What is an export quota? Basic concepts and methodology of international economics

Quota is the maximum volume (in value or physical terms) of supplies of a certain product within the agreed regime.

QUOTATION

FOREIGN TRADE REGULATION

ADMINISTRATIVE METHODS OF STATE

In addition to economic ones, the state actively applies administrative measures of non-tariff regulation.

1. QUANTITATIVE RESTRICTIONS ON EXPORT AND IMPORT:

Quotas- foreign trade quota - a quantitative limitation on the volume of exports or imports of certain goods.

An import quota, unlike an import duty, allows you to precisely limit the quantitative volume of imported goods.

The export quota was used in the Russian Federation until 1994 mainly as a tool to control exports given the significant difference between world and domestic (lower) prices for a number of products. traditional goods Russian exports. As domestic prices approached world prices, the number of quota goods decreased. Since July 1, 1994 (Government Decree No. 758) quotas are limited only to the fulfillment of the international obligations of the Russian Federation and are carried out only for the export of a narrow list of goods: raw aluminum, silicon carbide, ammonium nitrate, threads of yarn, fabrics, finished textile products.

Quotas can be classified as follows:

General (for state needs, regional, auction) - determined by the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade;

Natural, associated with the limited capacity of oil pipelines and oil terminals in ports. The mode of their operation is determined by the Government Decree “On the export of oil and petroleum products outside the customs territory Russian Federation from January 1, 1995." Oil producing and processing plants gain access to oil pipelines in proportion to the volume of oil production or refining;

Exceptional quotas introduced by the Government in exceptional cases related to ensuring the national security of Russia, protecting the domestic market, and fulfilling international obligations.

Quotas for the import of goods are introduced:

To protect national producers from foreign competition;

To protect the national market from being “eroded” by cheap products from developing countries.

Mostly, import quotas are used by countries with developed market economy. For example, in Japan, import allocation is extended to more than 70 product items, many of them are the main products of Japanese Agriculture(milk, dairy products, beef, etc.). And since in this country production costs in agriculture are higher than in other countries, the government supports its agricultural entrepreneurs through quotas.

Export quotas are introduced, firstly, for products that are in short supply on the national market, and, secondly, in connection with trade and political measures taken by the government.

Export quotas are used by both developed and developing countries. It is widely used in Russia. The total volume of goods whose exports are subject to quotas was about 70% in the early 90s. The purpose of quotas in relation to raw materials, including energy resources, is to preserve goods for consumption on the domestic market and to support industries that use cheap raw materials.

An example of an export quota would be the quota for the export of ammonium nitrate to the UK: it was established until 1999 in the amount of 100 thousand tons per year

There are also:

Global quotas are set for the import of a certain product from all or from a group of countries (for example, in the United States, quotas are used to regulate the import of certain types of cheese, chocolate, cotton, nuts, ice cream, coffee, etc.

Seasonal quotas

Tariff quotas – i.e. within the established quotas, goods are imported without collecting customs duties, and when importing above this limit, high duties are charged. For example, in the USA the import of milk, fish, potatoes, and some types of motorcycles is regulated in this way.

In the Russian Federation, the modern procedure for quotas and licensing of foreign trade activities is established by the Law of the Russian Federation “On State Regulation of Foreign Trade Activities”.

Exports and imports in our country are mainly carried out without quantitative restrictions. These restrictions are introduced only in exceptional cases by the Government of the Russian Federation for the purposes of: ensuring the national security of the Russian Federation, fulfilling the international obligations of the Russian Federation, taking into account the state of the domestic goods market, and protecting the domestic market.

Narcotic drugs, potent and toxic substances are subject to quotas for both import and export.

When imported, the following are subject to quotas: ethyl alcohol, vodka, gunpowder, explosives, explosives and pyrotechnic products.

When exporting goods, the following are subject to quotas in accordance with the international obligations of the Russian Federation: silicon carbide and textile goods (threads, yarn, clothing - men's, women's, children's, outerwear, underwear - blankets, rugs, bed linen, kitchen linen, other finished textile goods) in EU countries, as well as goods containing precious metals and stones, amber and products made from it.

The quota for the export of silicon carbide is established annually as a result of negotiations between the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade of Russia and the EU Commission and is formalized in the form of a decision of the EU Commission. Exports to the EU countries, carried out by Stankoimport under a general license, are subject to licensing in the amount of the established quota. Other supplies of silicon carbide from Russia are not subject to quotas or licensed.

The export quota for textile goods is established by an agreement between the Russian Federation and the EU. The quota is annual and is determined through negotiations between the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade (Ministry of Economic Development) and the EU Commission. Export of textiles to other countries is not subject to quotas or licensing.

In addition, Russia imposes quotas on sugar imports:

In December 2000, tariff quotas for the import of raw sugar were introduced in Russia.. However, now the initiators of the introduction of quotas say that this measure has not justified itself and in order to stabilize the sugar market it is necessary to urgently introduce additional tool restrictions on the import of raw materials - seasonal duties. If the government introduces seasonal duties, the balance of power in the sugar market could change significantly.

The right to import or export a quota-bound product must be confirmed license.

