Invaders came from both the West and the East. They spoke different languages, they had different weapons. But their goals were the same - to ruin and plunder the country, to kill or take its inhabitants into captivity and slavery.
Today, in connection with this holiday, we decided to remember the most significant battles in the history of our Fatherland. If we forgot something, you can write it in the comments.
1. Defeat of the Khazar Kaganate (965)
The Khazar Khaganate was for a long time the main rival of the Russian state. The unification of Slavic tribes around Rus', many of which had previously been dependent on Khazaria, could not but increase tension in relations between the two powers.
In 965, Prince Svyatoslav subjugated the Khazar Khaganate to his power, and then organized a campaign against the strong tribal union of the Vyatichi, who paid tribute to the Khazars. Svyatoslav Igorevich defeated the Kagan’s army in battle and raided his entire state, from the Volga to the North Caucasus. Important Khazar cities were annexed to Rus' - the fortress of Sarkel (White Vezha) on the Don, which controlled the route from the Caspian Sea to the Black Sea (now at the bottom of the Tsimlyansk Reservoir), and the port of Tmutarakan on the Taman Peninsula. The Black Sea Khazars fell into the sphere of Russian influence. The remnants of the Kaganate on the Volga were destroyed in the 11th century by the Polovtsians.
2. Battle of the Neva (1240)
The Novgorod prince was only 19 years old when, in the summer of 1240, Swedish ships, probably led by Birger Magnusson, entered the mouth of the Neva. Knowing that Novgorod was deprived of the support of the southern principalities, the Swedes, instructed from Rome, hoped, at a minimum, to seize all the lands north of the Neva, simultaneously converting both pagans and Orthodox Karelians to Catholicism.
The young Novgorod prince led a lightning attack by his squad and destroyed the Swedes' camp before they could strengthen it. When getting ready for the campaign, Alexander was in such a hurry that he did not gather all the Novgorodians who wanted to join, believing that speed would be decisive, and he turned out to be right. In the battle, Alexander fought in the front ranks.
The decisive victory over superior forces brought Prince Alexander great fame and the honorary nickname - Nevsky.
However, the Novgorod boyars feared the growing influence of the prince and tried to remove him from governing the city. Alexander soon left Novgorod, but a year later the threat of a new war forced the Novgorodians to turn to him again.
3. Battle of the Ice (1242)
In 1242, German knights from the Livonian Order captured Pskov and approached Novgorod. The Novgorodians, who had quarreled with Prince Alexander a year before, turned to him for help and again transferred power to him. The prince gathered an army, expelled the enemies from the Novgorod and Pskov lands and went to Lake Peipsi.
On the ice of the lake in 1242, in a battle known as the Battle of the Ice, Alexander Yaroslavich destroyed an army of German knights. The Russian riflemen, despite the onslaught of the Germans who were breaking through the regiments in the center, bravely resisted the attackers. This courage helped the Russians surround the knights from the flanks and win. Pursuing the survivors for seven miles, Alexander showed the firmness of the Russian army. Victory in the battle led to the signing of a peace agreement between Novgorod and the Livonian Order.
4. Battle of Kulikovo (1380)
The Battle of Kulikovo, which took place on September 8, 1380, was a turning point that showed the strength of the united Russian army and the ability of Rus' to resist the Horde.
The conflict between Mamai and Dmitry Donskoy became more and more aggravated. The Principality of Moscow strengthened, Rus' won many victories over the troops of the Horde. Donskoy did not listen to Mamai when he gave Prince Mikhail Tverskoy a label for Vladimir, and then stopped paying tribute to the Horde. All this could not help but lead Mamai to the idea of the need for a quick victory over the enemy who was gaining strength.
In 1378, he sent an army against Dmitry, but it was defeated on the Vozha River. Soon Mamai lost influence on the Volga lands due to the invasion of Tokhtamysh. In 1380, the Horde commander decided to attack the Donskoy army in order to completely defeat his forces.
On September 8, 1380, when the armies clashed, it became clear that there would be a lot of losses on both sides. The legendary exploits of Alexander Peresvet, Mikhail Brenok and Dmitry Donskoy were described in “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamaev.” The turning point for the battle was the moment when Bobrok ordered to delay the ambush regiment, and then cut off the retreat of the Tatars who had broken through to the river. The Horde cavalry was driven into the river and destroyed, meanwhile the remaining forces mixed up other enemy troops, and the Horde began to retreat in disorder. Mamai fled, realizing that he no longer had the strength to continue the fight. According to various estimates, on September 8, 1380, from 40 to 70 thousand Russians and from 90 to 150 thousand Horde troops fought in the decisive battle. The victory of Dmitry Donskoy significantly weakened the Golden Horde, which predetermined its further collapse.
5. Standing on the Ugra (1480)
This event marks the end of the Horde's influence on the politics of the Russian princes.
In 1480, after Ivan III tore up the khan's label, Khan Akhmat, having concluded an alliance with the Lithuanian prince Casimir, moved to Rus'. Seeking to unite with the Lithuanian army, on October 8 he approached the Ugra River, a tributary of the Oka. Here he was met by the Russian army.
Akhmat's attempt to cross the Ugra was repulsed in a four-day battle. Then the khan began to wait for the Lithuanians. Ivan III, in order to gain time, began negotiations with him. At this time, the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray, an ally of Moscow, attacked the lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which did not allow Casimir to help Akhmat. On October 20, the regiments of his brothers, Boris and Andrei Bolshoi, came to reinforce Ivan III. Having learned about this, Akhmat turned his army back to the steppe on November 11. Soon Akhmat was killed in the Horde. So Rus' finally broke the Horde yoke and gained independence.
6. Battle of Molodi (1572)
On July 29, 1572, the Battle of Molodi began - a battle whose outcome decided the course of Russian history.
The situation before the battle was very unfavorable. The main forces of the Russian army were stuck in a fierce struggle in the west with Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was possible to gather only a small zemstvo army and guardsmen under the command of Prince Mikhail Ivanovich Vorotynsky and governor Dmitry Ivanovich Khvorostinin against the Tatars. They were joined by a 7,000-strong detachment of German mercenaries and Don Cossacks. The total number of Russian troops was 20,034 people.
To fight the Tatar cavalry, Prince Vorotynsky decided to use the “walk-gorod” - a mobile fortress, behind the walls of which archers and gunners took refuge. Russian troops not only stopped the enemy, which was six times superior, but also put him to flight. The Crimean-Turkish army of Devlet-Girey was almost completely destroyed.
