Decorated with heavenly circles
Subscribers in the wards ceilings
High...
the word “subscriber” in the meaning of “artist” is probably a new formation of Ostrovsky, but among the archaic vocabulary of Berendey’s speeches, this neologism plays the function of an archaism.
Folk etymologies by Ostrovsky and Leskov, used as vocabulary of petty-bourgeois dialect, are in most cases new formations. The following examples from Leskov are the same new formations with a focus on the peculiarities of dialects (pseudo-barbarisms motivated by everyday word usage):
“Ah! Yes, you also have a school here. Well, that’s why this little room is bad: well, it’s nothing for school.”
“Well, that’s great: there you have it, gentlemen, we have beer and honey, I’ll make you such a lamp from this that...” Termosesov kissed his fingers and finished: “your tongue, and when you finish drinking, swallow it.”
-What kind of lanpopo is this? – asked Achilles.
“Not lanpopo, but lampopo - a drink made from beer and honey.”*
"Soborians".)
In all these cases, neologisms are introduced as a sign of foreign vocabulary. But often neologisms are introduced as vocabulary characteristic of the language of the work itself. These are, for example, Benediktov’s neologisms:
Who's going to the thunderous rampart?
Through the lightning of heaven?
This is he - the mighty ship,
White-tailed, floating
Volnobrets is a water cutter!
"Sorry!" I said to my beloved,
A pre-battle sword clattered at her feet...
Benediktov has new formations like: “volatile”, “man up”, “headless”, “armored”, “dental”, “non-trampler”, “daredevil”, “stranger”, “eggishness”, etc.
In recent times, Igor Severyanin has cultivated poetic neologisms:
I, genius, Igor Severyanin,
Intoxicated with his victory,
I'm screened all over the place,
I am completely confirmed...
Neologisms have different functions. During periods of establishment of a literary language, neologisms are created in search of new words for new concepts. Thus, many words were introduced into the literary language by Karamzin (for example, the word “industry”).
The neologisms of Benediktov and Severyanin, of course, are different: these are new formations for naming old concepts. They are formed to update the verbal expression of a banal formula in order to avoid speech patterns.
However, in a neologism, what is generally important is not so much its verbal function as the method of its formation. In order for a neologism to be understandable, it is necessary that it be formed with the help of so-called “living morphemes”, i.e. morphemes, the meaning of which in the formation of words is still vividly perceived and which, therefore, are currently forming new words. In a word you can feel how it is made, from what parts and morphemes it is composed and according to what principle. The very image of word creation—poetic morphology—is comprehended. And usually each era has its own poetic morphology. Yes, for early XIX V. (and even earlier - at the end of the 18th century) compound adjectives like the constant Homeric epithets (see below) were characteristic - “rose-yellow”, “silver-azure”, “fast-running”, “green-curly”, “golden- turquoise”, etc.
In Benediktov’s neologisms, it is especially common to form a noun from an adjective using the compound suffix “nost”: “egginess”, “sweet singing”, “restlessness”, “fragility”, cf. "unsoftening". On the other hand, verbs from nouns ending in “to develop” are common - “celadon”, “rhyme weaving”, “man up”. Along with these neologisms, the words for “ness” and “to be” – “eternity”, “to be mad” - that already existed in the language before, also acquire the character of poetic words.
In the poetic style, sometimes we have a selection of adjectives - epithets with certain suffixes - for “willow”: “silent”, “jealous”, “ghoulish”, etc., for “isy”: “radiant”, “silver”, “ wavy”, etc. Very characteristic are Khlebnikov’s completely original neologisms, which played a large role in the development of the language of modern futurism.
"word") - a word, the meaning of a word or a phrase that has recently appeared in a language. From this definition it is clear that the concept of neologism is changeable over time and relatively: a word remains a neologism as long as the speakers perceive novelty in it. For example, for the Russian language of the late 20th century. a certain novelty is felt by the majority in words of foreign origin image maker,summit,Internet, in words formed from Russian morphemes: White House members(about the defenders of the White House in Moscow during October events 1993), cash"cash" denationalization“transformation of state property into any other property - private, cooperative, collective, etc.”, in phrases hotline ,shadow economy, in recently appeared meanings of some old words: burglar"one who hacks" computer programs", green"U.S. dollars ", apple“relating to the socio-political association “Yabloko””, etc.