The problems of the modern raw material strategy of oil exporters are by no means limited to investment policy, but persist in other related areas, the most important of which continue to include ensuring optimal export volumes and, accordingly, foreign exchange earnings, as well as pricing. All these questions are of particular interest, since their analysis allows us to approach the solution of more common problems- the essence of OPEC, the mechanism of interaction between its participants - which continue to be the subject of a long and fairly lively discussion among researchers, especially during the decade that has passed since the first aggravation of the energy crisis in the world capitalist economy. The energy and raw materials sector of Libya and Algeria, as well as this group of industries in other OPEC member countries, is characterized by an extremely high export quota. The digital values of this indicator in relation to the main sub-

In order to curb the development of the noted processes in order to preserve the role of oil, natural gas and their products as long as possible as a major source of export income, a number of OPEC members, including Algeria and Libya, are developing and are already beginning to implement programs for saving the most scarce types of hydrocarbon raw materials and switching to alternative energy resources. Libya is building a nuclear power plant with the assistance of the USSR, Algeria intends to develop solar energy. It is still difficult to judge how successful these events will be. For example, the ADR expects to slow down the decline in the export quota in the total production of primary energy resources from 8.5% in 1970-1979. (when it decreased from the initial level of 93.5 to 85%) to 5.2% during 1979-1990, in order to reserve 79.8% of annual production for supplies abroad by the end of the forecast period and expand the physical volume of the latter more than 78 million tons annually in terms of oil equivalent (calculated by ). Further growth in the export of natural gas should be of decisive importance for the implementation of these plans. It would make it possible to compensate for the absolute and relative decrease in the foreign trade potential of the oil industry, which by the early 90s is unlikely to significantly exceed half of the limited capacity for the production of liquid hydrocarbons (see Appendix, Table 4).

Export quota Libya ANDR 59.9 21.4 53.4 34.2 59.0 34.2

By the end of the 1970s, disagreements between these three groups of countries over the distribution of total production, the size of export quotas, pricing policies and revenues increased. The weakening position of OPEC in the global oil market contributed to the strengthening of these disagreements. OPEC has lost its power

After a shock price drop in 1986, OPEC countries tried to regain control of the market by introducing export quotas and reducing oil production. Prices rose again, especially in 1989. However, this OPEC success turned out to be temporary. In the 70s, OPEC accounted for half of world oil production, and in 1985 it accounted for less than 31%. With such a low share of the world market, export quotas no longer affect its condition. OPEC's ability to maintain high levels of world oil prices has been exhausted. The reduction in production by OPEC countries led to the fact that the resulting gap was immediately filled by other countries. IEA countries, moreover, could maneuver their commercial and (less often) strategic oil reserves. The main concern of all OPEC countries in these conditions was to maintain their share of sales on the world market, and to ensure that this share was not taken over by other countries.

In recent decades, long-term trends in international trade in goods have emerged. First of all, these are unprecedentedly high growth rates, unparalleled in the entire history of the world market. For 1913-1938 the physical volume (i.e. at constant prices) of exports increased by 20%, and in 1950-1998. increased more than 7 times. In the 50-90s of the XX century. world trade turnover expanded 1.5-2.0 times faster than real GDP. As a result, a growing portion of production is mediated by international exchange. The economic openness of countries is increasing, i.e. the economy's export quota increases - the share of countries' products going to the foreign market, and the import quota - the share of domestic consumption of goods covered by imports. In 1938, the average world export quota was 9.9%, in 1958 - 10.9, in 1997 - 22.1%.

The largest debtors include states with high economic potential. Therefore, the size of external debt does not indicate much. To assess solvency, it is necessary to have an idea of the economic situation in the country, which ultimately determines solvency. The achieved level of economic development, measured by GDP in absolute terms and per capita, is of decisive importance. But since debt service payments are usually made in foreign currency, countries with a developed export sector of the economy are in a better position. The degree of a country's participation in the international division of labor is determined by the export quota (the ratio of exports to GDP). Solvency depends on the growth rate of GDP and exports. If they exceed the rate of increase in external debt, then the country's solvency will strengthen even with rapid growth debt.

Fee for participation in competitions, auctions, for issuing licenses and export quotas

The fourth feature of the conjuncture is that, despite its exceptional inconsistency, it represents a unity of opposites that develop in the process of reproduction of social capital. The universal connection between the elements of the market situation is visible from the analysis of international commodity markets. For example, at the end of January 1998, a complication political conflict in Iraq and the threat of US military action led to an increase in oil prices. This, in turn, increased the demand for oil from other countries in the Asian region, but after the Saudi Arabian Oil Minister announced his reluctance to reduce export quotas, oil prices fell.

EXPORT QUOTA - a set volume of production and export supplies of certain goods. Typically, quotas are set by international trade agreements and bilateral agreements.

Introduced on July 1, 1992 new order export of strategically important raw materials - oil, gas, petroleum products, other energy resources, metals. Previously, due to the incompetence of exporters, these goods were sold abroad much cheaper than world market prices. Now the export of such raw materials will be carried out only by enterprises registered with the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations of the Russian Federation and having a special permit. The allocated export quotas will be sold at auctions.

In the early 1980s, the American auto industry, with the support of its workers, successfully lobbied for a quota on Japanese car imports. The Japanese government, in turn, distributed this quota among car manufacturers. The limited supply of Japanese cars in the American market allowed Japanese manufacturers to increase their prices and therefore their profits. American import quotas effectively provided Japanese automakers with a cartel-type arrangement that increased their profits. When American import quotas were eliminated in the mid-1980s, the Japanese government replaced them with its own system of export quotas for Japanese automakers. (Key question 7.)

