What is biochemistry? What does biochemistry study? Profession Biochemist. Description of the profession. Who is a Biochemist? Description of the profession Biochemistry studies the functions of polymers in cells

Biochemistry is a whole science that studies, firstly, the chemical composition of cells and organisms, and secondly, the chemical processes that underlie their life activity. The term was introduced into the scientific community in 1903 by a German chemist named Karl Neuberg.

However, the processes of biochemistry themselves have been known since ancient times. And on the basis of these processes, people baked bread and made cheese, made wine and tanned animal skins, treated diseases with the help of herbs, and then medicines. And the basis of all this is precisely biochemical processes.

For example, without knowing anything about science itself, the Arab scientist and physician Avicenna, who lived in the 10th century, described many medicinal substances and their effects on the body. And Leonardo da Vinci concluded that a living organism can only live in an atmosphere in which a flame can burn.

Like any other science, biochemistry has its own methods of research and study. And the most important of them are chromatography, centrifugation and electrophoresis.

Biochemistry today is a science that has made a big leap in its development. For example, it became known that of all the chemical elements on earth, a little more than a quarter is present in the human body. And most of the rare elements, except iodine and selenium, are completely unnecessary for humans to maintain life. But two common elements such as aluminum and titanium have not yet been found in the human body. And it is simply impossible to find them - they are not needed for life. And among all of them, only 6 are those that a person needs every day and it is from them that 99% of our body consists. These are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, calcium and phosphorus.

Biochemistry is a science that studies such important components of foods as proteins, fats, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. Today we know almost everything about these substances.

Some people confuse two sciences - biochemistry and organic chemistry. But biochemistry is a science that studies biological processes, which occur only in a living organism. But organic chemistry is a science that studies certain carbon compounds, and these include alcohols, ethers, aldehydes and many, many other compounds.

Biochemistry is also a science that includes cytology, that is, the study of a living cell, its structure, functioning, reproduction, aging and death. This branch of biochemistry is often called molecular biology.

However, molecular biology, as a rule, works with nucleic acids, but biochemists are more interested in proteins and enzymes that trigger certain biochemical reactions.

Today, biochemistry is increasingly using the developments of genetic engineering and biotechnology. However, in themselves, these are also different sciences, which each study their own. For example, biotechnology is studying methods of cloning cells, and genetic engineering is trying to find ways to replace a diseased gene in the human body with a healthy one and thereby avoid the development of many hereditary diseases.

And all these sciences are closely interconnected, which helps them develop and work for the benefit of humanity.

In this article we will answer the question of what biochemistry is. Here we will look at the definition of this science, its history and research methods, pay attention to some processes and define its sections.

Introduction

To answer the question of what biochemistry is, suffice it to say that it is a science devoted to the chemical composition and processes occurring inside a living cell of the body. However, it has many components, having learned which, you can get a more specific idea of ​​it.

In some temporary episodes of the 19th century, the terminological unit “biochemistry” began to be used for the first time. However, it was introduced into scientific circles only in 1903 by a chemist from Germany, Carl Neuberg. This science occupies an intermediate position between biology and chemistry.

Historical facts

Humanity was able to clearly answer the question of what biochemistry is only about a hundred years ago. Despite the fact that society used biochemical processes and reactions in ancient times, it was not aware of the presence of their true essence.

Some of the most distant examples are bread making, winemaking, cheese making, etc. A number of questions about the healing properties of plants, health problems, etc. forced a person to delve into their basis and the nature of the activity.

The development of a general set of directions that ultimately led to the creation of biochemistry can be observed already in ancient times. A scientist-doctor from Persia in the tenth century wrote a book about the canons of medical science, where he was able to describe in detail various medicinal substances. In the 17th century, van Helmont proposed the term “enzyme” as a unit of reagent of a chemical nature involved in digestive processes.

In the 18th century, thanks to the works of A.L. Lavoisier and M.V. Lomonosov, the law of conservation of mass of matter was derived. At the end of the same century, the importance of oxygen in the process of respiration was determined.

In 1827, science made it possible to create the division of biological molecules into compounds of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. These terms are still used today. A year later, in the work of F. Wöhler, it was proven that substances in living systems can be synthesized by artificial means. One more important event was the manufacture and drawing up of a theory of structure organic compounds.

The fundamentals of biochemistry took many hundreds of years to form, but were clearly defined in 1903. This science became the first biological discipline that had its own system of mathematical analysis.

25 years later, in 1928, F. Griffith conducted an experiment whose purpose was to study the transformation mechanism. The scientist infected mice with pneumococci. He killed bacteria from one strain and added them to bacteria from another. The study found that the process of purifying disease-causing agents resulted in the formation of nucleic acid rather than protein. The list of discoveries is still growing.

Availability of related disciplines

Biochemistry is a separate science, but its creation was preceded by an active process of development of the organic branch of chemistry. The main difference lies in the objects of study. Biochemistry considers only those substances or processes that can occur in the conditions of living organisms, and not outside them.

Biochemistry eventually incorporated the concept of molecular biology. They differ from each other mainly in their methods of action and the subjects they study. Currently, the terminological units “biochemistry” and “molecular biology” have begun to be used as synonyms.

Availability of sections

Today, biochemistry includes a number of research areas, including:

Section of static biochemistry - the science of chemical composition living things, structures and molecular diversity, functions, etc.

There are a number of sections studying biological polymers of protein, lipid, carbohydrate, amino acid molecules, as well as nucleic acids and the nucleotide itself.

Biochemistry, which studies vitamins, their role and form of influence on the body, possible disturbances in vital processes due to deficiency or excessive amounts.

Hormonal biochemistry is a science that studies hormones, their biological effect, the causes of deficiency or excess.

The science of metabolism and its mechanisms is a dynamic branch of biochemistry (includes bioenergetics).

Molecular Biology Research.

The functional component of biochemistry studies the phenomenon of chemical transformations responsible for the functionality of all components of the body, starting with tissues and ending with the whole body.

Medical biochemistry is a section on the patterns of metabolism between the structures of the body under the influence of diseases.

There are also branches of the biochemistry of microorganisms, humans, animals, plants, blood, tissues, etc.

Research and Problem Solving Tools

Biochemistry methods are based on fractionation, analysis, detailed study and examination of the structure of both an individual component and the whole organism or its substance. Most of them were formed during the 20th century, and chromatography, the process of centrifugation and electrophoresis, became the most widely known.



At the end of the 20th century, biochemical methods began to increasingly find their application in molecular and cellular branches of biology. The structure of the entire human DNA genome has been determined. This discovery made it possible to learn about the existence of a huge number of substances, in particular various proteins, that were not detected during the purification of biomass, due to their extremely low content in the substance.