New words that appear in the language to designate new things and concepts (in connection with the development of science, technology, culture and other aspects of the social life of society) are usually called lexical neologisms proper (in the examples just given these are words image maker,summit,Internet,White House members,cash,denationalization). If the old form of a word is used, but a new meaning is assigned to it, then they talk about a semantic neologism ( burglar,green,apple man). Speed type hotline,shadow economy, in which the very connections of words with each other are new and unusual, are called combinable neologisms. All three types of neologisms are united under the common name “linguistic”.
In addition to linguistic ones, individual or author’s neologisms can be found in speech. Unlike linguistic ones, they, being created by one person - a poet, writer, public figure, etc. - remain a part of the individual style and their novelty and unusualness do not fade over time. These are, for example, many neologisms of V. Mayakovsky ( hulk,December,snort etc.), V. Khlebnikov ( exhausted,rapturous,laughers and etc.); V. Vysotsky called the physicist quantalerist, combining the physical term quantum with the word cavalryman Some of the author's neologisms - especially those that are expressive and at the same time denoting communicatively important phenomena - may fall into general use. This happened, for example, with the words that M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin came up with: bungler And bungling,stupidity. Korney Chukovsky coined the word stationery, which means painful (cf. words like diphtheria,colitis and so on.) the tendency of some people to inappropriately use clerical words and phrases. Certain author's neologisms have become so firmly entrenched in the language that now only specialists can establish that, for example, the word industry in the past - the author's neologism: two centuries ago it was introduced into use by N.M. Karamzin. Verb fade away entered the general literary dictionary thanks to F.M. Dostoevsky; a well-known word now mediocrity(emphasis first based on: mediocrity, and later on the prefix: mediocrity) was first used by the poet Igor Severyanin.
Neologism words appear in a language in three ways:
1) through word-formation derivation - the formation of new words from existing morphemes in the language according to known (usually productive) models; the most common methods of forming neologisms are suffixation ( grounded – grounded,screw-it - screw-a,tease - teaser,geologist – geologist-in-ya), prefix ( post-Yeltsin,super profitable), prefix-suffix method ( everyday life - about everyday life,sound - o-sound-iva-t), addition of stems, often in combination with suffixation ( substance abuse,little picture,foreignness), truncation of stems, especially characteristic of the formation of neologisms in colloquial speech (crazy- from schizophrenic,beech- from used bookstore);
2) by semantic derivation, i.e. development in an already existing word of a new, secondary meaning based on the similarity of the newly designated phenomenon with an already known phenomenon: shadow– associated with illegal methods of enrichment ( shadow business,shadow economy); paralysis– complete inaction of power, economic, social and political mechanisms in the state ( power paralysis,the economy is on the verge of paralysis), tourer– a criminal who commits crimes in different places outside his permanent residence;
3) by borrowing words from other languages ( voucher,image,marketing,know-how,thriller and many others) or from uncodified subsystems of a given language - from dialects, vernacular, jargons: for example, for the 1960s, neologisms were words borrowed from dialects craftsman, colloquial noun that has entered literary circulation window dressing(and the adjective derived from it ostentatious), V modern speech feel like relatively new slang words in origin chaos,disassembly,party and under.
Special group neologisms are made up of lexical and phraseological tracing papers - words and combinations of words created under the influence of foreign language samples: steep“making a strong impression with his determination, manners and behavior, ability to influence others, etc.” (“translation” of one of the meanings of English. tough), skinheads(English) skinheads), hotline(English) hot line), brain drain(English) brain drain) and so on.