To determine the degree of internationalization of economic activity, a special indicator is used - the export production quota. It records the share of products produced for export

As for our country, its export quota (when recalculated on the basis of the official ruble exchange rate) increased from 4% in 1991 to 20% in 1996. But this happened mainly due to an almost twofold reduction in GDP. It is also important to note that the volume of Russian raw material exports (oil, gas, timber, metals, diamonds) depends entirely on the state of the world market, and the possibilities for its expansion are practically exhausted.

The world export quota has increased noticeably (20% in 1997). This figure averages 27% for developed countries and 12% for developing countries.

First of all, these are indicators of participation in world trade. Thus, the export quota is often calculated, i.e. the ratio of exports to the country's GDP. This indicator cannot be interpreted as the share of exports in the entire volume of GDP, because exports are taken into account at the prices of exported goods and services, and GDP - only at value added. Nevertheless, the size of the export quota indicates the importance of exports for the national economy. Often the export quota is calculated only on exported goods

Although the level of internationalization of national economies is growing, this process is not straightforward. Thus, the level of export quota that existed in the United States in the first two decades of the 20th century was restored only in the 70-80s. The ratio between the export of capital and domestic capital investment in the leading countries of Western Europe that existed during this period has not yet been achieved and is unlikely to be surpassed (for example, on the eve of the First World War, Great Britain exported more capital than it invested at home). In addition, the process of internationalization occurs at different speeds in different regions. It is probably most intense now in the most dynamic regions of the world - East and Southeast Asia.

The export quota in countries with approximately the same level of economic development differs markedly in Japan - 10%, Germany - 25 and Nah - 55%. How can these differences be explained?

Progressive development MRI leads to an increased role of the external sphere in the modern economy. This is manifested primarily in the rapid expansion of the traditional form of foreign economic activity - trade, which is reflected in a fairly rapid growth of the export quota. It rose from 10.9% in 1970 to 14% of the world's GDP in 1990.

Thus, according to the latest data, the volume of exports of goods and services of the EMU countries amounted to 17.1% of their total GDP, while the export quota in Japan and the USA was 11.6 and 11.0%, respectively. Eurozone countries' imports account for about 15% of their GDP, while the US import quota was 13% and Japan's 10%.

The export quota covers a list of goods whose export is carried out with restrictions in accordance with the international obligations of the Russian Federation.

What purposes do import and export quotas serve?

By the end of the last decade, the countries studied exported from 90% (Algeria) to 96% (Libya) of the total physical volume of production of these products. The parameters of two more African oil exporters - Nigeria and Gabon, as well as one Middle Eastern state - Iraq fit into the same interval. A higher (over 97-98%) export quota was observed only in four Arabian oil monarchies (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE and Qatar). The performance of the other four OPEC members was noticeably lower. The weighted average level for all members of the organization taken together was determined to be 93%. By the beginning of the 90s, most experts predict a significant decrease. For example, according to the forecasts of the American researcher F. Fesharaki, the latter could reach about 20%.

In the current situation, which is aggravated by the protracted Iran-Iraq conflict, OPEC participants are finding it increasingly difficult to coordinate their interests and actions. At the same time, the largest oil exporter, Saudi Arabia, is making increasingly active attempts to introduce into this organization the same power principle that is characteristic of classic monopolistic groups. Thus, the resolution of the emergency London OPEC conference, adopted on March 14, 1983, formally assigned to the Arabian kingdom the role of a kind of arbiter, which it had actually assigned earlier thanks to the downturn in market conditions that began in 1981 liquid fuel. The key position is ensured by the fact that, unlike all other participants in the organization, which were allocated clearly limited export quotas, no production ceiling was set for this country. It was supposed to regulate Saudi oil production and exports depending on the dynamics of the market situation. The latter, apparently, is subject to individual assessment by the given state.

Immediately after the September 1969 revolution in Libya, profound changes in economic and social policy followed. However, changes occurred primarily in its goals, methods and social orientation, to a much lesser extent affecting the tools and base, which during the 60s managed to gain very strong inertia. First of all, preserved open type Libyan economy, which has become almost an integral feature of small oil-exporting countries, but is also characteristic, although to a somewhat lesser extent, of much larger states such as Algeria. Reproductive processes and, first of all, the conditions for the sale of the main part of the gross product for them continue to be largely determined by factors of the world capitalist market, as evidenced by the data in Table. 9 about the export quota in GDP production and the import quota in consumption.

The growth of economic efficiency, as is known, is based on the division of labor, both within national boundaries and on a global scale. By many indicators, the degree of internationalization of the world economy at the beginning of the century was quite high. Foreign trade quota (export plus import to GDP) at the beginning of the 20th century. in general it was 20-30%. For some countries it was noticeably higher. Thus, the export quota of British industry in 1912 was 40%, and annual British investments abroad before the First World War on average exceeded domestic ones by 3-4 times1. The export quota in the colonies and dependent territories was high, even without taking into account the reduced export prices, which makes it difficult to compare this indicator with modern levels.