Genomics has challenged a huge amount of biochemical knowledge and led to the development of changes in its methodology. The concept of computer virtual modeling appeared.

Chemical component

Physiology and biochemistry are closely related. This is explained by the dependence of the rate of occurrence of all physiological processes on the content various range chemical elements.



There are 90 components of the periodic table of chemical elements found in nature, but about a quarter are needed for life. Our body does not need many rare components at all.

The different positions of a taxon in the hierarchical table of living beings determine different needs for the presence of certain elements.

99% of human mass consists of six elements (C, H, N, O, F, Ca). In addition to the main amount of these types of atoms that form substances, we need 19 more elements, but in small or microscopic volumes. Among them are: Zn, Ni, Ma, K, Cl, Na and others.

Protein biomolecule

The main molecules studied by biochemistry are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and the attention of this science is focused on their hybrids.

Proteins are large compounds. They are formed by linking chains of monomers - amino acids. Most living beings obtain proteins through the synthesis of twenty types of these compounds.

These monomers differ from each other in the structure of the radical group, which plays a huge role during protein folding. The purpose of this process is to form a three-dimensional structure. Amino acids are connected to each other by forming peptide bonds.

When answering the question of what biochemistry is, one cannot fail to mention such complex and multifunctional biological macromolecules as proteins. They have more tasks than polysaccharides or nucleic acids that need to be performed.

Some proteins are represented by enzymes and are involved in catalysis different reactions biochemical nature, which is very important for metabolism. Other protein molecules can act as signaling mechanisms, form cytoskeletons, participate in immune defense, etc.

Some types of proteins are capable of forming non-protein biomolecular complexes. Substances created by fusing proteins with oligosaccharides allow the existence of molecules such as glycoproteins, and interaction with lipids leads to the appearance of lipoproteins.

Nucleic acid molecule

Nucleic acids are represented by complexes of macromolecules consisting of a polynucleotide set of chains. Their main functional purpose is to encode hereditary information. Nucleic acid synthesis occurs due to the presence of mononucleoside triphosphate macroenergetic molecules (ATP, TTP, UTP, GTP, CTP).

The most widespread representatives of such acids are DNA and RNA. These structural elements are found in every living cell, from archaea to eukaryotes, and even viruses.

Lipid molecule

Lipids are molecular substances composed of glycerol, to which fatty acids (1 to 3) are attached through ester bonds. Such substances are divided into groups according to the length of the hydrocarbon chain, and attention is also paid to saturation. The biochemistry of water does not allow it to dissolve lipid (fat) compounds. As a rule, such substances dissolve in polar solutions.



The main tasks of lipids are to provide energy to the body. Some are part of hormones, can perform a signaling function or transport lipophilic molecules.

carbohydrate molecule

Carbohydrates are biopolymers formed by combining monomers that in this case are represented by monosaccharides, such as, for example, glucose or fructose. The study of plant biochemistry has allowed man to determine that the bulk of carbohydrates are contained in them.

These biopolymers find their use in structural function and providing energy resources to an organism or cell. In plant organisms the main storage substance is starch, and in animals it is glycogen.

The course of the Krebs cycle

There is a Krebs cycle in biochemistry - a phenomenon during which the predominant number of eukaryotic organisms receive most of the energy spent on the oxidation processes of ingested food.

It can be observed inside cellular mitochondria. It is formed through several reactions, during which reserves of “hidden” energy are released.

In biochemistry, the Krebs cycle is an important fragment of the general respiratory process and material metabolism within cells. The cycle was discovered and studied by H. Krebs. For this, the scientist received the Nobel Prize.

This process is also called an electron transfer system. This is due to the concomitant conversion of ATP to ADP. The first compound, in turn, is responsible for ensuring metabolic reactions through the release of energy.

Biochemistry and medicine

Biochemistry of medicine is presented to us as a science that covers many areas of biological and chemical processes. Currently, there is an entire industry in education that trains specialists for these studies.

Every living thing is studied here: from bacteria or viruses to the human body. Having a specialty as a biochemist gives the subject the opportunity to follow the diagnosis and analyze the treatment applicable to the individual unit, draw conclusions, etc.



To prepare a highly qualified expert in this field, you need to train him in natural sciences, medical fundamentals and biotechnological disciplines, and conduct many tests in biochemistry. The student is also given the opportunity to practically apply their knowledge.

Universities of biochemistry are currently becoming increasingly popular, which is due to the rapid development of this science, its importance for humans, demand, etc.

Among the most famous educational institutions where specialists in this branch of science are trained, the most popular and significant are: Moscow State University. Lomonosov, Perm State Pedagogical University named after. Belinsky, Moscow State University. Ogarev, Kazan and Krasnoyarsk state universities and others.

The list of documents required for admission to such universities does not differ from the list for admission to other higher education institutions. educational establishments. Biology and chemistry are the main subjects that must be taken upon admission.

BIOCHEMISTRY (biological chemistry)- biological science that studies the chemical nature of substances that make up living organisms, their transformations and the connection of these transformations with the activity of organs and tissues. The set of processes inextricably linked with life is usually called metabolism (see Metabolism and energy).

The study of the composition of living organisms has long attracted the attention of scientists, since the substances that make up living organisms, in addition to water, mineral elements, lipids, carbohydrates, etc., include a number of the most complex organic compounds: proteins and their complexes with a number of other biopolymers , primarily with nucleic acids.

The possibility of spontaneous association (under certain conditions) of a large number of protein molecules with the formation of complex supramolecular structures, for example, the protein sheath of the phage tail, some cellular organelles, etc., has been established. This made it possible to introduce the concept of self-assembling systems. This kind of research creates the prerequisites for solving the problem of the formation of complex supramolecular structures that have the characteristics and properties of living matter from high-molecular organic compounds that once arose in nature abiogenically.

Modern biology as an independent science developed at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Until this time, the issues now considered by B. were studied from different angles by organic chemistry and physiology. Organic chemistry (see), which studies carbon compounds in general, deals, in particular, with the analysis and synthesis of those chemicals. compounds that make up living tissue. Physiology (see), along with the study of vital functions, also studies chemistry. processes underlying life activity. Thus, biochemistry is a product of the development of these two sciences and can be divided into two parts: static (or structural) and dynamic. Static biology deals with the study of natural organic substances, their analysis and synthesis, while dynamic biology studies the entire set of chemical transformations of certain organic compounds in the process of life. Dynamic biology, therefore, is closer to physiology and medicine than to organic chemistry. This explains why biology was initially called physiological (or medical) chemistry.