Only 20 thousand horsemen returned to Crimea, and none of the Janissaries escaped. The Russian army, including the oprichnina army, also suffered heavy losses. In the fall of 1572, the oprichnina regime was abolished. The heroic victory of the Russian army in the Battle of Molodin - the last major battle between Rus' and the Steppe - was of enormous geopolitical significance. Moscow was saved from complete destruction, and the Russian state from defeat and loss of independence. Russia retained control over the entire course of the Volga - the most important trade and transport artery. The Nogai horde, convinced of the weakness of the Crimean Khan, broke away from him.
7. Battle of Moscow (1612)
The Battle of Moscow became the decisive episode of the Time of Troubles. The occupation of Moscow was lifted by the forces of the Second Militia, led by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. The garrison, completely blocked in the Kremlin and Kitay-Gorod, having received no help from King Sigismund III, began to experience an acute shortage of provisions, it even reached the point of cannibalism. On October 26, the remnants of the occupation detachment surrendered to the mercy of the winner.
Moscow was liberated. “The hope of taking possession of the entire Moscow state collapsed irrevocably,” wrote a Polish chronicler.
8. Battle of Poltava (1709)
On June 27, 1709, the general battle of the Northern War took place near Poltava with the participation of 37,000-strong Swedish and 60,000-strong Russian armies. Little Russian Cossacks participated in the battle on both sides, but most fought for the Russians. The Swedish army was almost completely destroyed. Charles XII and Mazepa fled to Turkish possessions in Moldavia.
Sweden's military forces were undermined, and its army was forever left among the best in the world. After the Battle of Poltava, Russia's superiority became obvious. Denmark and Poland resumed participation in the Nordic Alliance. Soon the end of Swedish domination in the Baltic was put to an end.
9. Battle of Chesme (1770)
The decisive naval battle in Chesme Bay took place at the height of the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774.
Despite the fact that the balance of forces in the battle was 30/73 (not in favor of the Russian fleet), the competent command of Alexei Orlov and the valor of our sailors allowed the Russians to gain strategic superiority in the battle.
The Turkish flagship Burj u Zafer was set on fire, followed by many more ships of the Turkish fleet.
Chesmen was a triumph for the Russian fleet, secured the blockade of the Dardanelles and seriously disrupted Turkish communications in the Aegean Sea.
10. Battle of Kozludzhi (1774)
During the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, Russia achieved another important victory. The Russian army under the command of Alexander Suvorov and Mikhail Kamensky near the city of Kozludzha (now Suvorovo in Bulgaria), with an unequal balance of forces (24 thousand versus 40 thousand), was able to win. Alexander Suvorov managed to knock the Turks out of the hill and put them to flight without even resorting to a bayonet attack. This victory largely determined the outcome of the Russian-Turkish war and forced the Ottoman Empire to sign a peace treaty.
11. Capture of Ishmael (1790)
On December 22, 1790, Russian troops under the command of Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov stormed the previously impregnable Turkish fortress of Izmail.
Shortly before the war, with the help of French and German engineers, Izmail was turned into a fairly powerful fortress. Defended by a large garrison, it withstood two sieges undertaken by Russian troops without any particular difficulties.
Suvorov took command just 8 days before the final assault. He devoted all the remaining time to training soldiers. The troops trained to overcome obstacles and ramparts specially created near the Russian camp, and practiced hand-to-hand combat techniques on stuffed animals.
A day before the assault, a powerful artillery shelling of the city began from all guns. It was fired upon both from land and sea.
At 3 a.m., long before dawn, a flare was launched. This was a sign of preparation for the assault. Russian troops left the location and formed into three detachments of three columns.
At half past five the soldiers launched an attack. The fortress was attacked from all sides at once. By four o'clock the resistance was completely suppressed in all parts of the city - the impregnable fortress fell.
The Russians lost more than 2,000 soldiers killed and about 3,000 wounded in the battle. Significant losses. But they could not be compared with the losses of the Turks - they only lost about 26,000 people killed. The news of the capture of Ishmael spread throughout Europe like lightning.
The Turks realized the complete futility of further resistance and signed the Treaty of Jassy the following year. They renounced claims to Crimea and a protectorate over Georgia, and ceded part of the Black Sea region to Russia. The border between the Russian and Ottoman empires moved towards the Dniester. True, Ishmael had to be returned back to the Turks.
In honor of the capture of Izmail, Derzhavin and Kozlovsky wrote the song “Thunder of Victory, Ring Out!” Until 1816 it remained the unofficial anthem of the Empire.
12. Battle of Cape Tendra (1790)
The commander of the Turkish squadron, Hasan Pasha, managed to convince the Sultan of the imminent defeat of the Russian navy, and at the end of August 1790 he moved the main forces to Cape Tendra (not far from modern Odessa). However, for the anchored Turkish fleet, the rapid approach of the Russian squadron under the command of Fyodor Ushakov was an unpleasant surprise. Despite the superiority in the number of ships (45 versus 37), the Turkish fleet tried to flee. However, by that time, Russian ships had already attacked the front line of the Turks. Ushakov managed to remove all the flagship ships of the Turkish fleet from the battle and thereby demoralize the rest of the enemy squadron. The Russian fleet did not lose a single ship.
13. Battle of Borodino (1812)
On August 26, 1812, significant forces of the French and Russian armies clashed in the battle near the village of Borodino, 125 kilometers west of Moscow. The regular troops under the command of Napoleon numbered about 137 thousand people, the army of Mikhail Kutuzov with the Cossacks and militia that joined it reached 120 thousand. The rugged terrain made it possible to move reserves unnoticed, and to install artillery batteries on hills.
On August 24, Napoleon approached the Shevardinsky redoubt, which stood near the village of the same name, three miles in front of the Borodino field.
The Battle of Borodino began a day after the battle at the Shevardinsky redoubt and became the largest battle in the War of 1812. The losses on both sides were colossal: the French lost 28 thousand people, the Russians - 46.5 thousand.
Although Kutuzov gave the order to retreat to Moscow after the battle, in his report to Alexander I he called the Russian army the winner of the battle. Many Russian historians think so.
French scientists see the battle at Borodino differently. In their opinion, “in the Battle of the Moscow River” Napoleonic troops won. Napoleon himself, reflecting on the results of the battle, said: “The French showed themselves worthy of victory, and the Russians acquired the right to be invincible.”
