about the virtues of philanthropy, knew how to appreciate extraordinary courage and with a look of proud pleasure said to the Russian governor: “I will give you life!” Dmitry accepted the gift, because he could still be useful for the fatherland and was left with Batu.”

Thus ended the heroic defense of Kyiv, which lasted 93 days. The invaders plundered the church of St. Sofia, all other monasteries, and the surviving Kievites killed every last one, regardless of age.

The next year, 1241, the Galician-Volyn principality was destroyed. On the territory of Rus', the Mongol yoke was established, which lasted 240 years (1240-1480). This is the point of view of historians at the Faculty of History of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov.

In the spring of 1241, the horde rushed to the West to conquer all the “evening countries” and extend its power to all of Europe, right down to the last sea, as Genghis Khan bequeathed.

Western Europe, like Rus', was experiencing a period of feudal fragmentation at that time. Torn apart by internal strife and rivalry between small and large rulers, it could not unite to stop the invasion of the steppes through common efforts. Alone at that time, not a single European state was able to withstand the military onslaught of the horde, especially its fast and hardy cavalry, which played a decisive role in military operations. Therefore, despite the courageous resistance of the European peoples, in 1241 the hordes of Batu and Subedey invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Moldova, and in 1242 they reached Croatia and Dalmatia - the Balkan countries. For Western Europe the critical moment has arrived. However, at the end of 1242, Batu turned his troops to the east. What's the matter? The Mongols had to reckon with ongoing resistance in the rear of their troops. At the same time, they suffered a series of, albeit minor, failures in the Czech Republic and Hungary. But most importantly, their army was exhausted by battles with the Russians. And then from distant Karakorum, the capital of Mongolia, news came of the death of the Great Khan. During the subsequent division of the empire, Batu must be on his own. This was a very convenient excuse to stop a difficult hike.

About the world-historical significance of the struggle of Rus' with the Horde conquerors, A.S. Pushkin wrote:

“Russia was destined for a high destiny...its vast plains absorbed the power of the Mongols and stopped their invasion at the very edge of Europe; The barbarians did not dare to leave enslaved Rus' in their rear and returned to the steppes of their east. The resulting enlightenment was saved by a torn and dying Russia...”

Reasons for the Mongols' success.

The question of why the nomads, who were significantly inferior to the conquered peoples of Asia and Europe in economic and cultural terms, subjugated them to their power for almost three centuries, has always been the focus of attention, both domestic and foreign historians. No textbook teaching aid; a historical monograph, to one degree or another, considering the problems of the formation of the Mongol Empire and its conquests, which would not reflect this problem. To imagine this in such a way that if Rus' were united, it would show the Mongols is not a historically justified thought, although it is clear that the level of resistance would be an order of magnitude higher. But the example of a united China, as indicated earlier, destroys this scheme, although it is present in historical literature. Quantity and quality can be considered more reasonable military force each side has other military factors. In other words, the Mongols were superior to their opponents in military power. As already noted, the Steppe was always militarily superior to the Forest in ancient times. After this short introduction to the “problem,” we list the factors for the victory of the steppe inhabitants cited in the historical literature.

The feudal fragmentation of Rus', Europe and weak interstate relations between the countries of Asia and Europe, which did not allow them to unite their forces and repel the conquerors.

Numerical superiority of the conquerors. There was a lot of debate among historians about how many Batu brought to Rus'. N.M. Karamzin indicated the figure of 300 thousand soldiers. However, serious analysis does not allow us to even come close to this figure. Each Mongol horseman (and they were all horsemen) had at least 2, and most likely 3 horses. Where can 1 million horses be fed in winter in forested Rus'? Not a single chronicle even raises this topic. Therefore, modern historians call the figure a maximum of 150 thousand Mughals who came to Rus'; more cautious ones settle on the figure of 120-130 thousand. And all of Rus', even if it united, could put up 50 thousand, although there are figures up to 100 thousand. So in reality the Russians could field 10-15 thousand soldiers for battle. Here the following circumstance should be taken into account. The striking force of the Russian squads - the princely armies were in no way inferior to the Mughals, but the bulk of the Russian squads are militia warriors, not professional warriors, but those who took up arms simple people, no match for the professional Mongol warriors. The tactics of the warring parties also differed.

The Russians were forced to adhere to defensive tactics designed to starve the enemy. Why? The fact is that in a direct military clash in the field, the Mongol cavalry had clear advantages. Therefore, the Russians tried to sit out behind the fortress walls of their cities. However, the wooden fortresses could not withstand the pressure of the Mongol troops. In addition, the conquerors used continuous assault tactics and successfully used siege weapons and equipment that were perfect for their time, borrowed from the peoples of China, Central Asia and the Caucasus they conquered.

The Mongols conducted good reconnaissance before the start of hostilities. They had informants even among the Russians. In addition, the Mongol military leaders did not personally participate in the battles, but led the battle from their headquarters, which, as a rule, was located in a high place. Russian princes up to Vasily II the Dark (1425-1462) themselves directly participated in the battles. Therefore, very often, in the event of even the heroic death of a prince, his soldiers, deprived of professional leadership, found themselves in a very difficult situation.

It is important to note that Batu’s attack on Rus' in 1237 was a complete surprise for the Russians. The Mongol hordes undertook it in winter, attacking the Ryazan principality. Ryazan residents were accustomed only to summer and autumn raids by enemies, mainly Polovtsians. Therefore, no one expected a winter blow. What were the steppe people pursuing with their winter attack? The fact is that the rivers, which were a natural barrier for enemy cavalry in summer period, were covered with ice in winter and lost their protective functions.