Like any rapidly developing science, biochemistry, soon after its inception, began to be divided into a number of separate disciplines: biochemistry of humans and animals, biochemistry of plants, biochemistry of microbes (microorganisms) and a number of others, because, despite the biochemical unity of all living things, in animal and plant organisms There are also fundamental differences in the nature of metabolism. First of all, this concerns the processes of assimilation. Plants, unlike animal organisms, have the ability to use such simple elements to build their bodies. chemical substances, How carbon dioxide, water, salts of nitric and nitrous acids, ammonia, etc. In this case, the process of building plant cells requires for its implementation an influx of energy from the outside in the form sunlight. The use of this energy is primarily carried out by green autotrophic organisms (plants, protozoa - Euglena, a number of bacteria), which in turn themselves serve as food for everyone else, the so-called. heterotrophic organisms (including humans) inhabiting the biosphere (see). Thus, the separation of plant biochemistry into a special discipline is justified from both theoretical and practical sides.

The development of a number of industries and agriculture (processing of raw materials of plant and animal origin, food preparation, production of vitamin and hormonal preparations, antibiotics, etc.) led to the separation of technical biotechnical science into a special section.

When studying the chemistry of various microorganisms, researchers encountered a number of specific substances and processes of great scientific and practical interest (antibiotics of microbial and fungal origin, various types of fermentations of industrial importance, the formation of protein substances from carbohydrates and the simplest nitrogenous compounds, etc. ). All these questions are considered in the biochemistry of microorganisms.

In the 20th century The biochemistry of viruses arose as a special discipline (see Viruses).

The needs of clinical medicine caused the emergence of clinical biochemistry (see).

Other sections of biology, which are usually considered as fairly separate disciplines with their own tasks and specific research methods, include: evolutionary and comparative biology (biochemical processes and chemical composition of organisms at various stages of their evolutionary development), enzymology (structure and function of enzymes, kinetics of enzymatic reactions), biology of vitamins, hormones, radiation biochemistry, quantum biochemistry - comparison of the properties, functions and pathways of transformation of biologically important compounds with their electronic characteristics obtained using quantum chemical calculations (see Quantum biochemistry).

Studying the structure and function of proteins and nucleic acids at the molecular level. This range of issues is studied by sciences that arose at the intersections of biology and genetics—molecular biology (q.v.) and biochemical genetics (q.v.).

Historical sketch of the development of research in the chemistry of living matter. The study of living matter from the chemical side began from the moment when the need for research arose components living organisms and the chemical processes occurring in them in connection with the needs of practical medicine and agriculture. The research of medieval alchemists led to the accumulation of a large amount of factual material on natural organic compounds. In the 16th - 17th centuries. the views of alchemists were developed in the works of iatrochemists (see Iatrochemistry), who believed that the vital activity of the human body can be correctly understood only from the standpoint of chemistry. Thus, one of the most prominent representatives of iatrochemistry, the German physician and naturalist F. Paracelsus, put forward a progressive position on the need for a close connection between chemistry and medicine, emphasizing that the task of alchemy is not to make gold and silver, but to create that which is strength and virtue medicine. Iatrochemists introduced it into honey. practice preparations of mercury, antimony, iron and other elements. Later, I. Van Helmont suggested the presence of special principles in the “juices” of a living body - the so-called. "enzymes" involved in a variety of chemical processes. transformations.

In the 17th -18th centuries. The phlogiston theory became widespread (see Chemistry). The refutation of this fundamentally erroneous theory is associated with the works of M.V. Lomonosov and A. Lavoisier, who discovered and established in science the law of conservation of matter (mass). Lavoisier made a major contribution to the development not only of chemistry, but also to the study of biological processes. Developing earlier observations of Mayow (J. Mayow, 1643-1679), he showed that during respiration, as with the combustion of organic substances, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide is released. At the same time, he, together with Laplace, showed that the process of biological oxidation is also a source of animal heat. This discovery stimulated research on the energetics of metabolism, as a result of which already at the beginning of the 19th century. the amount of heat released during the combustion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins was determined.

Major events of the second half of the 18th century. began the studies of Reaumur (R. Reaumur) and Spallanzani (L. Spallanzani) on the physiology of digestion. These researchers were the first to study the effect of the gastric juice of animals and birds on various types of food (mainly meat) and laid the foundation for the study of enzymes of digestive juices. The emergence of enzymology (the study of enzymes), however, is usually associated with the names of K. S. Kirchhoff (1814), as well as Payen and Persaud (A. Payen, J. Persoz, 1833), who first studied the effect of the amylase enzyme on starch in vitro.

An important role was played by the work of J. Priestley and especially J. Ingenhouse, who discovered the phenomenon of photosynthesis (late 18th century).

At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. other basic research in comparative biochemistry; At the same time, the existence of the cycle of substances in nature was established.

From the very beginning, the successes of static biology were inextricably linked with the development of organic chemistry.

The impetus for the development of the chemistry of natural compounds was the research of the Swedish chemist K. Scheele (1742 - 1786). He isolated and described the properties of a number of natural compounds - lactic, tartaric, citric, oxalic, malic acid, glycerin and amyl alcohol, etc. The research of I. Berzelius and 10. Liebig, which ended in the development at the beginning of the 19th century, was of great importance. methods of quantitative elemental analysis of organic compounds. Following this, attempts began to synthesize natural organic substances. The successes achieved - the synthesis in 1828 of urea by F. Weller, acetic acid by A. Kolbe (1844), fats by P. Berthelot (1850), carbohydrates by A. M. Butlerov (1861) - were especially great importance, because they showed the possibility of synthesizing in vitro a number of organic substances that are part of animal tissues or are the end products of metabolism. Thus, the complete inconsistency of the widespread in the 18-19 centuries was established. vitalistic ideas (see Vitalism). In the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. Many other important studies were carried out: uric acid was isolated from urinary stones (Bergman and Scheele), cholesterol was isolated from bile [J. Conradi], glucose and fructose were isolated from honey (T. Lowitz), and leaves green plants - the pigment chlorophyll [Pelletier and Caventou (J. Pelletier, J. Caventou)], creatine was discovered in the muscles [Chevreul (M. E. Chevreul)]. The existence of a special group of organic compounds was shown - plant alkaloids (Serturner, Meister, etc.), which later found application in honey. practice. The first amino acids, glycine and leucine, were obtained from gelatin and bovine meat by hydrolysis [Proust (J. Proust), 1819; Braconnot (H. Braconnot), 1820].