14. Battle of Elisavetpol (1826)
One of the key episodes of the Russian-Persian War of 1826-1828 was the battle near Elisavetpol (now the Azerbaijani city of Ganja). The victory then achieved by Russian troops under the command of Ivan Paskevich over the Persian army of Abbas Mirza became an example of military leadership. Paskevich managed to use the confusion of the Persians who had fallen into the ravine to launch a counterattack. Despite the superior enemy forces (35 thousand against 10 thousand), the Russian regiments began to push back Abbas Mirza’s army along the entire front of the attack. The losses of the Russian side amounted to 46 killed, the Persians were missing 2,000 people.
15. Capture of Erivan (1827)
The fall of the fortified city of Erivan was the culmination of numerous Russian attempts to establish control over the Transcaucasus. Built in the middle of the 16th century, the fortress was considered impregnable and more than once became a stumbling block for the Russian army. Ivan Paskevich managed to competently besiege the city from three sides, placing cannons along the entire perimeter. “The Russian artillery acted wonderfully,” recalled the Armenians remaining in the fortress. Paskevich knew exactly where the Persian positions were located. On the eighth day of the siege, Russian soldiers burst into the city and dealt with the fortress garrison with bayonets.
16. Battle of Sarykamysh (1914)
By December 1914, during the First World War, Russia occupied a 350 km front from the Black Sea to Lake Van, while a significant part of the Caucasian Army was pushed forward - deep into Turkish territory. Turkey had a tempting plan to outflank the Russian forces, thereby cutting the Sarykamysh-Kars railway.
The tenacity and initiative of the Russians who defended Sarakamysh played a decisive role in the operation, the success of which literally hung by a thread. Unable to take Sarykamysh on the move, two Turkish corps fell into the arms of an icy cold, which became fatal for them.
Turkish troops lost 10 thousand people due to frostbite in just one day, December 14th.
The last Turkish attempt to take Sarykamysh on December 17 was repulsed by Russian counterattacks and ended in failure. At this point, the offensive impulse of the Turkish troops, suffering from frosts and poor supplies, was exhausted.
The turning point has arrived. On the same day, the Russians launched a counteroffensive and drove the Turks back from Sarykamysh. The Turkish military leader Enver Pasha decided to intensify the frontal attack and transferred the main blow to Karaurgan, which was defended by parts of the Sarykamysh detachment of General Berkhman. But here, too, the fierce attacks of the 11th Turkish Corps, advancing on Sarykamysh from the front, were repelled.
On December 19, Russian troops advancing near Sarykamysh completely surrounded the 9th Turkish Corps, frozen by snow storms. Its remnants, after stubborn three-day battles, capitulated. Units of the 10th Corps managed to retreat, but were defeated near Ardahan.
On December 25, General N.N. Yudenich became commander of the Caucasian Army, who gave the order to launch a counteroffensive near Karaurgan. Having thrown back the remnants of the 3rd Army by 30–40 km by January 5, 1915, the Russians stopped the pursuit, which was carried out in a 20-degree cold. And there was almost no one to pursue.
Enver Pasha's troops lost 78 thousand people (over 80% of their personnel) killed, frozen, wounded and captured. Russian losses amounted to 26 thousand people (killed, wounded, frostbitten).
The victory at Sarykamysh stopped Turkish aggression in Transcaucasia and strengthened the position of the Caucasian Army.
17. Brusilovsky breakthrough (1916)
One of the most important operations on the Eastern Front in 1916 was the offensive on the Southwestern Front, designed not only to turn the tide of military operations on the Eastern Front, but also to cover the Allied offensive on the Somme. The result was the Brusilov breakthrough, which significantly undermined the military power of the Austro-Hungarian army and pushed Romania to enter the war on the side of the Entente.
The offensive operation of the Southwestern Front under the command of General Alexei Brusilov, carried out from May to September 1916, became, according to military historian Anton Kersnovsky, “a victory such as we have never won in a world war.” The number of forces that were involved on both sides is also impressive - 1,732,000 Russian soldiers and 1,061,000 soldiers of the Austro-Hungarian and German armies.
18. Khalkhin-Gol operation
Since the beginning of 1939, several incidents between the Mongols and the Japanese-Manchus occurred in the area of the border between the Mongolian People's Republic (on whose territory, in accordance with the Soviet-Mongolian protocol of 1936, Soviet troops were located) and the puppet state of Manchukuo, which was actually ruled by Japan. Mongolia, behind which stood the Soviet Union, announced the passage of the border near the small village of Nomon-Khan-Burd-Obo, and Manchukuo, behind which stood Japan, drew the border along the Khalkhin-Gol River. In May, the command of the Japanese Kwantung Army concentrated significant forces at Khalkhin Gol. The Japanese managed to achieve superiority in infantry, artillery and cavalry over the Soviet 57th separate rifle corps deployed in Mongolia. However, Soviet troops had an advantage in aviation and armored forces. Since May, the Japanese held the eastern bank of Khalkhin Gol, but in the summer they decided to cross the river and seize a bridgehead on the “Mongolian” bank.
On July 2, Japanese units crossed the “Manchurian-Mongolian” border officially recognized by Japan and tried to gain a foothold. The command of the Red Army brought into action all the forces that could be delivered to the conflict area. Soviet mechanized brigades, having made an unprecedented forced march through the desert, immediately entered the battle in the area of Mount Bayin-Tsagan, in which about 400 tanks and armored vehicles, over 300 guns and several hundred aircraft took part on both sides. As a result, the Japanese lost almost all of their tanks. During the 3-day bloody battle, the Japanese were pushed back across the river. However, now Moscow was insisting on a forceful solution to the issue, especially since there was a threat of a second Japanese invasion. G.K. Zhukov was appointed commander of the rifle corps. Aviation was strengthened by pilots with experience of fighting in Spain and China. On August 20, Soviet troops went on the offensive. By the end of August 23, Japanese troops were surrounded. An attempt to release this group made by the enemy was repulsed. Those surrounded fought fiercely until August 31. The conflict led to the complete resignation of the command of the Kwantung Army and a change of government. The new government immediately asked the Soviet side for a truce, which was signed in Moscow on September 15.
19. Battle of Moscow (1941-1942)
The long and bloody defense of Moscow, which began in September 1941, moved into the offensive phase on December 5, ending on April 20, 1942. On December 5, Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive and German divisions rolled west. The plan of the Soviet command - to encircle the main forces of Army Group Center east of Vyazma - could not be fully implemented. The Soviet troops lacked mobile formations, and there was no experience of a coordinated offensive of such masses of troops.