Quota

Export

Imported

Based on coverage, quotas are divided into:

Global

Individual

· Licensing

One-time license

General license –

Global license –

Automatic license –

Export and import quotas in the context of the functioning of the Customs Union

In the United States, for example, since the early 80s, auctions for the competitive sale of American import quotas began to be practiced, not among potential American importers, but among foreign exporters. The license was awarded to the exporter who offered the highest price for it as the right to export goods to the United States within the quota. Such auctions were held to distribute licenses for the import of VCRs, sugar, cars;

Explicit preference system

“Voluntary” export restrictions

Along with tariff methods, states use non-tariff methods of trade policy, for the quantitative qualification of which indices of particular trade coverage and impact on prices are used. Politically, non-tariff trade policies are often considered preferable by governments because they do not impose an additional tax burden on the population. Quantitative restrictions are the main non-tariff method of trade policy and include quotas, licensing and “voluntary” export restrictions. The quota determines the quantity and range of goods allowed for export or import. The economic difference between a tariff and a quota lies in the different content of the redistribution effect and the different strength of the restrictive effect that the tariff and quota have on imports. Licensing may be integral part quota process or be an independent tool state regulation of foreign trade. Licenses are one-time, general, global and automatic, and their distribution between exporters or importers occurs on the basis of either competition, explicit preferences or on a non-price basis. A “voluntary” export restriction is an export quota, in unilaterally introduced by the government of the exporting country under political pressure from the importer. The overall economic effect for the importer from the use of “voluntary” export restrictions by the exporter is negative, although the size of losses decreases as a result of increasing imports of similar goods from countries that have not imposed “voluntary” restrictions on their exports.

QUOTATION

quantitative restrictions on exports and imports of certain types of goods, carried out by government bodies as a measure to regulate foreign economic activity.

Quotas

a set of measures to introduce restrictions in foreign economic activity in the field of production, export or import of goods, carried out by the state or international organizations.

QUOTATION

measures of state (suprastate) regulation of foreign economic activity, introduced by state and international bodies, to limit the production, export and import of goods through established quotas.

Quotas

quantitative restrictions on the production, export and import of goods (by physical volume or value), introduced by interstate and national-state bodies in order to regulate international trade, as well as balance domestic trade and payments.

QUOTATION

a type of measures to regulate foreign economic activity, introduced by state and international bodies, to limit the production, export and import of goods. The grounds for such restrictions may be the country's obligations under international agreements, as well as the need to respect national interests.

Quotas (provisioning)

a restriction in quantitative or monetary terms on the volume of products allowed to be imported into a country (import quota) or exported from the country (export quota) for a certain period. As a rule, quotas for foreign trade are carried out through licensing, when the state issues licenses for the import or export of a limited volume of products or at the same time prohibits unlicensed trade.

Quotas

restrictions on the production, export and import of goods introduced by government agencies. The grounds for such restrictions may be the obligations of the parties under international agreements, as well as the need to respect national interests. Export quotas are usually introduced in accordance with international stabilization agreements, which establish the share of each country party to the agreement in the production or export of a certain product. Quotas are also established in case of so-called voluntary restrictions on the export of goods to a certain country. Kazakhstan, on the basis of internal state regulation, is adopted to balance supplies and balances of payments in order to regulate supply and demand in the domestic market, as well as as responsible measures against discriminatory actions of foreign states. Within the established quotas, the export and import of goods is carried out under licenses issued by authorized government organizations. Copies of licenses are attached to customs declarations for passing goods abroad.

QUOTATION

OIL PRODUCTION

PROPORTIONAL DISTRIBUTION (PRORATION). Limitation of crude oil production (in the USA) in the form of production quotas, established either voluntarily or mandatory in order to preserve its reserves and regulate the crude oil market. Quotas are carried out by states with varying degrees of stringency - from mandatory quotas in the state of Texas, established by its Railroad Commission (State Public Utilities Commission) to voluntary restrictions by the California Petroleum Conservation Committee. However, there are no restrictions in the state of Illinois, one of the main oil-producing states in the United States. The oil treaty between the states was confirmed by Congress, which, on the basis of the Connelly Petroleum Act, prohibited the transportation between states of oil produced in excess of quotas established on the basis of state laws on the proportional distribution of its production. The basis for setting quotas under these laws is the monthly estimate of crude oil demand prepared by the Bureau of Mineral Resources of the U.S. Department of the Interior.

QUOTATION

English quota - part, share) - the introduction by the state for a certain time of quantitative restrictions on the volumes of imported (imported) or exported (exported) goods. K. is a widely used government tool. regulation of foreign economic activities. When introducing an import or export quota, a maximum volume (in value or physical terms) of supplies for import or export is established. types of goods in the established within time limits in foreign economic relations with certain countries or foreign firms. K. is used for the purpose of balancing balances of payments, as measures to ensure compliance with national laws. interests, or responses to discrimination. actions of foreigners state-in. K. is also used by the government to regulate supply and demand for internal supplies. market or fulfillment of obligations arising from international agreements. In the 90s TO.

Non-tariff restrictions on foreign trade (page 3 of 10)

often used as an active factor in regulating foreign economic relations. relations between groups of various. countries For example, within the EU (see European Economic, Monetary and Political Union) there is a system that establishes control over the import and export of certain goods. contingents of goods in certain time period (see Provisioning). This system in dept. periods covered more than half of foreign trade. EU turnover. The export code is usually introduced in accordance with international standards. stabilization agreements establishing the shares of the countries participating in the agreement in the export of certain products. type of product. Export quotas can also be established under the so-called. voluntary restriction on the export of goods to a certain extent. country in relation to industries that have violated the laws on fair competition of a given importing country, which is an example of a restriction. business practices for the purpose of saving firms or nationals. "honor of the uniform" Import protection is introduced by the state as a form of protectionism - targeted. internal fencing market from foreign goods. production in the interests of the national manufacturer. In the department In cases, coercion is used as an element of pressure to achieve more favorable agreements with the counterparty. Within the established quotas, the import or export of goods is carried out according to those issued by authorized state authorities. organizational licenses, copies of which are attached to customs. declarations

When applying non-tariff administrative measures, the state balances the commodity structure of the domestic market, protecting it both from excessive supplies of imported products and from the possibility of a shortage of nationally produced goods in the domestic market in the event of excessive exports of national products.