In France, in the laboratory of C. Bernard, glycogen was discovered in the liver tissue (1857), the ways of its formation and the mechanisms regulating its breakdown were studied. In Germany, in the laboratories of E. Fischer, E. F. Hoppe-Seyler, A. Kossel, E. Abdergalden and others, the structure and properties of proteins, as well as the products of their hydrolysis, including enzymatic hydrolysis, were studied.

In connection with the description of yeast cells (C. Cognard-Latour in France and T. Schwann in Germany, 1836 -1838), they began to actively study the fermentation process (Liebig, Pasteur, etc.). Contrary to the opinion of Liebig, who considered the fermentation process as a purely chemical process occurring with the obligatory participation of oxygen, L. Pasteur established the possibility of the existence of anaerobiosis, i.e. life in the absence of air, due to the energy of fermentation (a process inextricably linked, in his opinion, with life activity cells, e.g. yeast cells). Clarity on this issue was brought by the experiments of M. M. Manasseina (1871), who showed the possibility of fermenting sugar by destroyed (grinding with sand) yeast cells, and especially by the works of Buchner (1897) on the nature of fermentation. Buchner managed to obtain cell-free juice from yeast cells, capable, like living yeast, of fermenting sugar to form alcohol and carbon dioxide.

The emergence and development of biological (physiological) chemistry

The accumulation of a large amount of information regarding the chemical composition of plant and animal organisms and the chemical processes occurring in them led to the need for systematization and generalizations in the field of biology. The first work in this regard was Simon’s textbook (J. E. Simon) “Handbuch der angewandten medizinischen Chemie” (1842 ). Obviously, it was from this time that the term “biological (physiological) chemistry” became established in science.

Somewhat later (1846), Liebig’s monograph “Die Tierchemie oder die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Physiologie und Pathologie” was published. In Russia, the first textbook of physiological chemistry was published by Kharkov University professor A.I. Khodnev in 1847. Periodical literature on biological (physiological) chemistry began to be published regularly in 1873 in Germany. This year Maly (L. R. Maly) published "Jahres-Bericht uber die Fortschritte der Tierchemie." In 1877, the scientific journal “Zeitschr. fur physiologische Chemie", later renamed "Hoppe-Seyler's Zeitschr. fur physiologische Chemie.” Later, biochemical journals began to be published in many countries around the world in English, French, Russian and other languages.

In the second half of the 19th century. At the medical faculties of many Russian and foreign universities, special departments of medical, or physiological, chemistry were established. In Russia, the first department of medicinal chemistry was organized by A. Ya. Danilevsky in 1863 at Kazan University. In 1864, A.D. Bulyginsky founded the Department of Medical Chemistry at the Medical Faculty of Moscow University. Soon, departments of medicinal chemistry, later renamed departments of physiological chemistry, appeared in the medical faculties of other universities. In 1892, the Department of Physiological Chemistry, organized by A. Ya. Danilevsky, began to function at the Military Medical (Medical-Surgical) Academy in St. Petersburg. However, the reading of individual sections of the physiological chemistry course was carried out there much earlier (1862-1874) at the Department of Chemistry (A.P. Borodin).

The real heyday of B. came in the 20th century. At the very beginning, the polypeptide theory of protein structure was formulated and experimentally substantiated (E. Fischer, 1901 - 1902, etc.). Later, a number of analytical methods were developed, including micromethods, which make it possible to study the amino acid composition of minimal amounts of protein (several milligrams); The method of chromatography (see), first developed by the Russian scientist M. S. Tsvet (1901 - 1910), methods of X-ray diffraction analysis (see), “labeled atoms” (isotope indication), cytospectrophotometry, electron microscopy (see) have become widespread. . Preparative protein chemistry is making great progress; effective methods for isolating and fractionating proteins and enzymes and determining their molecular weight are being developed [S. Cohen, A. Tiselius, T. Swedberg].

The primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of many proteins (including enzymes) and polypeptides is deciphered. A number of important, biologically active protein substances are synthesized.

The greatest achievements in the development of this direction are associated with the names of L. Pauling and R. Corey - the structure of polypeptide chains of proteins (1951); V. Vigneault - structure and synthesis of oxytocin and vasopressin (1953); Sanger (F. Sanger) - the structure of insulin (1953); Stein (W. Stein) and S. Moore - deciphering the ribonuclease formula, creating an automatic machine for determining the amino acid composition of protein hydrolysates; Perutz (M. F. Perutz), Kendrew (J. Kendrew) and Phillips (D. Phillips) - deciphering using X-ray structural analysis methods and creating three-dimensional models of the molecules of myoglobin, hemoglobin, lysozyme and a number of other proteins (1960 and subsequent years) .

Of outstanding importance were the works of J. Sumner, who first proved (1926) the protein nature of the urease enzyme; research by J. Northrop and M. Kunitz on the purification and production of crystalline preparations of enzymes - pepsin and others (1930); V. A. Engelhardt about the presence of ATPase activity in the contractile muscle protein myosin (1939 - 1942), etc. Big number works are devoted to the study of the mechanism of enzymatic catalysis [Michaelis and Menten (L. Michaelis, M. L. Menten), 1913; R. Willstetter, Theorell, Koshland (N. Theorell, D. E. Koshland), A. E. Braunstein and M. M. Shemyakin, 1963; Straub (F.V. Straub), etc.], complex multienzyme complexes (S.E. Severin, F. Linen, etc.), the role of cell structure in the implementation of enzymatic reactions, the nature of active and allosteric centers in enzyme molecules (see. Enzymes), primary structure enzymes [V. Shorm, Anfinsen (S.V. Anfinsen), V.N. Orekhovich, etc.], regulation of the activity of a number of enzymes by hormones (V.S. Ilyin, etc.). The properties of “enzyme families” - isoenzymes are being studied [Markert, Kaplan, Wroblewski (S. Markert, N. Kaplan, F. Wroblewski), 1960-1961].

An important stage in the development of protein was the deciphering of the mechanism of protein biosynthesis with the participation of ribosomes, information and transport forms of ribonucleic acids [J. Brachet, F. Jacob, J. Monod, 1953-1961; A. N. Belozersky (1959); A. S. Spirin, A. A. Baev (1957 and subsequent years)].

The brilliant works of E. Chargaff, J. Davidson, especially J. Watson, F. Crick and M. Wilkins culminate in elucidation of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (see). The double-stranded structure of DNA and its role in the transmission of hereditary information are established. The synthesis of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) is carried out by A. Kornberg (1960 - 1968), S. Weiss, S. Ochoa. One of the central problems of modern biology is being solved (1962 and subsequent years) - the RNA amino acid code is being deciphered [Crick, M. Nirenberg, Matthaei (F. Crick, J. H. Matthaei), etc.].