However, the result was impressive. The enemy was driven back 100–250 kilometers from Moscow, and the immediate threat to the capital, which was the most important industrial and transport hub, was eliminated. In addition, the victory near Moscow had enormous psychological significance. For the first time in the entire war, the enemy was defeated and retreated tens and hundreds of kilometers. German General Gunter Blumentritt recalled: “It was now important for Germany’s political leaders to understand that the days of the blitzkrieg were a thing of the past. We were confronted by an army whose fighting qualities were far superior to all other armies we had ever encountered.”
20. Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943)
The defense of Stalingrad became one of the most fierce operations of that war. By the end of the street fighting, which lasted from August to November, Soviet troops held only three isolated bridgeheads on the right bank of the Volga; There were 500–700 people left in the divisions of the 62nd Army defending the city, but the Germans failed to throw them into the river. Meanwhile, since September, the Soviet command had been preparing an operation to encircle the German group advancing on Stalingrad.
On November 19, 1942, Soviet troops launched an offensive north of Stalingrad, and the next day - south of it. On November 23, the striking wedges of the Soviet troops met near the city of Kalach, which marked the encirclement of the enemy’s Stalingrad group. 22 enemy divisions (about 300 thousand people) were surrounded. This was the turning point of the entire war.
In December 1942, the German command tried to release the encircled group, but Soviet troops repelled this onslaught. The fighting in the Stalingrad area continued until February 2, 1943. Over 90 thousand enemy soldiers and officers (including 24 generals) surrendered.
Soviet trophies included 5,762 guns, 1,312 mortars, 12,701 machine guns, 156,987 rifles, 10,722 machine guns, 744 aircraft, 166 tanks, 261 armored vehicles, 80,438 cars, 10,679 motorcycles, 240 tractors, 571 tractors, 3 armored trains and other military property .
21. Battle of Kursk (1943)
The Battle of Kursk is one of the greatest in the history of the Great Patriotic War, marking a radical turning point in hostilities. After it, the strategic initiative completely passed into the hands of the Soviet command.
Building on the success achieved at Stalingrad, Soviet troops launched a large-scale offensive on the front from Voronezh to the Black Sea. At the same time, in January 1943, besieged Leningrad was released.
Only in the spring of 1943 did the Wehrmacht manage to stop the Soviet offensive in Ukraine. Although units of the Red Army occupied Kharkov and Kursk, and the advanced units of the Southwestern Front were already fighting on the outskirts of Zaporozhye, German troops, transferring reserves from other sectors of the front, pulling up troops from Western Europe, actively maneuvering mechanized formations, went on a counteroffensive and re-occupied Kharkov . As a result, the front line on the southern flank of the confrontation acquired a characteristic shape, which later became known as the Kursk Bulge.
It was here that the German command decided to inflict a decisive defeat on the Soviet troops. It was supposed to cut it off with blows at the base of the arc, encircling two Soviet fronts at once.
The German command planned to achieve success, among other things, through the widespread use of the latest types of military equipment. It was on the Kursk Bulge that heavy German Panther tanks and Ferdinand self-propelled artillery guns were used for the first time.
The Soviet command knew about the enemy's plans and deliberately decided to cede the strategic initiative to the enemy. The idea was to wear down the Wehrmacht shock divisions in pre-prepared positions and then launch a counteroffensive. And we must admit: this plan was a success.
Yes, not everything went as planned and on the southern front of the arc German tank wedges almost broke through the defense, but on the whole the Soviet operation developed according to the original plan. One of the largest tank battles in the world took place in the area of Prokhorovka station, in which over 800 tanks simultaneously took part. Although Soviet troops also suffered heavy losses in this battle, the Germans lost their offensive potential.
More than 100 thousand participants in the Battle of Kursk were awarded orders and medals, more than 180 were awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. In honor of the victory in the Battle of Kursk, an artillery salute was fired for the first time.
22. Capture of Berlin (1945)
The assault on Berlin began on April 25, 1945 and lasted until May 2. Soviet troops had to literally chew through the enemy’s defenses - battles took place for every crossroads, for every house. The city's garrison numbered 200 thousand people, who had about 3,000 guns and about 250 tanks, so the assault on Berlin was an operation quite comparable to the defeat of the encircled German army at Stalingrad.
On May 1, the new chief of the German General Staff, General Krebs, informed Soviet representatives about Hitler's suicide and proposed a truce. However, the Soviet side demanded unconditional surrender. In this situation, the new German government set a course for achieving an early surrender to the Western allies. Since Berlin was already surrounded, on May 2 the commander of the city’s garrison, General Weindling, capitulated, but only on behalf of the Berlin garrison.
It is characteristic that some units refused to carry out this order and tried to break through to the west, but were intercepted and defeated. Meanwhile, negotiations between German and Anglo-American representatives were taking place in Reims. The German delegation insisted on the surrender of troops on the western front, hoping to continue the war in the east, but the American command demanded unconditional surrender.
Finally, on May 7, the unconditional surrender of Germany was signed, which was to occur at 23.01 on May 8. On behalf of the USSR, this act was signed by General Susloparov. However, the Soviet government considered that the surrender of Germany should, firstly, take place in Berlin, and secondly, be signed by the Soviet command.
23. Defeat of the Kwantung Army (1945)
Japan during World War II was an ally of Nazi Germany and waged a war of conquest with China, during which all known types of weapons of mass destruction were used, including biological and chemical weapons.
Marshal Vasilevsky was appointed commander-in-chief of the Soviet troops in the Far East. In less than a month, Soviet troops defeated the million-strong Kwantung Army stationed in Manchuria and liberated all of Northern China and part of Central China from Japanese occupation.
The Kwantung Army was fought by a highly professional army. It was impossible to stop her. Military textbooks include the operation of Soviet troops to overcome the Gobi Desert and the Khingan Range. In just two days, the 6th Guards Tank Army crossed the mountains and found itself deep behind enemy lines. During this outstanding offensive, about 200 thousand Japanese were captured and many weapons and equipment were captured.
Through the heroic efforts of our soldiers, the “Ostraya” and “Camel” heights of the Khutou fortified area were also taken. The approaches to the heights were in hard-to-reach swampy areas and were well protected by scarps and wire fences. The Japanese firing points were carved into the granite rock mass.
The capture of the Hutou fortress cost the lives of over a thousand Soviet soldiers and officers. The Japanese did not negotiate and rejected all calls for surrender. During the 11 days of the assault, almost all of them died, only 53 people surrendered.
As a result of the war, the Soviet Union regained the territories lost to the Russian Empire in 1905 following the Peace of Portsmouth, but Japan has not yet recognized the loss of the Southern Kuril Islands. Japan capitulated, but a peace treaty with the Soviet Union was not signed.