1. Quantitative restrictions– an administrative form of non-tariff state regulation of trade turnover, which determines the quantity and range of goods allowed for export or import. Quantitative restrictions can be applied by decision of the government of one country or on the basis of international agreements coordinating trade in a particular product. Quantitative restrictions include quotas (provisioning), licensing and “voluntary” export restrictions.

· Quotas/Provisioning

The most common form of quantitative restrictions is a quota or contingent. Quotas (provisioning) is a restriction in quantitative or monetary terms on the volume of products allowed to be imported into a country (import quota) or exported from the country (export quota) for a certain period. As a rule, quotas for foreign trade are carried out through licensing, when the state issues licenses for the import or export of a limited volume of products and at the same time prohibits unlicensed trade. These two concepts have practically the same meaning, with the difference that the concept of contingent is sometimes used to denote seasonal quotas.

Quota – a quantitative non-tariff measure of restricting the export or import of goods by a certain quantity or amount for a certain period of time.

According to the direction of their action, quotas are divided into:

Export - are introduced either in accordance with international stabilization agreements establishing the share of each country in the total export of a certain product (oil exports from OPEC countries), or by the government of the country to prevent the export of goods that are in short supply on the domestic market (oil exports from Russia and sugar from Ukraine at the beginning 90s);

Imported – introduced by the national government to protect local producers, achieving balance trade balance, regulating supply and demand in the domestic market, as well as in response to the discriminatory trade policies of other states.

Based on coverage, quotas are divided into:

Global – are established for the import or export of a certain product for a certain period of time, regardless of which country it is imported from or to which country it is exported. The meaning of such quotas is usually to ensure the required level of domestic consumption, and their volume is calculated as the difference between domestic production and consumption of goods;

Individual – the quota established within the global quota for each country exporting or importing a product. Such quotas are usually established on the basis of bilateral agreements, which give the main advantages in the export or import of goods to those countries with which there are close mutual political, economic and other interests. Most often, individual quotas (contingents) are seasonal, that is, they are introduced for a certain period of time when the domestic market is most in need of state protection. Usually these are the autumn months, when the sale of agricultural products from the new harvest takes place.

· Licensing – regulation of foreign economic activity through permits issued government agencies to export or import goods in specified quantities over a certain period of time.

Licensing can be an integral part of the quota process or be an independent instrument of government regulation. In the first case, the license is only a document confirming the right to import or export goods within the framework of the received quota; in the second, it takes on a number of specific forms:

One-time license – written permission for up to 1 year for import or export, issued by the government to a specific company to carry out one foreign trade transaction;

General license – permission to import or export a particular product during the year without limiting the number of transactions;

Global license – permission to import or export this product to any country in the world for a certain period of time without limiting the quantity or cost;

Automatic license – a permit issued immediately upon receipt of an application from an exporter or importer that cannot be rejected by a government agency.

Licensing is used by many countries of the world, primarily developing ones, for the purposes of government regulation of imports. Developed countries most often use licenses as a document confirming the importer’s right to import goods within the established quota.

License distribution mechanisms used different countries, are very diverse:

Auction– sale of licenses on a competitive basis. It is considered the most economical and effective way of distributing licenses, capable of generating revenues for the state treasury comparable to revenues from customs duties on the same product. In the United States, for example, since the early 80s, auctions for the competitive sale of American import quotas began to be practiced, not among potential American importers, but among foreign exporters. The license was awarded to the exporter who offered the highest price for it as the right to export goods to the United States within the quota. Such auctions were held to distribute licenses for the import of VCRs, sugar, cars;

Explicit preference system– the government assigns licenses to certain firms in proportion to the size of their imports over the previous period or in proportion to the structure of demand from national importers. Typically, this method is used to support those firms that are forced to reduce imports of goods due to the introduction of quotas.

Distribution of licenses on a non-price basis– the government issuing licenses to those firms that have demonstrated their ability to import or export in the most efficient manner. Typically, this method requires the formation of an expert commission, the development of evaluation criteria (experience, availability of production capacity, personnel qualifications, etc.), and the holding of several rounds of the competition, which is inevitably associated with high costs and abuses.

Countries use one of these methods when allocating licenses, usually starting with the latter, which is the most administrative in nature, and gradually moving to the first, the most market-based method.

· “Voluntary” export restrictions

Quantitative restrictions on imports into a country can be achieved not only through the action of its government to impose an import tariff or import quotas, but also as a result of measures taken by the government of the exporting country under the so-called “voluntary” export restrictions. “Voluntary” export restrictions are imposed by a government, usually under political pressure from a larger importing country, which threatens to impose unilateral import restrictions if it refuses to “voluntarily” restrict exports that harm its local producers.

“Voluntary” export restrictions - a quantitative restriction on exports, based on the commitment of one of the trading partners to limit or at least not expand the volume of exports, adopted within the framework of a formal intergovernmental or informal agreement on the establishment of quotas for the export of goods.

Since the beginning of the 70s. became widespread special shape quantitative restrictions on imports - voluntary export restrictions (VER), when it is not the importing country that sets the quota, but the exporting countries themselves undertake obligations to limit exports to a given country. Currently, several dozen similar agreements have been concluded limiting the export of cars, steel, televisions, textiles, etc. mainly from Japan and newly industrialized countries to the USA and EU countries. Of course, in reality, such export restrictions are not voluntary, but forced: they are introduced either as a result of political pressure from the importing country, or under the influence of threats to apply more stringent protectionist measures (for example, to initiate an anti-dumping investigation).