In the Russian lexicographical tradition, neologisms are recorded in special dictionaries. The most famous of them are several issues of the reference dictionary New words and meanings edited by N.Z. Kotelova and Yu.S. Sorokin (L., 1973, 1984) and ed. E.A. Levashov (St. Petersburg, 1997), compiled based on materials from the press and literature of the second half of the 20th century; Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language of the late twentieth century edited by G.N. Sklyarevskaya (St. Petersburg, 1998), Dictionary of perestroika edited by V.I. Maksimova (St. Petersburg, 1992), as well as a series of books called New in Russian vocabulary. Vocabulary materials, published from 1977 to 1996. Dictionaries of author’s neologisms are also being created: for example, N.N. Pertsova compiled Dictionary of neologisms by Velimir Khlebnikov(Vienna - Moscow, 1995).
Occasionalisms should be distinguished from neologisms (lat. occasionalis "random") - words formed “on occasion”, in specific conditions of speech communication and, as a rule, contrary to the linguistic norm, deviating from usual ways formation of words in a given language. Occasionalism often appears in speech as a means of language play, jokes, puns: slander(in N.S. Leskov - the result of a punning combination of words slander And feuilleton), first printer(a word created by I. Ilf and E. Petrov by deliberately distorting the word pioneer); Chukokkala- the name of K. Chukovsky’s handwritten almanac, which combines the first part of his surname and the second half of the name of the village of Kuokkala near St. Petersburg, where K. Chukovsky lived before the revolution.
Close to occasionalisms are the so-called potential words - lexical units that are not in the dictionary of a given language, but which are easily formed according to certain word-formation models: cf. words like grabber,chase,launcher,clapper and under. An important difference between occasionalisms and potential words is that occasionalisms are “violators of the laws (rules) of general language word formation,” and potential words, on the contrary, “filling the empty cells of word-formation paradigms... implement the laws of word formation” (E.A. Zemskaya ).
Occasionalisms and potential words are often found in spontaneous colloquial speech: with a word created on occasion - in accordance with the laws of word formation or contrary to them - the speaker often denotes either something that does not have a standard name, or something for which he cannot immediately remember the regular designation.
Vocabulary
Outdated words: historicisms and archaisms
Depending on the reasons why a particular word is classified as obsolete, historicisms and archaisms are distinguished.
Historicisms- these are words that have fallen out of use because the objects and phenomena that they denoted have disappeared from life.
Historicisms do not have synonyms, since this is the only designation of a disappeared concept and the object or phenomenon behind it.
Historicisms are quite diverse thematic groups words:
1) Names of ancient clothing: zipun, camisole, caftan, kokoshnik, zhupan, shushun, etc.;
2) Titles monetary units: altyn, penny, polushka, hryvnia, etc.;
3) Titles: boyar, nobleman, tsar, count, prince, duke, etc.;
4) Names of officials: policeman, governor, clerk, constable, etc.;
5) Names of weapons: arquebus, sixfin, unicorn (cannon), etc.;
6) Administrative names: volost, district, district, etc.
For polysemantic words, one of the meanings can become historic. For example, the word people has following values:
1) Plural noun person;
2) Other persons who are strangers to anyone;
3) Persons used in any business, personnel;
4) Servant, worker in a manor house.
The word people in the first three meanings is included in active dictionary. The fourth value of of this word is outdated, so we have semantic historicism, forming the lexeme human in the meaning of “the room in which the servants live.”
Archaisms- these are words denoting concepts, objects, phenomena that currently exist; for various (primarily extra-linguistic) reasons, archaisms were forced out of active use by other words.
Consequently, archaisms have synonyms in modern Russian, for example: sail (n.) - sail, Psyche (n.) - soul; Overseas (adj.) - foreign; Koi (pronoun) - which; This (pronoun) - this; Poeliku (union) - because, etc.
Depending on whether the entire word, the meaning of the word, the phonetic design of the word, or a separate word-forming morpheme becomes obsolete, archaisms are divided into several groups:
1) Actually lexical archaisms are words that have completely fallen out of use and become passive lexicon: lzya - it is possible; thief - thief; aki—how; piit - poet; young woman - teenager, etc.