One of the significant factors in the historical development of the southern Russian principalities of the 11th - early 13th centuries. was their border position. To the south and southeast of them lies the Polovtsian steppe. For almost two centuries, nomadic Turkic-speaking tribes of the Polovtsians lived here, entering into various relations with Russia. Sometimes they were peaceful, accompanied by marriages and military alliances, but more often, as discussed above, they were hostile. It is no coincidence that Russia was so acutely faced with the task of strengthening its southern and southeastern borders. The famous call of the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” - “Block the gates of the field”, addressed to the Russian princes in 1185, was topical throughout the entire history of Russian-Polovtsian relations. So that the reader can more clearly imagine what kind of enemy Southern Rus' faced “face to face” in the 11th - early 13th centuries, it is advisable to give at least a brief outline of the history of the Polovtsians.
The Russians first encountered the Cumans in 1055, when the horde of Khan Balush approached the southern borders of Rus'. By this time, the Polovtsians occupied the entire space of the steppes, displacing the Pechenegs, Torks, and Berendeys from there. The Polovtsian land did not have stable borders. The nomadic way of life forced the Polovtsians to occupy all lands convenient for nomads, invade the borders of neighboring states and seize (even temporarily) their outlying territories. The southern Russian border suffered more from the Polovtsians, but their predatory campaigns also reached the northern borders of the Byzantine Empire. Like their predecessors, the Cumans were divided into separate khanates or associations, each of which occupied “its own” territory.
S. A. Pletneva, based on mapping early types of Polovtsian stone sculptures, established that in the 11th century. the most stable Polovtsian lands were the banks of the middle and lower reaches of the Seversky Donets.
For the end of the XI - beginning of the XII century. the localization of two Polovtsian hordes is known. One of them, led by Tugorkan, roamed the Dnieper Left Bank, the possessions of the other, whose khan was the “mangy” Bonyak, were located on the right and left banks of the Dnieper. Researchers believe that these hordes were parts of a single, albeit unstable, association of Polovtsy, which roamed the Dnieper region and was a direct neighbor of the Kyiv and Pereyaslavl lands.
In the Azov region, at the beginning of the 12th century, there was the center of another association of Polovtsians led by Khan Urusoba. It was weak and collapsed under the attack of Monomakh’s troops in 1103.
The Polovtsian union in the Ciscaucasia is also known, the core of which was the hordes of Donetsk Polovtsians led by Khan Otrok.
Around the middle of the 12th century. The Polovtsian land was a specific geographical area with well-defined borders. They were well known in Rus'. The chronicler writes in 1152: “The entire Polovtsian land, what are their boundaries, the Volga and the Dnieper.” The study of the historical geography of the Polovtsian land, carried out in Soviet times, allows us to somewhat clarify its chronicle localization. The northern border of the “Polovtsian Field” ran on the Left Bank - in the interfluve of Vorskla and Orel, on the Right Bank - in the interfluve of Rosi and Tyasmin, the western - but by the Ingulets line. In the south it included the North Caucasus, Azov and Crimean steppes.
Ethnically, this huge country was not only Polovtsian. Other peoples lived here: Alans, Yasses, Khazars, Guzes, Kosogi. They were probably the main population of the cities of Sharukan, Sugrov, Balina on the Donets, Saksin on the Volga, Korsun and Surozh in the Crimea, and Tmutarakan on Taman. In various written sources, these centers are called Polovtsian, or Kipchak, but this is not because they were inhabited by the Polovtsians, but because they were located within the Polovtsian land or were in tributary dependence on the Polovtsians. Some of the previously existing cities (for example, Belaya Vezha) were destroyed and turned into Polovtsian winter camps.
The history of the Polovtsians after they settled the Eastern European steppes is divided by researchers into four periods. The first is the middle of the 11th - the beginning of the 12th century, the second is the 20-60s of the 12th century, the third is the second half of the 12th century, the fourth is the end of the 12th - the first decades of the 13th century. Each of these periods has its own characteristics both in the field of internal development of the Polovtsians and in the field of their relationships with Russians and other neighbors.
In general, the first period is characterized by the extraordinary aggressiveness of the Polovtsians. They rushed to the borders of rich agricultural countries, invaded their borders, and robbed the local population. The passion for profit pushed individual representatives of the Polovtsian elite to participate in the wars of the Russian princes with each other or with their western neighbors. For this help they received a double price: rich gifts from the allies and indemnities from the vanquished. During this period of their history, the Polovtsians were at the initial, camp stage of nomadism, characterized by the constant movement of their hordes across the steppe. This circumstance made it difficult to organize serious military expeditions of Russian military squads against them.
Beginning of the 12th century was marked by significant changes in the life of the Polovtsians. By this time, the entire steppe space was divided between separate hordes, and each of them roamed within a very specific territory. Now the Polovtsians, who turned out to be immediate neighbors of Rus', could not invade its borders with impunity. They were expecting retaliatory strikes. During the first two decades, the combined forces of the southern Russian principalities inflicted several serious defeats on the Cumans. In 1103 they were defeated in the area of the river. Molochnaya, flowing into the Sea of Azov, in 1109, 1111 and 1116. the same fate befell the Donetsk Polovtsians. During these campaigns, Russian squads captured the cities of Sharukan, Sugrov and Balin. The chronicle reports that the Polovtsians, as a result of Russian military campaigns in the Steppe, were driven “beyond the Don, beyond the Volga, beyond the Yaik.” It was then, as researchers believe, that Khan Otrok left with his horde from the Seversky Donets region “to Obezy” - to the Caucasus.
The second period of Polovtsian history coincided in time with the initial stage of feudal fragmentation in Rus', which was marked by the aggravation of inter-princely relations, frequent internecine wars, and rivalry between contenders for the grand-ducal table. Under these conditions, the fight against the Polovtsians faded into the background. Individual campaigns of a few Russian squads in the steppe could not achieve tangible victories. The princes, especially representatives of the Chernigov Olgovichi, thought more about how to use the Polovtsians in the fight for Kyiv than about border security. The establishment of allied relations with the Cumans (wild) and their involvement in solving the internal affairs of Rus' contributed to the relatively rapid revival of the power of the nomads.
At this time they are experiencing the highest stage of their development. The transition to the second method of nomadism was completed, characterized by the appearance of stable boundaries of each horde and the presence of permanent winter quarters. Instead of large but unstable associations, small hordes appeared, consisting of both consanguineous and non-consanguineous families and clans. In Polovtsian society, military-democratic relations were replaced by early feudal ones.