In principle, DEOs represent the same quota, but imposed not by the importing country, but by the exporting country. However, the consequences of such a measure to restrict foreign trade for the economy of the importing country are even more negative than when using a tariff or import quota.

“Voluntary” export restrictions are part of a broader group of measures referred to as restrictive business practices (RBPs), aimed at gaining and abusing a dominant market position. In practice, “voluntary” export restrictions are used as a means of trade policy mainly by developed countries in competition with each other.

A quota is a government restriction on exports and imports...

The economic difference between a tariff and a quota lies in the different content of the redistribution effect and the different strength of the restrictive effect that the tariff and quota have on imports. Licensing can be an integral part of the quota process or be an independent instrument of state regulation of foreign trade. Licenses are one-time, general, global and automatic, and their distribution between exporters or importers occurs on the basis of either competition, explicit preferences or on a non-price basis. A “voluntary” export restriction is an export quota unilaterally imposed by the government of the exporting country under political pressure from the importer. The overall economic effect for the importer from the use of “voluntary” export restrictions by the exporter is negative, although the size of losses decreases as a result of increasing imports of similar goods from countries that have not imposed “voluntary” restrictions on their exports.

The word quota

The word quota in English letters (transliterated) - kvota

The word quota consists of 5 letters: a v k o t

Meanings of the word quota. What is a quota?

Quota (lat. quota) - a norm, share or part of something allowed within the framework of possible agreements and contracts. Restrictive measures are called quotas.

en.wikipedia.org

QUOTA (IMF) (quota, IMF) The share of member countries of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) (International Monetary Fund, IMF) in the total capital of this organization.

Raizberg B.A. Modern economic dictionary. — 1999

Import quota

An import quota is a form of state regulation of foreign trade that involves the establishment of quantitative restrictions on the import of certain goods into the country (for example, a certain number of cars during the year).

Librarian's terminological dictionary on socio-economic topics. - St. Petersburg: RNB, 2011

Import quota - a. A method of restricting the import of goods into a state. K.i. may apply to a single product, a group of products, a single state or a group of countries.

Quota in Insurance

Insurance quota is the insurer’s share of participation in the insurance of a certain object insured simultaneously by several insurers in the manner of co-insurance.

Quota in Insurance - English. quota in insurance the share of participation of the insurer of an object or risk insured simultaneously by several insurers, issued by a single insurance policy indicating the share of responsibility of each of the participants or...

Dictionary of business terms. — 2001

Golden Quota

Dictionary of financial terms

The gold quota is the fourth part of the contribution of a member country of the International Monetary Fund to the total capital of the Fund, payment for which until 1978 was made in gold.

GOLD QUOTA - in the International Monetary Fund (IMF): part of the contribution of an IMF member country, which was paid in gold.

Raizberg B.A. Modern economic dictionary. — 1999

Tariff quota

Tariff quota Tariff quota is a quota within the value or quantity of which imported goods are subject to customs duties at the usual rate.

Dictionary of financial terms

Tariff quota is a quota within the value or quantity of which imported goods are subject to customs duties at the usual rate. Exceeding the tariff quota entails an increase in duty rates.

Import quota

IMPORT QUOTA - a restriction on the import of goods in relation to its quantity and (or) value (Article 2 of Law No. 63-FZ). The annual volume of import quota as a special protective measure should not be less than the average annual volume of imports of this product in...

Encyclopedia of Taxation. — 2003

IMPORT QUOTA A quantitative restriction on the import of any type of product. The quota can be set in units of cost or physical volume. Established in units of physical volume...

Raizberg B.A. Modern economic dictionary. — 1999

Import quota is an economic indicator characterizing the importance of imports for the national economy, for individual industries and production, according to various types products.

Dictionary of financial terms

Export quota

EXPORT QUOTA EXPORT QUOTA is a quantitative indicator characterizing the importance of exports for the national economy, individual industries and production for certain types of products.

Dictionary of financial terms

Export quota is a set volume of production and export supplies of certain goods. Export quotas are introduced in countries whose economies depend on the export of specific types of raw materials, as a means of stabilizing prices.

Dictionary of financial terms

Export quota is an economic indicator that characterizes the importance of exports for the national economy, for individual industries and production for certain types of products.

Electoral quota

ELECTORAL QUOTA. 1) The number of mandates (seats) in a representative body that is allocated to any national or social group population, a subject of the federation, another territory with specific characteristics, etc.

encyclopedic Dictionary constitutional law. — 2011

Electoral quota Electoral quota - smallest number votes required to elect one deputy. The electoral quota can be determined for each electoral district separately or for the entire country as a whole.

Dictionary of financial terms

An electoral quota is the smallest number of votes required to elect one candidate in elections under the proportional electoral system.

Big legal dictionary. - M., 2009

Individual quota

INDIVIDUAL QUOTA - a quota that limits the size of the supply of any product from one country to another; is set either on the basis of a global quota...

Individual quota An individual quota is a quota that limits the size of the supply of a product from one country to another.

Non-tariff regulation of foreign trade

There are: - proportional individual quotas established on the basis of a global quota...

Dictionary of financial terms

An individual quota is a quota that limits the amount of supply of a product from one country to another. There are: - proportional individual quotas established on the basis of a global quota...