For the first time, one of the genes and phage fx174 are synthesized. The concept of molecular diseases associated with certain defects in the DNA structure of the cell's chromosomal apparatus is introduced (see Molecular genetics). A theory is being developed for the regulation of the work of cistrons (see), responsible for the synthesis of various proteins and enzymes (Jacob, Monod), and the study of the mechanism of protein (nitrogen) metabolism continues.

Previously, the classical studies of I.P. Pavlov and his school revealed the basic physiological and biochemical mechanisms of the digestive glands. Particularly fruitful was the collaboration between the laboratories of A. Ya. Danilevsky and M. V. Nenetsky with the laboratory of I. P. Pavlov, which led to the clarification of the place of formation of urea (in the liver). F. Hopkins and his co-workers. (England) established the importance of previously unknown food components, developing on this basis a new concept of diseases caused by nutritional deficiency. The existence of nonessential and essential amino acids is established, and protein standards in nutrition are developed. The intermediate metabolism of amino acids is deciphered - deamination, transamination (A. E. Braunstein and M. G. Kritsman), decarboxylation, their mutual transformations and features of exchange (S. R. Mardashev and others). The mechanisms of biosynthesis of urea (G. Krebs), creatine and creatinine are clarified, a group of extractive substances is discovered and subjected to detailed study nitrogenous substances muscles - dipeptides carnosine, carnitine, anserine [V. S. Gulevich, Ackermann (D. Ackermann),

S. E. Severin and others]. The features of the process of nitrogen metabolism in plants are subject to detailed study (D. N. Pryanishnikov, V. L. Kretovich, etc.). A special place was occupied by the study of disorders of nitrogen metabolism in animals and humans with protein deficiency (S. Ya. Kaplansky, Yu. M. Gefter, etc.). The synthesis of purine and pyrimidine bases is carried out, the mechanisms of formation of urinary acid are elucidated, the breakdown products of hemoglobin (pigments of bile, feces and urine) are studied in detail, the pathways of heme formation and the mechanism of occurrence of acute and congenital forms of porphyria and porphyrinuria are deciphered.

Outstanding successes have been achieved in deciphering the structure of the most important carbohydrates [A. A. Collie, Tollens, Killiani, Haworth (B.C. Tollens, H. Killiani, W. Haworth), etc.] and mechanisms of carbohydrate metabolism. The transformation of carbohydrates in the digestive tract under the influence of digestive enzymes and intestinal microorganisms (in particular, in herbivores) has been clarified in detail; works on the role of the liver in carbohydrate metabolism and maintaining blood sugar concentrations at a certain level, begun in the middle of the last century by C. Bernard and E. Pfluger, are clarified and expanded; the mechanisms of glycogen synthesis (with the participation of UDP-glucose) and its breakdown are deciphered [K . Corey, Leloir (L. F. Leloir), etc.]; schemes for intermediate carbohydrate metabolism are created (glycolytic, pentose cycle, Tricarboxylic acid cycle); the nature of individual intermediate metabolic products is clarified [Ya. O. Parnas, G. Embden, O. Meyerhof, L. A. Ivanov, S. P. Kostychev, A. Harden, Krebs, F. Lipmann, S. Cohen, V. A Engelhardt and others]. The biochemical mechanisms of carbohydrate metabolism disorders (diabetes, galactosemia, glycogenosis, etc.) associated with hereditary defects of the corresponding enzyme systems are being clarified.

Outstanding successes have been achieved in deciphering the structure of lipids: phospholipids, cerebrosides, gangliosides, sterols and sterides [Thierfelder, A. Windaus, A. Butenandt, Ruzicka, Reichstein (H. Thierfelder, A. Ruzicka, T. Reichstein), etc.].

Through the works of M.V. Nenetsky, F. Knoop (1904) and H. Dakin, the theory of β-oxidation of fatty acids was created. The development of modern ideas about the pathways of oxidation (with the participation of coenzyme A) and synthesis (with the participation of malonyl-CoA) of fatty acids and complex lipids is associated with the names of Leloir, Linen, Lipmann, D. E. Green, Kennedy (E. Kennedy) and etc.

Significant progress has been made in studying the mechanism of biological oxidation. One of the first theories of biological oxidation (the so-called peroxide theory) was proposed by A. N. Bach (see Biological oxidation). Later, a theory appeared according to which various substrates of cellular respiration undergo oxidation and their carbon is ultimately converted into CO2 due to the oxygen of water rather than the absorbed air (V.I. Palladii, 1908). Subsequently, a major contribution to the development of the modern theory of tissue respiration was made by the works of G. Wieland, T. Tunberg, L. S. Stern, O. Warburg, Euler, D. Keilin (N. Euler) and others. Warburg deserves the credit the discovery of one of the coenzymes of dehydrogenases - nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), a flavin enzyme and its prosthetic group, a respiratory iron-containing enzyme, which was later called cytochrome oxidase. He also proposed a spectrophotometric method for determining the concentrations of NAD and NADP (Warburg test), which then formed the basis for quantitative methods for determining a number of biochemical components of blood and tissues. Keilin established the role of iron-containing pigments (cytochromes) in the chain of respiratory catalysts.

Of great importance was Lipmann's discovery of coenzyme A, which made it possible to develop a universal cycle of aerobic oxidation of the active form of acetate - acetyl-CoA (citric acid Krebs cycle).

V. A. Engelhardt, as well as Lipmann, introduced the concept of “energy-rich” phosphorus compounds, in particular ATP (see Adenosine phosphoric acids), in the high-energy bonds of which a significant part of the energy released during tissue respiration is accumulated (see Biological oxidation).

The possibility of phosphorylation (see) associated with respiration in the chain of respiratory catalysts embedded in mitochondrial membranes was shown by V. A. Belitser and H. Kalckar. A large number of works are devoted to the study of the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation [Cheyne (V. Chance), Mitchell (P. Mitchell), V.P. Skulachev, etc.].

20th century marked by decoding chemical structure all vitamins known in the present time (see), international units of vitamins are introduced, the vitamin needs of humans and animals are established, and a vitamin industry is created.

No less significant progress has been achieved in the field of chemistry and biochemistry of hormones (see); the structure of steroid hormones of the adrenal cortex was studied and synthesized (Windaus, Reichstein, Butenandt, Ruzicka); The structure of the thyroid hormones - thyroxine, diiodothyronine - has been established [E. Kendall (E. S. Kendall), 1919; Harington (S. Harington), 1926]; adrenal medulla - adrenaline, norepinephrine [Takamine (J. Takamine), 1907]. The synthesis of insulin was carried out, the structure of somatotropic), adrenocorticotropic, and melanocyte-stimulating hormones was established; other protein hormones have been isolated and studied; schemes for the interconversion and exchange of steroid hormones have been developed (N. A. Yudaev and others). The first data on the mechanism of action of hormones (ACTH, vasopressin, etc.) on metabolism have been obtained. The mechanism of regulation of the functions of the endocrine glands based on the feedback principle has been deciphered.