2) Lexico-semantic archaisms are words for which one or more meanings are outdated:
Belly - “life” (not to fight on the stomach, but to fight to death); Idol - “statue”;
Scoundrels - “unfit for military service”; Haven - “port, pier”, etc.
3) Lexico-phonetic archaisms are words that, as a result, historical development has changed sound design(sound shell), but the meaning of the word is completely preserved:
Mirror - mirror;
Iroism - heroism;
Eighteen - eighteen;
Passport - passport;
Calm - style (poetic), etc.
A special group consists of accentological archaisms - that is, words whose emphasis has changed (from the Latin Accentum - emphasis, emphasis):
The muses of the "ka-mu" language;
Suffi "ks - su" affix; Philoso "f ~ philo "sof, etc.
4) Lexico-word-formative archaisms are words in which individual morphemes or word-formation patterns are outdated:
Dol - valley; Friendship - friendship; Shepherd - shepherd; Fisherman - fisherman; Phantasm - fantasy, etc.
The archaization of words is not related to their origin. The following types of fishing may become obsolete:
1) Original Russian words: laby, izgoy, lzya, endova, etc.;
2) Old Slavonicisms: glad, edin, zelo, cold, child, etc.
3) Borrowed words: satisfaction - satisfaction (about a duel); Sikurs - help; Fortecia (fortress), etc.
The role of obsolete words in the Russian language is varied. Historicisms in special scientific literature are used to most accurately describe the era. In works fiction on historical topics Historicisms and archaisms help to recreate the flavor of the era, and are also a means of speech characterization of characters.
Examples of such use of outdated vocabulary are the novels “Razin Stepan” by A.P. Chapygina, “Peter I” A.H. Tolstoy, “Emelyan Pugachev” by V.Ya. Shishkova, “Ivan the Terrible” by V.I. Kostyleva and others.
In the text of any of these works of art can be found Various types archaisms:
I learned this: according to information from Taty Fomka, thieves were caught outside the Nikitsky Gate (Chapygin).
Archaisms can be used to create a solemn style, which is especially characteristic of poetry of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Examples include the works of A.N. Radishcheva, G.R. Derzhavina, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.S. Pushkina and others.
Archaisms can also be used to create comic and satirical effects: Finally, look at your own person - and there, first of all, you will meet the head, and then you will not leave the belly and other parts without a sign (S. Shch.)
New words (neologisms)
The vocabulary of the language is constantly updated with new words. New words (neologisms) appear in language to designate any new phenomenon, concept, object. Examples of neologisms of our time are the following words:
Interfax - news agency; privatization - distribution of property; exclusive - an exceptional event (interview); CIS - Commonwealth of Independent States; Ratification - acceptance, approval (of a treaty); Pluralism - plurality (of opinions, points of view); An alternative is the possibility of choice; Referendum - discussion, etc.
Most neologisms are associated with changes in the political life of society, with the development of science, technology, and culture. Many of these words become firmly established in life, and then lose their novelty and become part of the active vocabulary. New words appear in the following ways:
1) Education based on models that already exist in the language, from elements existing in the language: auto shop, snowmobile, microdistrict, etc.
2) Borrowed from another language in the process of interstate and interethnic contacts (primarily these are sports and political terms): outsider, dribbling (driving the ball in basketball), stopper (goal defender), etc.; pluralism, ratification, etc.
3) Semantic transformations occur and new meanings of words appear, which are the result of using the word in a figurative meaning, which leads to the further development of polysemy and expansion of the scope of use of the word. For example:
The course is “the general line, the main direction in the activities of the state” (the course is set for perestroika);
Palette - “diversity, varied manifestation of something (palette of feelings).
The first two groups of neologisms are called actually lexical, last group - semantic neologisms.
It is necessary to distinguish contextual, or individual authorial, neologisms from linguistic neologisms.