Dictionary of financial terms

Gender quotas

gender.academic.ru

Gender quotas are a legalized level of representation of women and men in government bodies. Quotas are based on modern concept equality of women and men. In general, quotas for women mean a change from one concept of equality to another...

Gender glossary

Russian language

Morphemic-spelling dictionary. - 2002

Usage examples for quota

Previously, there was a work quota for 21 thousand workers from Bulgaria and Romania.

According to him, at the request of the Moscow government, this quota was abolished by the Ministry of Labor.

Analysts surveyed by the agency also expect the quota to remain unchanged.

Previously, when such cases were identified, the received quota was redistributed, but now it is being reduced.

At the same time, let us remind you that the UEFA quota allocated to fans of the Dortmund club is about 25 thousand tickets.

A lot of Russians go there, and there is a certain quota for the country.

We have a standard quota for VIP passes; for the Monaco Grand Prix we are requesting an additional 30 passes.

The system of distribution of fishing quotas in Russia has more than once become the subject of discussions and litigation. This year, it could lead to an international scandal with the so-called “Moroccan quota.” The reason is another attempt by the Federal Fisheries Agency (FAR, Rosrybolovstvo) to circumvent the requirements Russian law on the distribution of quotas in Moroccan waters. And this time the story will not have the most pleasant consequences, since it hits where it hurts the most - the economy and prestige of the country.

Special Catch

Cooperation in fisheries with the Kingdom of Morocco has historically developed since 1978, when the Soviet-Moroccan agreement was signed. Since then, the parties have annually agreed on the fishing of pelagic fish species by Russian fishing vessels. The procedure for distributing fishing quotas is based on a “historical principle” and is determined by Russian legislation, which protects the interests of the state and its representatives in the business sphere.

However, for the past three years, Rosrybolovstvo has been trying in various ways to circumvent the law regarding the distribution of fishing rights in Moroccan waters, arguing in the courts that some special procedure should be applied to this region.

The department justified its approach by the fact that fishing in the economic zone of the kingdom has specifics that do not allow the application of the general procedure established by the law on fisheries and existing rules approved by the Russian government. At the same time, Rosrybolovstvo does not provide any justification for the stated position by the norms of Russian or international legislation.

The “special” approach was first applied in 2013, after the signing of an agreement between the governments of the Russian Federation and the Kingdom of Morocco on cooperation in the field of marine fisheries. In it, Morocco provided Russia with a quota for catching 100 thousand tons of fish (sardines, sardinella, mackerel, horse mackerel and anchovies) off its coast. At the same time, the number of Russian vessels allowed to fish in the kingdom’s Atlantic fishing zone was limited to 10 units.

Photo: Alexander Koryakov / Kommersant

The decision on the distribution of quotas for work in Moroccan waters was then delegated by Rosrybolovstvo to the Association of Domestic Fisheries Fishing in the Zones of the West Coast of Africa (AORZPA). The department explained its decision using a “special” procedure.

The distribution of quotas for fish production among members of the AORZPA soon became the reason judicial trial. It turned out that most of the quotas went to Eurofish and Alliance Marine, and large miners who had been fishing in Moroccan waters for many years were left behind. Thus, one of the largest fishing companies in the country - the Murmansk Trawling Fleet (MTF) - received half the quota than it expected. The Federal Antimonopoly Service (FAS) recognized such a step as illegal, and Deputy Head of the FAS Alexander Kinyov directly called this case example of a cartel agreement.

In 2014, the distribution of “Moroccan quotas” was again not without scandal. This time determine the quota size by public offer the agency instructed the controlled Federal State Unitary Enterprise "Natsrybresurs". The only condition for concluding contracts with this enterprise was that the ten first applicants make a payment in the amount of 555.7 thousand dollars per vessel to the bank account of the Federal State Unitary Enterprise. Thus, “Natsrybresurs” allegedly ensured the impartiality of the competition.

It is noteworthy that a message about the planned placement of the offer appeared on the department’s website on July 10, and a day later at 15:00 the Federal State Unitary Enterprise published on its page the offer itself with payment details for transferring the fee. The offer was made on the same day. The winners were familiar companies - the Eurofish holding, which bought a quota for seven trawlers, as well as the Alliance Marine group, which received fishing rights for three vessels.

As it turned out later, they made the payment almost immediately after the message was released, from 15 to 16 hours. All the others who wanted to participate in the competition (in addition to the MTF, another large enterprise, Vestrybflot, historically applied for Moroccan quotas) were out of work this time too. As a result, the FAS once again ordered Rosrybolovstvo to stop actions that lead to restriction of competition and unfair distribution of quotas. The agency tried to challenge the actions of the antimonopoly agency in court, but the first and appellate instances supported the FAS's arguments.

Recently, antimonopoly officials opened a case against an official of Rosrybolovstvo for failure to comply with the order within the prescribed period. While all these proceedings were going on, Putin passed and realized his legal right fish miners didn't make it last year.

And the trial continues again

This year, market participants were again waiting for the competition with bated breath. From May 18 to 20, 2015, the third session of the Russian-Moroccan mixed fisheries commission, created to implement the intergovernmental agreement signed in 2013, was held in Moscow. On May 26, Rosrybolovstvo published Announcement, establishing the procedure for the participation of owners of Russian vessels in the competition for the allocation of quotas. According to this document, all applications received were to be submitted to the Ministry of Agriculture and Marine Fisheries of Morocco (through the representative office of the Federal Agency for Fisheries in the Kingdom). Pre-selection of FAR applications is not expected.