Significant data were obtained from studying the chemical composition and metabolism of a number of important organs and tissues (functional biochemistry). Peculiarities in the chemical composition of nervous tissue have been established. A new direction in biology is emerging - neurochemistry. A number of complex lipids that make up the bulk of brain tissue have been isolated - phosphatides, sphingomyelins, plasmalogens, cerebrosides, cholesterides, gangliosides [J. Thudichum, H. Waelsh, A. B. Palladium, E. M. K reps, etc.] . The basic patterns of exchange are revealed nerve cells, the role of biologically active amines - adrenaline, norepinephrine, histamine, serotonin, γ-amino-butyric acid, etc. is deciphered. Various psychopharmacological substances are being introduced into medical practice, opening up new opportunities in the treatment of various nervous diseases. Chemical transmitters of nervous excitation (mediators) are studied in detail and are widely used, especially in agriculture, various cholinesterase inhibitors to control insect pests, etc.

Significant progress has been made in the study of muscle activity. The contractile proteins of muscles are studied in detail (see Muscle tissue). The most important role of ATP in muscle contraction has been established [V. A. Engelhardt and M. N. Lyubimova, Szent-Gyorgyi, Straub (A. Szent-Gyorgyi, F. V. Straub)], in the movement of cellular organelles, penetration of phages into bacteria [Weber, Hoffmann-Berling (N. Weber, H. Hoffmann-Berling), I. I. Ivanov, V. Ya. Alexandrov, N. I. Arronet, B. F. Poglazov, etc.]; the mechanism of muscle contraction at the molecular level is studied in detail [H. Huxley, J. Hanson, G. M. Frank, Tonomura, etc.], the role of imidazole and its derivatives in muscle contraction is studied (G E. Severin); theories of two-phase muscle activity are being developed [Hasselbach (W. Hasselbach)], etc.

Important results were obtained by studying the composition and properties of blood: the respiratory function of blood was studied under normal conditions and in a number of pathological conditions; the mechanism of oxygen transfer from the lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs has been clarified [I. M. Sechenov, J. Haldane, D. van Slyke, J. Barcroft, L. Henderson, S. E. Severin, G. E. Vladimirov, E. M. Crepe, G.V. Derviz]; ideas about the mechanism of blood coagulation were clarified and expanded; the presence in the blood plasma of a number of new factors has been established, in the congenital absence of which in the blood there are observed various shapes hemophilia. The fractional composition of blood plasma proteins (albumin, alpha, beta and gamma globulins, lipoproteins, etc.) was studied. A number of new plasma proteins have been discovered (properdin, C-reactive protein, haptoglobin, cryoglobulin, transferrin, ceruloplasmin, interferon, etc.). A system of kinins has been discovered - biologically active polypeptides of blood plasma (bradykinin, kallidin), which play an important role in the regulation of local and general blood flow and take part in the mechanism of development of inflammatory processes, shock and other pathological processes and conditions.

In the development of modern biology, an important role was played by the development of a number of special research methods: isotope indication, differential centrifugation (separation of subcellular organelles), spectrophotometry (see), mass spectrometry (see), electron paramagnetic resonance (see), etc.

Some prospects for the development of biochemistry

B.'s successes largely determine not only the modern level of medicine, but also its possible further progress. One of the main problems of biology and molecular biology (see) is the correction of defects in the genetic apparatus (see Gene therapy). Radical therapy of hereditary diseases associated with mutational changes in certain genes (i.e., DNA sections) responsible for the synthesis of certain proteins and enzymes is, in principle, possible only by transplanting similar ones synthesized in vitro or isolated from cells (e.g., bacteria) "healthy" genes. A very tempting task is also to master the mechanism for regulating the reading of genetic information encoded in DNA and deciphering at the molecular level the mechanism of cell differentiation in ontogenesis. The problem of treating a number of viral diseases, especially leukemia, will probably not be solved until the mechanism of interaction of viruses (in particular, oncogenic ones) with the infected cell becomes completely clear. Work in this direction is being intensively carried out in many laboratories around the world. Elucidating the picture of life at the molecular level will allow not only to fully understand the processes occurring in the body (biocatalysis, the mechanism of using ATP and GTP energy when performing mechanical functions, transmission of nervous excitation, active transport of substances through membranes, the phenomenon of immunity, etc.), but also will open up new opportunities in the creation of effective medicines, in the fight against premature aging, the development of cardiovascular diseases (atherosclerosis), and prolongation of life.

Biochemical centers in the USSR. The Institute of Biochemistry named after A.I. operates within the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences. A. N. Bakh, Institute of Molecular Biology, Institute of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry named after. I. M. Sechenova, Institute of Protein, Institute of Physiology and Biochemistry of Plants, Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, branch of the Institute of Biochemistry of the Ukrainian SSR, Institute of Biochemistry Armenian. SSR, etc. The USSR Academy of Medical Sciences includes the Institute of Biological and Medical Chemistry, the Institute of Experimental Endocrinology and Hormone Chemistry, the Institute of Nutrition, and the Department of Biochemistry of the Institute of Experimental Medicine. There are also a number of biochemical laboratories in other institutes and scientific institutions of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, academies of the Union republics, in universities (departments of biochemistry of Moscow, Leningrad and other universities, a number of medical institutes, the Military Medical Academy, etc.), veterinary, agricultural and other scientific institutions. In the USSR there are about 8 thousand members of the All-Union Biochemical Society (VBO), which is part of the European Federation of Biochemists (FEBS) and the International Biochemical Union (IUB).

Radiation biochemistry

Radiation biology studies changes in metabolism that occur in the body when it is exposed to ionizing radiation. Irradiation causes ionization and excitation of cellular molecules, their reactions with free radicals (see) and peroxides arising in the aqueous environment, which leads to disruption of the structures of biosubstrates of cellular organelles, the balance and mutual connections of intracellular biochemical processes. In particular, these shifts in combination with post-radiation effects from the damaged c. n. With. and humoral factors give rise to secondary metabolic disorders that cause the course of radiation sickness. An important role in the development of radiation sickness is played by the acceleration of the breakdown of nucleoproteins, DNA and simple proteins, inhibition of their biosynthesis, disturbances in the coordinated action of enzymes, as well as oxidative phosphorylation (see) in mitochondria, a decrease in the amount of ATP in tissues and increased oxidation of lipids with the formation of peroxides (see Radiation sickness, Radiobiology, Medical radiology).