The third period of Polovtsian history is marked, on the one hand, by the increased pressure of nomads on the southern Russian borderland, and on the other hand, by the consolidation of Russian forces for retaliatory anti-Polovtsian campaigns. Most often, Russian squads were sent to the Dnieper region, where the Dnieper and Lukomor Polovtsian hordes ruled, threatening the security of the Dnieper (Greek) trade route, especially its southern section. Of course, this path was not, as is sometimes claimed, in the hands of the Dnieper Polovtsians, but in order for it to fulfill its purpose, it required constant guarding, sending Russian troops to the most dangerous areas (Kanev, the region of the rapids). The chronicle speaks of such campaigns in 1167, 1168, 1169 and other years. Russian princes also went to the deep regions of the Polovtsian nomads. In 1184, the regiments of princes Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich and Rurik Rostislavich defeated the Polovtsians at the mouth of the Orel. Almost the entire Polovtsian elite was captured: Kobyak Karenevich with his sons, Izay Bilyukovich, Tovly, Osoluk and others. Russian regiments carried out a similar campaign in 1187, as a result of which the Polovtsian winter camps on the river were destroyed. Samara.
Unlike the Dnieper Polovtsians, who did not represent in the second half of the 12th century. any significant threat to Rus', the Don, led by the energetic Khan Konchak, constantly invaded Russian lands and robbed the population. Russian chroniclers speak of Konchak, the son of Khan Otrok and the Georgian princess Gurandukht, either as a mighty hero “who brought down the Court,” or as a cursed and godless destroyer of Rus'. The defeat of the Russian regiments of Igor Svyatoslavich in 1185 showed that the forces of one principality were not enough to successfully fight the “Don Union” of Konchak. The defeat at Kayal “opened” the south-eastern border of Rus' with the Steppe. The Don Polovtsy were able not only to plunder the border areas of the Novgorod-Seversky and Pereyaslavl principalities with impunity, but also to invade the Kyiv land.
The fourth period of Polovtsian history is characterized by some improvement in Russian-Polovtsian relations. Chronicles note for this time mainly the participation of the Polovtsians in princely civil strife, the main theater of which was the Galician and Volyn principalities. Of course, this does not mean that the Cumans completely abandoned their traditional policy of robbery. Even after their defeat in two battles with the Mongol-Tatars (in 1222 and 1223), the Polovtsians carried out attacks on Russian lands. In 1234 they ravaged Porosye and the outskirts of Kyiv. This was their last action. The power of the Polovtsians in the southern Russian steppes came to an end. Sources indicate that in the 30s and early 40s, the Polovtsians waged a stubborn struggle against the Mongol-Tatars, but were conquered by them and became part of the Golden Horde. Thus, the Polovtsians, who occupied vast areas of the southern Russian steppes, over the 200 years of their history went from camp nomads to the creation of a nomadic state association in the socio-economic field and from military democracy to feudalism in the field of social relations. A huge role in this belongs to the Old Russian state, which was at an immeasurably higher (compared to the Polovtsians) stage of its historical development.
The struggle of Rus' against the Mongol - Tatar invasion. Rus' and the Polovtsians continued to wage a grueling mutual struggle, and meanwhile a new wave of nomads, more powerful than all the previous ones, was already looming over them. The path of the Mongol-Tatar hordes to the west began from the Amur. At first, they did not represent a formidable force.
Until the beginning of the 12th century. The territory where modern Mongols live was inhabited by the Mongols themselves, Kereits, Terkits, Oirats, Naimans, Tatars and many other tribes, who waged constant wars among themselves. The degree of development of social relations and culture of these tribal unions varied. While the Naimans and Kereits created state associations (khanates), other tribes were still at the stage of disintegration of tribal relations. In the second half of the 12th century. The struggle for the unification of the Mongolian tribes and the creation of a single Mongolian state became especially intensified.
The first Mongol leader who united most of the tribal unions was Yesugei-Boatur. After his death, the ulus he collected disintegrated. Yesugei's widow with small children, of whom the eldest was Temujin (born approximately 1155), lost the support of most of the Mongol khans. Around 1185, together with the khan of the strong Kereit tribal union, Van Khan, Temujin defeated the Terkit union and moved into line with the famous Mongol khans. One after another, the Mongol tribes came under his rule - the Jalairs, Tarkhuds, Chanshiuts, Boyads, Barulases, Tankhuds, Aruladas. In 1189, the Mongol steppe aristocracy of these tribes elected Temujin as khan and gave him the title of Genghis Khan (Great Khan). In 1206, after the victory over the Kereit and Naiman tribal unions, Genghis Khan was proclaimed Khan of all Mongolia at the All-Mongol Kurultai. The unified Mongol state was an absolute military-feudal monarchy, organized according to the decimal system. The entire territory of the country was divided into two large districts, which in turn were divided into “thousands” (with a population of 10 thousand people each), “thousands”, “hundreds” and “tens”. These military-administrative units were headed by nukers loyal to Genghis Khan. In addition, he had at his disposal a personal 10,000-strong guard.
Since 1206, the Mongols began to pursue an expansionist policy towards neighboring lands and states. In 1207 and 1209 They carried out devastating raids on the Tungus state of Xi Xia, at the same time the Kirghiz were conquered, and the Naimans and Terkits were finally conquered. Around 1219, Mongol troops invaded Central Asia. This campaign became the initial stage of the Mongols' conquest of the countries of Western Asia and Eastern Europe. Over the course of several months, they defeated the forces of the Khorezm Khan Muhamed, and the feudal fragmented state of the Khorezm - Shahs actually ceased to exist. One after another, Bukhara, Samarkand, Khojent, Merv, Tuye, Nishanur, Balkh and other cities were conquered. The conquest of Khorezm in 1221 ended Genghis Khan's military campaigns in Central Asia, where hordes of Mongol barbarians turned flourishing states and cities into ruins. In the words of K. Marx, art, rich libraries, excellent agriculture, courtyards, mosques - everything went to hell. The path to Transcaucasia and the Black Sea steppes opened before the conquerors.
Researchers believe that this was the immediate reason for the Mongols’ campaign in the Kipchak steppes. that the Kipchaks helped the Khorezm Shah Mohammed in the fight against Genghis Khan. However, the reasons for this campaign were deeper. They lay in the very nature of the Mongol state, which could not exist without conquests.