In addition, food supplies and feed for livestock were prepared in Rus' for the winter. Thus, the conquerors were already provided with food for their cavalry before the attack.

These, according to most historians, were the main and tactical reasons for the Mongol victories.

Consequences of Batu's invasion.

The results of the Mongol conquest for the Russian lands were extremely difficult. In terms of scale, the destruction and casualties suffered as a result of the invasion could not be compared with the damage caused by the raids of nomads and princely feuds. First of all, the invasion caused enormous damage to all lands at the same time. According to archaeologists, of the 74 cities that existed in Rus' in the pre-Mongol period, 49 were completely destroyed by Batu’s hordes. At the same time, a third of them were depopulated forever and were never restored, and 15 former cities became villages. Only Veliky Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Polotsk and the Turov-Pinsk principality were not affected, primarily due to the fact that the Mongol hordes bypassed them. The population of Russian lands also decreased sharply. Most of the townspeople either died in battles or were taken by the conquerors into “full” (slavery). Handicraft production was particularly affected. After the invasion of Rus', some craft industries and specialties disappeared, stone construction stopped, and manufacturing secrets were lost glassware, cloisonne enamel, multi-colored ceramics, etc. Professional Russian warriors - princely warriors, and many princes who died in battles with the enemy suffered huge losses. Only half a century later in Rus' the service class began to be restored, and accordingly the structure of the patrimonial and only the nascent landowner economy.

However, the main consequence of the Mongol invasion of Rus' and the establishment of Horde rule from the middle of the 13th century was a sharp increase in the isolation of Russian lands, the disappearance of the old political and legal system and the organization of the power structure that was once characteristic of the Old Russian state. For Rus' in the 9th-13th centuries, located between Europe and Asia, it was extremely important which way it would turn - to the East or to the West. Kievan Rus managed to maintain a neutral position between them, it was open to both the West and the East.

But the new political situation of the 13th century, the invasion of the Mongols and crusade European Catholic knights, who questioned the continued existence of Rus' and its Orthodox culture, were forced political elite Rus' to make a certain choice. The fate of the country for many centuries, including modern times, depended on this choice.

The collapse of the political unity of Ancient Rus' also marked the beginning of the disappearance of the Old Russian people, which became the progenitor of the three currently existing East Slavic peoples. Since the 14th century, the Russian (Great Russian) nationality has been formed in the northeast and northwest of Rus'; on the lands that became part of Lithuania and Poland - Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities.

Campaigns of Khan Batu to Rus'

Batu is the grandson of Genghis Khan and Khan of the Golden Horde. In 1227 Genghis Khan died, leaving his son Ogedei as his heir. In the 30s, Khan Ogedei decided to conquer the spaces in the north of the Caspian and Black Seas. Batu, the son of Jochi, was appointed head of this campaign.

So, in 1237 Batu's grandiose campaign against Rus' begins. It must be said that the Russian princes were aware of all the movements of the Mongol-Tatars, they knew about the campaign of conquest and were preparing to fight back. However, the enemy was too strong, and fragmentation in Rus' only contributed to defeat. Although several princes united in an attempt to push back the conqueror, their forces were not enough to defeat such a strong army.

The first Russian volost that Batu targeted was Ryazan. The Ryazan prince and his allies refused the offer to voluntarily surrender. They received no help from neighboring lands, so they had to fight alone. Ryazan survived for 5 whole days against an army of thousands of Mongol-Tatars. December 21, 1237 the city was captured, burned and plundered.

In 1238 The Tatars went to the Vladimir-Suzdal lands, where the surviving Ryazan residents found shelter. In a fierce battle near Kolomna, the Tatars again won, after which they approached Moscow, a suburb of Vladimir. Muscovites were able to resist the enemy for 5 days, after which the city fell.

February 3, 1238 Batu approached Vladimir and began a siege, simultaneously sending several detachments to attack Suzdal. For 4 days the invaders unsuccessfully tried to break into the city through the Golden Gate, and then they made a hole in the city walls and finally broke into Vladimir. Prince Yuri, calling on soldiers from neighboring lands for help, tried to recapture the city. March 4, 1238 A battle took place near the City River in which the entire Russian army died, including Prince Yuri. Thus, North-Eastern Rus' was completely captured.

At this time, another detachment of conquerors will go to the northwest. There the Tatars met stubborn resistance from Torzhok, a suburb of Novgorod. They unsuccessfully tried to take the city for 2 weeks, after which they smashed the walls and killed the entire population.

When the path to Novgorod was open, Batu, for unclear reasons, turned back. On the way back, the Tatars ravaged all the populated areas they came across, but their campaign was delayed by the town of Kozelsk for 7 weeks. Without any help, the residents defended the city, made forays and destroyed the Tatars’ military weapons. When the city was captured, the Tatars killed everyone, not sparing women and children.

Over the next 2 years, Batu's army recuperated in the steppes, while simultaneously collecting information about Western and Central Europe.

In 1240 The 2nd campaign of Khan Batu against Rus' began. The Mongols captured Murom, Chernigov and Pereyaslavl, and then besieged Kyiv. The city fought bravely for 3 months, despite the fact that the Kiev prince fled. Having taken the city, the Tatars killed all its inhabitants. The few survivors were enslaved.

In 1241 Batu went to Europe, passing through Galicia-Volyn Rus'. Having conquered the Czech Republic, Poland and Hungary, Batu was forced to return home, as his army was exhausted.

The invasion of the Mongol-Tatars devastated Rus', but they failed to break the Russian spirit and destroy the ancient Russian civilization.