Individually authored neologisms (occasionalisms)- these are words that are formed by word artists, publicists, and poets in order to enhance the expressiveness of the text. Unlike linguistic neologisms, occasionalisms perform not a nominative (nominal) but an expressive function. Occasionalisms relatively rarely pass into literary language and become popularly used. Like linguistic neologisms, occasionalisms are formed according to the laws of language, according to established word-formation models from morphemes present in the language, therefore they are understandable even out of context, for example:
Multi-storey, gramadyo, chamberlenit (Lighthouse);
Prosin, eorozhbinye (grasses), called, cone-finned (Es.);
Leaderism, cold snake, lucky, unarmed, loveless (Evtush.);
Kuchelbeckers (Push.);
Stupidity (S-Sch.);
Passengership, become masculine (Czech).
Popular vocabulary
The vocabulary that makes up the dictionary of the Russian national language is not the same in terms of scope of use. Some words are known to all people who speak Russian: earth, go, white, good, here, etc.
Other words are used in one locality, but are unknown and incomprehensible to Russian speakers outside of it:
Baskoy - “good” in Northern Russian dialects;
Okhlyupka - “riding a horse without a saddle” in South Russian dialects, etc.
Third words are used by people of a certain profession (special technical terms) or isolated for any reason social groups(for example, thieves' argot).
Depending on the area of use, the vocabulary of the Russian language can be divided into several groups:
1) Vocabulary is national;
2) Dialectal vocabulary;
3) Professional and special vocabulary;
4) The vocabulary is slang.
Popular vocabulary of the Russian language constitute words whose use is common to all people who speak Russian and is not limited geographically. Common words are the core of the lexical system of a language; without them the very existence of a language and communication in it is impossible.
The popular vocabulary includes words denoting vitally and socially important concepts, actions, properties, qualities: water, earth, man, father, mother, work, go, see, hear, big, kind, good, evil, white, light, dark , quickly, etc.
These words usually have certain stable values, which are common to all native speakers and do not change over a long period of time.
The national vocabulary does not constitute a closed group of words; on the contrary, it can be replenished with words that previously had a limited (dialectal or professional) sphere of use.
So, for example, the words burning, motley, loser, tyrant, regular, boring and some others were not known to all Russian speakers back in the first half of the 19th century, because the scope of their use was limited to spheres and, therefore, environments of use:
a) professional environment: vital, diverse,
b) dialect environment: loser, tyrant, regular, boring.
In modern Russian, these words are part of the national vocabulary.
On the other hand, some popular words over time may go out of general circulation and narrow the scope of their consumption, for example:
Zobat - meaning “is”;
Time - in the meaning of “dawn” (cf. the cognate verb to dawn).
Dialectal vocabulary
Words, the use of which is typical for people living in a certain area, constitute dialect vocabulary. Dialect words are used mainly in oral speech, since the dialect itself is mainly the oral, everyday speech of the inhabitants rural areas.
Dialectal vocabulary differs from the national vocabulary not only in its narrower scope of use, but also in a number of the following features:
1) Phonetic;
2) Grammatical;
3) Lexico-semantic.
In accordance with these features, the following types of dialectisms are distinguished:
A) Phonetic dialectisms are words that reflect the phonetic features of a given dialect:
Barrel - barrel;
Vankya - Vanka;
Tipyayagok - boiling water (South Russian dialectisms);
Kuricha - chicken;
Tsyasy - clock;
A person is a person;
Nemchi - Germans (Northwestern dialectisms).
b) Grammar dialectisms - words that have different meanings than in literary language, grammatical characteristics.
1) The use of a neuter noun as a noun in South Russian dialects female: Whole field; Such a thing; The cat smells whose meat it has eaten.
2) In northern Russian dialects, the use of the dative case form instead of the prepositional case is common:
In the cellar - in the cellar; In the club - in the club; In the table - in the table.
3) Using words with a different morphemic structure, but having the same root, instead of commonly used lexemes:
Sideways - on the side;
Dozhzhok - rain;
Yech - to run;
Burrow - hole, etc.
c) lexical dialectisms - words that differ in form and meaning from words in the popular vocabulary:
Kochet - rooster;
Korets - ladle;
The other day - the other day, recently;
Inda - even;
Ground - manure;
Tutarit - to speak;
To clear away - to harrow, etc.