In 1220, Genghis Khan sent a 25,000-strong army led by experienced commanders Jebe and Subedei to the southern coast of the Caspian Sea and the North Caucasus. Having defeated the Georgian army and captured the city of Tbilisi, the Mongols entered the steppes of the North Caucasus through Derbent. Here they were met by the united regiments of the Polovtsians, Yasses, Circassians and other tribes. The first battle did not give an advantage to either side, and the Mongols decided to separate the enemy forces - to persuade the Cumans to leave their allies. Rich gifts and crafty words about common origin did their job - the Polovtsians retreated to the Black Sea steppes. Having defeated the tribes of the North Caucasus, the Mongol troops caught up with the Polovtsians. In the battle that took place in 1222 on the Don, the Polovtsian hordes were defeated; many Polovtsians died, including khans Yuri Konchakovich and Daniil Kobyakovich. Khan Kobyak with the remnants of the army retreated to the Dnieper, hoping for help from Russian troops.
In 1223, a congress of southern Russian princes took place in Kyiv. It was attended by Mstislav Romanovich - the Prince of Kiev, Mstislav Svyatoslavich - the Prince of Chernigov and Kozelsky, Mstislav Mstislavich - the Prince of Galicia, who, according to the chronicle, were “the elders of the Russian land.” The princes decided to help the Polovtsians. “It would be better if we were welcomed on a foreign land than on our own.” On the Lower Dnieper, near the village. Khortitsa, Polovtsian regiments, squads of the princes of Galicia and Volyn, Chernigov and Kyiv, Smolensk and Kursk, Trubchev and Putivl began to gather. As the chronicler notes, “an unprecedented army and the existing horsemen with them” gathered here.
By agreement with the Polovtsian khans, the Russian princes decided to advance to meet the Mongol-Tatars in the Polovtsian steppes. Having crossed the Dnieper, the Russian-Polovtsian advanced detachments met the vanguard of the Mongol army. In a short battle, the Mongols were defeated and retreated deep into the steppes. The Russians got herds of horses and other trophies. On the eighth day, the combined forces of the Russians and Polovtsians approached the river. Kalka, where the Mongol-Tatar regiments were already waiting for them. The day of the decisive battle has arrived, and the Russian princes have not yet achieved complete coordination in their actions. While Mstislav Galitsky (Udaloy) gave the order to his regiments to move against the enemy, another Mstislav, apparently from Kiev, calmly sat out in his tent. The Russian regiments entered the battle at the same time, and this had disastrous consequences.
Despite the courage and heroism of Russian soldiers and princes (eighteen-year-old Daniil Romanovich especially distinguished himself), the Mongols - the Tatars - won. The defeat of the Russian troops was especially noticeable this time, and the chronicler was forced to admit that “the same has never happened before.” Six princes died in the Battle of Kalka; According to chronicles, only every tenth of ordinary soldiers returned, and the number of killed Kiev residents reached 10 thousand.
The Mongols also suffered heavy losses in this battle. Having reached Novgorod Svyatopolch on the Dnieper, they did not dare to continue the campaign and turned back. On the way back, the Mongols defeated Volga Bulgaria and devastated the northern coast of the Caspian Sea and Turkestan.
After the death of Genghis Khan, power passed to his sons. The Great Khan Ogedei and his closest advisers developed a plan for new conquests. The campaign to the West was to be led by Genghis Khan's grandson Batu, whose ulus bordered on Russia.
At the end of 1237, the offensive of the Mongol hordes (about 140 thousand soldiers) under the leadership of Batu began on the ancient Russian lands. Unsuccessfully, the Ryazan prince Yuri Igorevich turned to Vladimir and Chernigov for help. In the battle on the river. In Voronezh, the Ryazan troops were defeated, and the Mongols, one after another, took and destroyed the cities of Pronsk, Belgorod, Izheslavets, and Ryazan. From Ryazan, enemy hordes marched to Kolomna, defeated the army of Vsevolod Yuryevich and approached Moscow, which after a five-day siege they captured and burned.
In February 1238, the Mongols besieged Vladimir on Klyazma; part of their troops rushed to Suzdal. The fierce battle for the capital of the north-eastern lands of Rus', in which the Mongols used battering machines, ended in the defeat of the Vladimir people. The city was taken on February 7, and its heroic defenders died in the flames of the fire. Following Vladimir, Rostov, Uglich, Yaroslavl, Yuryev - Polsky, Pereyaslav, Kashin, Tver, Torzhok, Gorodets, Kostroma fell.
In the upper reaches of the Oka, the Mongols met strong resistance from the small fortress of Kozelsk. Despite the minority of their prince Vasilko and the Mongols’ demand to surrender the city, the Kozel residents decided to defend themselves. The chronicler regards this decision as a manifestation of a “strong-minded mind.” The heroic defense of Kozelsk lasted for seven weeks. Day and night the enemy vices (stone-throwing machines) smashed the walls of the fortress, which were eventually broken through and the Mongols captured the rampart. The Kozel residents destroyed about 4 thousand Mongols, but were unable to defend the city. Batu ordered to kill all its inhabitants, “without sparing them from their youth to those who suck milk.” Prince Vasilko, according to legend, drowned in blood. Batu called the city of Kozelsk an “evil city.”
In 1238, the exhausted Mongol hordes retreated to the Polovtsian steppes to recuperate and rest. In the spring of 1239 they set out to the southwest. The first on the path of the advance of the Batu Horde was Pereyaslav, whose population successfully fought against the nomads for several centuries. This time its defenders failed to defend the city. The Mongols captured Pereyaslav, destroyed and burned it. The organizer of the defense, Bishop Semyon, was killed. In the same year, the sad fate of Pereyaslav befell Chernigov. “I surrounded the city with heavy burdens; Having heard Mstislav Glbovich attack on the city of foreigners, he came to us with all his warriors.” Having captured Chernigov, Mengukhan brutally dealt with its rebellious inhabitants. “Mstislav was quickly defeated, and many of his howls were quickly killed, and the city was taken and set on fire.” From Chernigov the Mongols turned to Kyiv. From the town of Pesochny, Mengukhan sent ambassadors to Prince Mikhail with an ultimatum to surrender the city. Mikhail ordered the ambassadors to be killed, and he himself, obviously frightened by his act, fled to Hungary. Daniil Galitsky arrived in Kyiv and left a governor there, who was supposed to organize and lead the defense of the city.
Mengukhan did not dare to take Kyiv by storm; Having captured booty and prisoners in the surrounding villages and towns, he went to unite with Batu’s main forces. In 1240, the Mongols, “with their great strength,” again approached Kyiv and besieged it. The chronicler, a witness, and perhaps a participant in these events, notes that from the creaking of carts, the roar of camels, and the neighing of the horses of the Mongol-Tatar army, no human voice was heard. All the governors of Batu gathered near Kiev. Batu did not have to concentrate such a large army to capture one city either before or after the capture of Kyiv.