Thus, Rosrybolovstvo actually refused to fulfill its state function on the distribution of the quota, assigning it to a foreign state, which leads to a violation of the state sovereignty of Russia. The market was noisy: the new rules not only contradicted the norms of Russian national legislation, but created an unprecedented situation.

On June 8, the Moscow Arbitration Court issued an opinion on the adoption of interim measures and prohibited the FAR from sending applications and documents of Russian legal entities and private entrepreneurs to conduct fishing within the fishing areas established by the intergovernmental agreement of 2013.

By the way, it is not so important for the Moroccans themselves who will do the fishing; it is more important for them to receive compensation payments paid by the Russian side and a list of vessels on time. The story of Russian company"Sevnauchflot", which, without paying for the fish caught, left the Moroccan zone. To prevent this from happening again, the subjects of the Moroccan king demand from the Russian Federation guarantees to ensure established rules for access to their resources. And nothing more.

Meanwhile, frequent changes in the rules of the game in the distribution of quotas nullify all the activities of Russian fishing producers, who are unable to make long-term plans, not knowing what awaits them in the future. It is no coincidence that the domestic fishing industry has recently stagnated: according to the same Federal Fisheries Agency, at the end of 2014, for the first time in the last five years, fish production volumes were below the level of previous years.

And the problem is already understood in bureaucratic offices. " Last years We are not involved in improving fishing gear, or opening new fishing areas, or developing new products. We all get together and share quotas. It seems that there are no other problems in the industry,” said Alexander Rodin, chairman of the public council under Rosrybolovstvo, at the end of last year.

Meanwhile, the story of the disruption of fishing by Russian vessels off the west coast of Africa may end with a complete cessation of fishing in the Moroccan subzone. Not to mention the earlier statements about expanding the Moroccan quota. And whoever is responsible for specific actions in Rosrybolovstvo, Russia will now be treated with an eye to this history.

There are export and import foreign trade quotas

It’s easy for us to find a replacement - a queue of European and Chinese fishermen who want to start fishing in Moroccan waters has already lined up to royal officials.

Quotas- this is a restriction in quantitative or monetary terms on the volume of products allowed for import or export from the country. In this regard, there is a distinction import quotas and export quotas.

Import quotas– limiting the volume of imports to a certain natural or value quantity.

Export quotas– limiting the volume of exports to a certain natural or value quantity.

Under tariff restrictions, the quantities of imported and exported goods are not regulated; it is required to pay the tariff rate by quantity, customs value, or a combination of both. Quotas limit the volume of foreign trade to a certain number of tons, pieces, liters. The state issues licenses for the export or import of a limited amount of products and imposes a ban on unlicensed trade.

Quotas differ from tariffs in that they absolutely neutralize the impact of external competition on domestic prices. Import quotas isolate the domestic market from the penetration of new and innovative foreign goods in excess of the issued license. As a result, quotas become a serious and powerful method of protectionist policy.

There are also significant qualitative differences between quotas and tariffs: changes in tariffs are regulated by national legislation within the framework of international agreements, so the government does not have the right to independently increase tariffs. In this case, it tightens import quotas and makes foreign trade policy deeply selective through the distribution of licenses between specific enterprises.

Voluntary Export Restrictions (VER)- This is a type of export quota. Under voluntary export restrictions, exporting countries undertake obligations to limit exports to a specific country. The appearance of voluntariness covers the desire to avoid more serious and stringent protectionist restrictions on the part of partners.

Essentially, DEOs are a forced measure.
EEOs imposed by the exporting country have a more negative effect on the importing country than the conditions of tariffs or import quotas, since in this case the prices of imported goods may be higher than in the case of tariff restrictions or import quotas. Thus, the decrease in export volumes is compensated by increasing prices.

The attitude of international organizations towards voluntary export restrictions is negative and condemning, as evidenced by the task of abolishing DEO by 2000 under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.

In addition to the three main ones, non-tariff trade restrictions also include varieties of hidden protectionism, under which the pre-customs movement of goods is controlled, i.e. the very possibility of goods participating in import and export. TO These include sanitary, technical and currency restrictions on the import of goods.

TO sanitary restrictions The following types include:

mandatory compliance with national standards;

quality certificates for imported products;

requirements for specific labeling and packaging of goods;

requirements for the environmental characteristics of consumer goods and industrial goods.

Free trade as a type of foreign trade policy (select

Possible answer):

a) supports subjects of the national economy;
b) used to maintain economic security during periods of international tension;
c) stimulates competition processes among domestic producers and on the world market;
d) protects new industries that have arisen as a result of scientific and technical progress.

Answer: c), since this is one of the main positive impacts of free trade. Free trade leads to the most efficient distribution resources on a global scale and to maximize global income.

Check out the non-tariff methods of regulating foreign trade:

a) quotas;
b) licensing;
c) customs duties;
d) voluntary export restrictions;
e) sanitary and technical restrictions.

Answer: a), b), d), e), since quotas, licensing and voluntary export restrictions are the main types of non-tariff methods. Non-tariff methods also include types of hidden protectionism, under which the pre-customs movement of goods is controlled, such as sanitary and technical restrictions.

Protectionist policy instruments are used by the state to achieve goals such as (indicate the correct answer):

a) protection of new (“young”) industries from the effects of competition from foreign entrepreneurs;
b) growth in employment within the country;
c) prevention of dumping;
d) ensuring national economic security;
e) all of the above answers with different points views characterize the directions of protectionism;
f) only answers a) and c) are correct.

Answer: d), since all of the above options are the goals of protectionist policies.