Among the lexical dialectisms, local (local) names of things and concepts common in a given area stand out. Such words are called ethnographisms, For example:
Paneva is a special type of skirt in the Ryazan, Tambov and Tula regions;
Nalygach is a special belt or rope tied to the horns of oxen in those areas where oxen are used as draft force; Ochep - a pole at a well, with the help of which water is obtained;
Cats are birch bark bast shoes.
Dialect word may differ from the commonly used one not only in form (phonetic, morpheme, grammatical), but also in lexical meaning. In this case they talk about semantic dialectisms, for example:
Yawn - scream, call;
Dark - very much (I love dark = I love it very much);
Guess - recognize someone by sight;
Top - ravine (South Russian dialects);
Plow - sweep the floor (Northern Russian dialects);
Divno - a lot (Siberian dialects), etc.
Dialectisms are often used as artistic expressive means in works of fiction to achieve the following goals:
1) Speech characteristics of the character;
2) Transmission of local color;
3) The most accurate naming of things and concepts.
Examples of such use of dialectisms can be found in the works of many word artists:
It was frosty and bitter, but in the evening it began to feel rejuvenated (T.)
The verb to rejuvenate in Oryol and Tula dialects means “to become cloudy, to tend toward bad weather,” as V. I. Dal explains in his dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language.
We went to the forest, or, as we say, to order (Turg.) The whole face seemed to turn blue (Babel) We are used to eating bread without weight (Shol.)
Target: generalize students’ knowledge about neologisms and their varieties; teach to find neologisms in the text, identify them lexical meaning; enrich your vocabulary, develop coherent speech; cultivate an attentive attitude to the word.
During the classes
Organizing students to work.
Work on the topic of the lesson.
1. Announcing the topic and purpose of the lesson.
We continue the conversation about vocabulary that makes up the passive vocabulary; identify features new words, learn to find new words in the text, explain their lexical meaning.
2. Introductory conversation.
What are neologisms called? (New words that appear in the language as a result of the emergence of concepts and phenomena.)
What is the reason for the appearance of neologisms in the language? (With the development of science, technology, culture, economics, sports, diplomatic relations.)
What words can be considered neologisms? (Entered into the language for last years, although among them there are already those that have already become commonly used and even obsolete.)
Tell me, what groups can neologisms be divided into?
1) Depending on the method:
a) lexical - these are neologisms that were formed by productive models, from the elements present in the language; borrowed from other languages;
b) semantic - these are neologisms that arise as a result of assigning new meanings to already known words.
2) Depending on the conditions of creation, neologisms are divided into:
a) general linguistic (usual) - these are neologisms that appeared along with new concepts and realities;
3) Depending on the purpose of creation, neologisms are divided into:
a) nominative - perform a purely nominative function;
b) stylistic - give figurative characteristics to objects that have a different name.
III. Practical part.
1. Write the words in 3 column: commonly used, obsolete, neologisms.
Commonly used
Outdated
Neologisms
Disco
Tselinnik
Briefing
Trainee
District Committee
Management
The president
Merchant
Investment
Series
Commissioner
License
Space
Red Army
Grill
Computer
Lyceum
Ketchup
Jeans
Mayor
2. Summary: What did this exercise help us understand?
3. Taking advantage explanatory dictionaries, using dictionaries “New words and meanings”, determine the meaning of neologisms .
Forward (attack)
Hamburger (soft bun baked with chopped steak, vegetables)
Summit (meeting of heads of state and government)
Showman (one who is busy organizing and running the show)
Rocker (member of a youth group driving around the streets without a muffler,
flouting the rules traffic)
Privatization (transfer of state or municipal property into private ownership)
Generalization : What can you say about these words? Which group of neologisms can be attributed to? How did they appear in the language?
4. What new meanings have the following words acquired? Can they be called neologisms in our time?
1.