Bibliography: Afonsky S.I. Biochemistry of animals, M., 1970; Biochemistry, ed. N. N. Yakovleva, M., 1969; ZbarekiY B.I., Ivanov I.I. and M and r-d and sh e in S. R. Biological chemistry, JI., 1972; Kretovich V. JI. Fundamentals of plant biochemistry, M., 1971; JI e n and d-j e r A. Biochemistry, trans. from English, M., 1974; Makeev I. A., Gulevich V. S. and Broude JI. M. Course biological chemistry, JI., 1947; Mahler, G. R., and Cordes, Y. G. Fundamentals of Biological Chemistry, trans. from English, M., 1970; Ferdman D. JI. Biochemistry, M., 1966; Filippovich Yu. B. Fundamentals of biochemistry, M., 1969; III t r a u b F. B. Biochemistry, trans. from Hungarian, Budapest, 1965; R a r o r o g t S. M. Medizinische Bioc-hemie, B., 1962.

Periodicals- Biochemistry, M., since 1936; Questions of medical chemistry, M., since 1955; Journal of evolutionary biochemistry and physiology, M., since 1965; Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Series of Biological Sciences, M., since 1958; Molecular biology, M., since 1967; Ukrainian byukhem1chny journal, Kshv, since 1946 (1926-1937 - Naukov1 notes of the Ukrainian byukhemichny sheti-tutu, 1938-1941 - Byukhemny journal); Advances in biological chemistry, JI., since 1924; Success modern biology, M., since 1932; Annual Review of Biochemistry, Stanford, since 1932; Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, N.Y., since 1951 (1942-1950 - Archives of Biochemistry); Biochemical Journal, L., since 1906; Biochemische Zeitschrift, V., since 1906; Biochemistry, Washington, since 1964; Biochimica et biophysica acta, N. Y. - Amsterdam, since 1947; Bulletin de la Soci6t<5 de chimie biologique, P., с 1914; Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, L., с 1960; Hoppe-Seyler’s Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie, В., с 1877; Journal of Biochemistry, Tokyo, с 1922; Journal of Biological Chemistry, Baltimore, с 1905; Journal of Molecular Biology, L.-N.Y., с 1960; Journal of Neurochemistry, L., с 1956; Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, N. Y., с 1903; См. также в ст. Клиническая биохимия, Физиология, Химия.

B. radiation- Kuzin A. M. Radiation biochemistry, M., 1962; P o -Mantsev E. F. et al. Early radiation-biochemical reactions, M., 1966; Fedorova T. A., Tereshchenko O. Ya. and M a z u r i k V. K. Nucleic acids and proteins in the body during radiation injury, M., 1972; Cherkasova L.S. et al. Ionizing radiation and metabolism, Minsk, 1962, bibliogr.; Altman K. I., Gerber G. V. a. About k a d a S. Radiation biochemistry, v. 1-2, N.Y.-L., 1970.

I. I. Ivanov; T. A. Fedorova (glad).

Biochemical analysis is the study of a wide range of enzymes, organic and mineral substances. This analysis of metabolism in the human body: carbohydrate, mineral, fat and protein. Changes in metabolism show whether pathology exists and in which organ.

This analysis is done if the doctor suspects a hidden disease. The result of the analysis of pathology in the body at the very initial stage of development, and the specialist can navigate the choice of medications.

Using this test, it is possible to detect leukemia at an early stage, when symptoms have not yet begun to appear. In this case, you can start taking the necessary medications and stop the pathological process of the disease.

Sampling process and analysis indicator values

Blood is taken from a vein for analysis, approximately five to ten milliliters. It is placed in a special test tube. The analysis is carried out on an empty stomach of the patient, for more complete veracity. If there is no health risk, it is recommended not to take medications before blood.

To interpret the analysis results, the most informative indicators are used:
- glucose and sugar levels - an increased level characterizes the development of diabetes mellitus in a person, a sharp decrease in it poses a threat to life;
- cholesterol – its increased content indicates the presence of vascular atherosclerosis and the risk of cardiovascular diseases;
- transaminases - enzymes that detect diseases such as myocardial infarction, liver damage (hepatitis), or the presence of any injury;
- bilirubin – its high levels indicate liver damage, massive destruction of red blood cells and impaired bile outflow;
- urea and creatine - their excess indicates a weakening of the excretory function of the kidneys and liver;
- total protein - its indicators change when a serious illness or some negative process occurs in the body;
- amylase is an enzyme of the pancreas, an increase in its level in the blood indicates inflammation of the gland - pancreatitis.

In addition to the above, a biochemical blood test determines the content of potassium, iron, phosphorus and chlorine in the body. Only the attending physician can interpret the results of the analysis and prescribe the appropriate treatment.

Biochemistry (from the Greek “bios” - “life”, biological or physiological) is a science that studies chemical processes inside a cell that affect the functioning of the entire organism or its specific organs. The goal of the science of biochemistry is to understand the chemical elements, composition and process of metabolism, and methods of its regulation in the cell. According to other definitions, biochemistry is the science of the chemical structure of cells and organisms of living beings.

To understand why biochemistry is needed, let’s imagine the sciences in the form of an elementary table.

As you can see, the basis for all sciences is anatomy, histology and cytology, which study all living things. On their basis, biochemistry, physiology and pathophysiology are built, where they study the functioning of organisms and the chemical processes within them. Without these sciences, the rest that are represented in the upper sector will not be able to exist.

There is another approach, according to which sciences are divided into 3 types (levels):

• Those that study the cellular, molecular and tissue level of life (the sciences of anatomy, histology, biochemistry, biophysics);
• Study pathological processes and diseases (pathophysiology, pathological anatomy);
• Diagnose the body's external response to disease (clinical sciences such as medicine and surgery).

This is how we found out what place biochemistry, or, as it is also called, medical biochemistry, occupies among the sciences. After all, any abnormal behavior of the body, the process of its metabolism will affect the chemical structure of cells and will manifest itself during the LHC.

Why are tests taken? What does a biochemical blood test show?

Blood biochemistry is a laboratory diagnostic method that shows diseases in various areas of medicine (for example, therapy, gynecology, endocrinology) and helps determine the functioning of internal organs and the quality of metabolism of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates, as well as the sufficiency of microelements in the body.

BAC, or biochemical blood test, is an analysis that provides the broadest information regarding a variety of diseases. Based on its results, you can find out the functional state of the body and each organ in a separate case, because any ailment that attacks a person will one way or another manifest itself in the results of the LHC.

What is included in biochemistry?