Thought
- Tsar's Duma (upper council of boyars chaired by the Tsar) -
old
The State Duma- current ward Federal Assembly Russian Federation
The State Duma is an elected body of city government
2. Dynasty - clan, house, speaking about the sovereign - old
the generation from which the last few people emerged
one profession
3. Governor - head of the province (a large district of Russia, divided into districts) -
old
Head of the executive branch of a large city
4. Pirate - sea robber - old
hijacker
computer pirate
5. Pioneer - a person who was one of the first to settle in new country, terrain
a person who prevented the beginning of something new (figurative)
member of a children's organization
5. Distribute neologisms into two groups depending on the method of appearance: lexical, semantic.
Lexical
Semantic
High dividends (income that the share owner receives)
Chief referee (judge in sports competitions)
Significant investment (capital investment)
Scenario of the visit (1st liter. - dramatic work for a film; 2nd plan)
Computer pirates -TV bridge (1. structure; 2. direct connection)
Wooden ruble (1. money; 2. depreciated, not circulating on the world market)
Currency intervention (1. interference in the internal affairs of the state; 2. the dominance of a certain currency in the global economic market)
Generalization : 1) How to distinguish lexical and semantic neologisms?
2) How did lexical neologisms appear in the language?
6. Find individually - the author's neologisms in poetic texts
I. Severyanina, determine the method of creating neologisms.
Open the textbook by P.A. Lekant, p. 37. Find No. 85.
We find occasionalisms. How was it formed?
7. Generalization : What role do neologisms play in literary text?
IV. Lesson summary: 1) What is a neologism?
2) What is the concept of neologism associated with?
What are the groups of neologisms?
V . Homework: Exercise 86 (collection of exercises edited by P.A. Lekant).
Vocabulary composition of the language compared to others
its aspects (for example, phonetics, grammar) due to
changes much faster. These changes are direct and
directly related to social life people
Yes. The changes in the vocabulary of the language are especially striking.
how they manifest themselves in eras of social transformation
and social changes. An example of this is changes in
lexical composition of the Russian language after the Great
October socialist revolution. With one
hand, such words as Soviet, coll-
electivization, tractor driver, Komsomol member, Leninist,
pioneer, Michurinets, metro builder, etc. On the other hand,
rona, ceased to be used due to the disappearance
the concepts they denoted, the words autocrat,
prince, merchant, constable, mayor.
In the development of the vocabulary of the Russian language,
There is a constant interaction between new and old.
This makes it possible to distinguish in the Russian vocabulary
literary language two opposite to each other
groups of words: outdated words and words recently
going into use.
Among obsolete words there are historical
we and archaisms. Historicisms are words, you-
went out of active use and became
passive dictionary due to the disappearance of concepts,
which they designated. For example: bailiff, police officer,
livery, camisole. Archaisms are words that came out
out of active use due to repression
their new words, therefore each archaism has a corresponding
welcomes the synonym used in modern
in Russian: ponezhe - because, eyelids - eyelids, vzi-
army - to look, in vain - in vain, etc. Historicisms
they have no synonyms.
New words, or neologisms,
First of all, such words are called that appear
appear in the language to denote new concepts: robotic
technical equipment, noise, planetary spacecraft, pressure,
stress, electric car, superhighway, briefing, show.
They remain neologisms in the language until
are perceived as new, unusual and not yet
pour into the active vocabulary. Not perceived
Nowadays, such neologisms are relatively recent
formed words like nuclear-powered ship, heavy-duty, afga-
nets, new building, cosmonaut, KAMAZ worker, etc.
Some neologisms do not appear popularly
language, and in the language of writers who resort to indi-
visual word creation in order to give speech a special
I love expressiveness. Such words are more often called about k-
Casualisms. These include
to become canary, to be oceanic by V. Mayakovsky (Feathers-
clouds, sunset bright. The epidemic is spreading)
ogoncharovanov by A.S. Pushkin (I'm in love, I'm fascinated,
in a word, I'm fascinated).