It is not very convenient, and it is not necessary, to conduct biochemical studies of absolutely all indicators, and besides, the more of them, the more blood you need, and also the more expensive they will cost you. Therefore, a distinction is made between standard and complex tanks. The standard one is prescribed in most cases, but the extended one with additional indicators is prescribed by the doctor if he needs to find out additional nuances depending on the symptoms of the disease and the purpose of the analysis.

Basic indicators.

1. Total protein in the blood (TP, Total Protein).
2. Bilirubin.
3. Glucose, lipase.
4. ALT (Alanine aminotransferase, ALT) and AST (Aspartate aminotransferase, AST).
5. Creatinine.
6. Urea.
7. Electrolytes (Potassium, K/Calcium, Ca/Sodium, Na/Chlorine, Cl/Magnesium, Mg).
8. Total cholesterol.

The expanded profile includes any of these additional indicators (as well as others, very specific and narrowly focused, not indicated in this list).

Biochemical general therapeutic standard: adult norms

Decoding biochemistry

The decoding of the data described above is carried out according to certain values ​​and standards.

1. Total protein is the amount of total protein found in the human body. Exceeding the norm indicates various inflammations in the body (problems of the liver, kidneys, genitourinary system, burn disease or cancer), with dehydration (dehydration) during vomiting, sweating in particularly large quantities, intestinal obstruction or multiple myeloma, deficiency - an imbalance in a nutritious diet, prolonged fasting, intestinal disease, liver disease, or in case of impaired synthesis as a result of hereditary diseases.
2. 
   Albumen‒ this is a highly concentrated protein fraction contained in the blood. It binds water, and its low amount leads to the development of edema - water is not retained in the blood and enters the tissues. Usually, if protein decreases, then the amount of albumin decreases.
3. General analysis of bilirubin in plasma(direct and indirect) - this is the diagnosis of a pigment that is formed after the breakdown of hemoglobin (it is toxic for humans). Hyperbilirubinemia (exceeding the level of bilirubin) is called jaundice, and clinical jaundice is subhepatic (including in newborns), hepatocellular and subhepatic. It indicates anemia, extensive hemorrhages subsequently hemolytic anemia, hepatitis, liver destruction, oncology and other diseases. It is scary because of liver pathology, but it can also increase in a person who has suffered blows and injuries.
4. Glucose. Its level determines carbohydrate metabolism, that is, energy in the body, and how the pancreas works. If there is a lot of glucose, it may be diabetes, physical activity, or the effect of taking hormonal drugs; if there is little, it may be hyperfunction of the pancreas, diseases of the endocrine system.
5. Lipase – It is a fat-breaking enzyme that plays an important role in metabolism. Its increase indicates pancreatic disease.
6. ALT– “liver marker”; it is used to monitor pathological processes in the liver. An increased rate indicates problems with the heart, liver or hepatitis (viral).
7. AST– “heart marker”, it shows the quality of the heart. Exceeding the norm indicates a disruption of the heart and hepatitis.
8. Creatinine– provides information about the functioning of the kidneys. It is elevated if a person has acute or chronic kidney disease or there is destruction of muscle tissue or endocrine disorders. Increased in people who eat a lot of meat products. And therefore, creatinine is lowered in vegetarians, as well as in pregnant women, but it will not greatly affect the diagnosis.
9. Urea analysis- This is a study of the products of protein metabolism, liver and kidney function. An overestimation of the indicator occurs when there is a malfunction of the kidneys, when they cannot cope with the removal of fluid from the body, and a decrease is typical for pregnant women, with diet and disorders associated with liver function.
10. Ggt in biochemical analysis it informs about the metabolism of amino acids in the body. Its high rate is visible in alcoholism, as well as if the blood is affected by toxins or dysfunction of the liver and biliary tract is suspected. Low – if there are chronic liver diseases.
11. Ldg The study characterizes the course of the energy processes of glycolysis and lactate. A high indicator indicates a negative effect on the liver, lungs, heart, pancreas or kidneys (pneumonia, heart attack, pancreatitis and others). A low lactate dehydrogenase level, like low creatinine, will not affect the diagnosis. If LDH is elevated, the reasons in women may be the following: increased physical activity and pregnancy. In newborns, this figure is also slightly higher.
12. Electrolyte balance indicates the normal process of metabolism into the cell and out of the cell back, including the process of the heart. Nutritional disorders are often the main cause of electrolyte imbalance, but it can also be vomiting, diarrhea, hormonal imbalance or kidney failure.
13. Cholesterol(cholesterol) total - increases if a person has obesity, atherosclerosis, liver dysfunction, thyroid gland, and decreases when a person goes on a low-fat diet, with septicism or other infection.
14. Amylase- an enzyme found in saliva and pancreas. A high level will indicate if there is cholecystitis, signs of diabetes mellitus, peritonitis, mumps and pancreatitis. It will also increase if you consume alcoholic beverages or drugs - glucocorticoids, which is also typical for pregnant women during toxicosis.

There are a lot of biochemistry indicators, both basic and additional; complex biochemistry is also carried out, which includes both basic and additional indicators at the discretion of the doctor.

To take biochemistry on an empty stomach or not: how to prepare for the analysis?

A blood test for HD is a responsible process, and you need to prepare for it in advance and with all seriousness.

These measures are necessary so that the analysis is more accurate and no additional factors influence it. Otherwise, you will have to retake the tests, since the slightest changes in conditions will significantly affect the metabolic process.

Where do they get it from and how to donate blood?

Donating blood for biochemistry involves taking blood with a syringe from a vein on the elbow, sometimes from a vein on the forearm or hand. On average, 5-10 ml of blood is enough to measure basic indicators. If a detailed biochemistry analysis is needed, then a larger volume of blood is taken.

The norm of biochemistry indicators on specialized equipment from different manufacturers may differ slightly from the average limits. The express method involves obtaining results within one day.

The procedure for drawing blood is almost painless: you sit down, the treatment nurse prepares a syringe, puts a tourniquet on your arm, treats the area where the injection will be given with an antiseptic and takes a blood sample.

The resulting sample is placed in a test tube and sent to the laboratory for diagnosis. The laboratory doctor places the plasma sample into a special device that is designed to determine biochemical parameters with high accuracy. He also processes and stores blood, determines the dosage and procedure for conducting biochemistry, diagnoses the results obtained, depending on the indicators required by the attending physician, and prepares a form for the results of biochemistry and laboratory chemical analysis.

The laboratory chemical analysis is transmitted within a day to the attending physician, who makes a diagnosis and prescribes treatment.

The LHC, with its many different indicators, makes it possible to see an extensive clinical picture of a specific person and a specific disease.