There are much more new words in the language,
than the old ones disappear, so the vocabulary of the language
is constantly enriched.
§ 14. The concept of stable combinations
In the Russian language there are stable phrases -
tions, which are often called phraseological
what kind of turns or phraseological unit a-
m i. For example: put “surpass” in your belt, sm-
pull the fishing rods, “go away”, the cat cried “a little”,
kill the worm "snack", carelessly "not-
carelessly”, tearing off the mask “unmask”, without a king in his head-
ve "stupid".
Phraseologism is most often a re-
understanding a free combination of words. Let's compare the two
sentences: He tucked his ax into his belt and He
tucked his comrade into his belt. In the first sentence-
the expression tucked into one's belt represents
a free combination of words, all words are used in their own
I mean in the literal sense. General meaning of the phrase
determined by the meaning of its constituent words. In the second
in a sentence this expression has lost its direct
lexical meaning and is used in the new, re-
nominally meaning “to surpass someone in something.”
Words included in free combinations are easily combined
dangle with other words (cf.: tuck in the belt,
by the boot, etc.). The main feature of phraseology is
The gism is that he, no matter
How many words does one concept consist of and express?
reproduced in speech as a finished unit: bite-
to silence one's tongue, to put a spoke in the wheels
“to interfere”, the dog ate “experienced”, Attic salt “on-
giggle", sodom, and gomorrah "mess", in a suit
Adam "naked", etc.
In a sentence, a phraseological unit acts as one
member of the sentence. It may be subject: Lived
he is somewhere near the Shilkinskoye mountain, where he huddled in this
time is shifting. (WITH.); predicate: I am in these
affairs of a shot bird. (N. Ostr.); addition:
The old castle welcomed and covered and re-
katy need, and a temporarily impoverished scribe, and si-
mouthy old women, and rootless tramps. (Cor.); define
division: Admiral, somewhat hard of hearing in one ear, not
I heard Skvortsov enter. (Mill.); circumstance:
Pavka rushed as fast as he could to the indicated address.
Phraseological units are widely used in
speech. They give her emotionality and expression.
living folk word with additional shades
jokes, irony, ridicule, contempt, reproach, brawl
According to the degree of cohesion of the components of phraseological units
are divided into phraseological fusions, phraseological
Chinese unities and phraseological combinations.
Phraseological conjunctions are
unmotivated stable combinations, general meaning
which does not follow from the meaning of its components
components (knock it off, the curve will take out, give
strekach, stay with your nose, rub your glasses, etc.).
Phraseological unities are
stable combinations, the figurative meaning of which is
motivated to a certain extent by the meaning of those included in
their composition of components (pulling the strap, a drop in the ocean,
the cat cried, show off, hold a stone
in the bosom, etc.).
Phraseological combinations are
such stable revolutions in which one of the components
nentov can only be combined with certain words -
mi (break your nose, black horse, win,
bitter frost, etc.).
The meaning of a phraseological unit, its stylistic characteristics
teristics, options can be found or checked by
phraseological dictionaries (see, for example: Phraseolo-
Dictionary of the Russian language / Ed. A. I. Mo-
Lotkova. M., 1978).
Questions and tasks for self-control
1. What does lexicology study?
2. What is the lexical and grammatical meaning of a word? In what
what is the main difference between them?
3. What words are called polysemantic? What is direct and
figurative meaning of the word?
4. What words are called homonyms? Name the types of homonyms.
How do homonyms differ from ambiguous words?
5. What are synonyms?
6. Which words are antonyms?
7. What words belong to common vocabulary? What is
its role in the composition of the literary language?
8. What vocabulary is limited in use? Define
professionalisms, terms, dialectisms.
9. What groups is vocabulary divided into from the point of view of its origin?
walking? What are the reasons for borrowing foreign language vocabulary?
10. What words are called obsolete? What is the difference between archa-
isms from historicisms?
11. What words are called neologisms?
12. What combinations of words are called stable? What do they have in common?
phraseological unit with a word and what are their differences?
Phonetics. Graphic arts. Spelling