The day of the assault has arrived. Batu directed the main attack from the south, in the area of the Lyadskie Gate. Continuously, day and night, the Mongols' battering rams beat the gates and walls until they managed to capture part of the rampart and penetrate the boundaries of the City of Yaroslav. The resistance of the Kyivans was so desperate, and the losses of the invaders were so great that Batu was forced to give the order to end the battle and gave his army a break. The defenders of Kyiv took advantage of this. Having retreated to the limits of the City of Vladimir, they fortified themselves in new positions overnight. The next day the battle flared up with renewed vigor. The people of Kiev defended every street, every house, but the forces were too unequal. Having broken through the fortification in the area of the Sophia Gate (from which they were popularly called the Batyevs), the Mongol-Tatars broke into the Kiev Detinets and approached the Church of the Tithes. The walls of the first stone temple of Rus' collapsed from the blows of stone throwers, burying the handful of remaining heroic defenders of Kyiv under the ruins. “That same summer, the Tatars took Kiev and St. Sophia, plundered all the monasteries, icons, crosses, and all the church ornaments, and people, young and old, killed everything with the sword,” - this is how the Suzdal chronicler describes the tragic fate of Kyiv. No less terrible pictures, testifying to the heroic struggle of the Kyiv population against the Mongols, were discovered during archaeological excavations. Mass graves of the city’s defenders were discovered in different places in Kyiv. Some of them contained several thousand human skeletons. They were often found right on the streets, under the ruins of houses and cathedrals. Almost all residential and commercial buildings, palaces and cathedrals in Kyiv turned into ashes.
There is different information in written sources about the duration of the siege of Kyiv, as well as the exact date of its fall. The Ipatiev Chronicle, which most fully tells about this event, does not give exact dates at all. Lavrentyevskaya reports that Kyiv was taken by the Mongols on St. Nicholas Day, or December 6, 1240. According to the Pskov Chronicle, the city held out for 10 weeks and four days. It is difficult to say to what extent these data correspond to reality, but if we consider that the small town of the Suzdal land of Kozelsk was able to detain the Mongols under its walls for seven weeks, then reports about the long-term defense of Kyiv, which had a first-class fortress at that time, should not seem doubtful.
From Kyiv, Batu's main forces advanced to Vladimir and Galich, while other Mongol troops invaded the southwestern regions of Rus'. They marched through the Kyiv, Volyn and Galician lands with fire and sword. Excavations of Vyshgorod and Belgorod, settlements along Teterev, Sluch, Goryn, Southern Bug and other rivers reproduce pictures of the heroic defense and death of these cities. Everywhere archaeologists discovered thick layers of ashes; Under the fortress walls, burnt houses, and often just in the streets and squares, hundreds of human skeletons, a large number of production tools, and weapons were discovered. A particularly striking example of the tragic death of small southern Russian towns and feudal castles is the site of Raiki in the Zhitomir region. All its inhabitants died in the battle with the Mongols - the Tatars; children and women burned in their homes or were massacred by the enemy. The battle for Vladimir was long and brutal; the Krag captured the city with great difficulty. Skulls with iron nails driven into them, discovered in Vladimir, testify to the brutal reprisal of the Mongols against its defenders. The Mongol-Tatar hordes approached Galich with united forces and, after a three-day siege, took it by storm.
In 1241, the Mongols reached the western borders of Rus' and invaded the territory of Poland and Hungary. While the 10,000-strong Mongol-Tatar army under the leadership of Batu, Baydar and Kaidu was destroying the Polish cities of Lublin, Zawichost, Sandomierz and Krakow, the main Mongol forces entered Hungary through the “Russian Gate” (Varecki Pass) and Transylvania. After the battle on the Shayo River, Batu occupied the entire country and went to Slovakia and the Czech Republic. As in Rus', the peoples of these countries everywhere defended their independence. The Mongol conquerors suffered heavy losses.
In 1242, Batu stopped his campaign to the West and through Bosnia, Serbia, Bulgaria and Rus' withdrew his troops to the lower reaches of the Volga (here the Mongols and Tatars founded their state - the Golden Horde). The reason for this was the death of the main Mongol khan Ogedei, although the reasons were much more serious: Batu did not have the strength to keep all the conquered countries of Eastern and Central Europe in obedience.
The year 1223 turned out to be a black year for our Motherland. An event in Rus' occurred in such a way that it determined the political alignment in Eastern Europe for several centuries. One unsuccessful battle turned the entire course of history.
1223: event in Rus'
From the school curriculum, everyone should remember very well that the beginning of the 13th century was the time of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of the lands of the Polovtsians (a tribe neighboring the Slavs) and the territory of Rus'. The conquest of Russian lands by this wild horde happened gradually, but what happened in 1223 in Rus'? It was on May 31, 1223 (as the Laurentian Chronicle tells us) that the first battle of the Khan’s troops and Russian soldiers took place. We all know very well from history this event called “The Battle of
Causes of the Battle of Kalka
The battle between the Mongol-Tatars and the Russian princely squads was bound to take place sooner or later. Why? According to the strategy of the Mongols, which Genghis Khan developed, his state was supposed to cover not only truly Mongolian territory, but also extend to the whole of Europe.
Why do the Mongols need such vast territories? Don't forget that they are nomads. Such people cannot sit in one place because of the way they farm. Nomads do not engage in agriculture, but only in animal husbandry. Representatives of this people had huge herds that needed to be fed with something. The farming method implied periodic replacement of pastures with new ones, because on the old pastures there was nothing left for animals to eat as food. The Mongols needed Europe as a potential pasture for their livestock.
Events before the Battle of Kalka
It is clear that the situation did not arise immediately. The Mongol troops began their victorious march in Central Asia. Then the horde headed towards Iran. No army could stop them. The Mongol campaign continued towards the Caucasus. The leaders of the Horde knew that in the Caucasus there were several rich large cities that could be robbed. Having marched victoriously through the Caucasus, for example, through Georgia, the troops entered the lands of modern Russia, on the territory of which tribes of Alans and Polovtsians then lived. The forces of these nomadic peoples were defeated one by one because the diplomacy of the Mongol conquerors was also successful.
1223... The event in Rus' that could have happened did not please the princes, because they understood that sooner or later these hordes would reach Kyiv. The Russian princes had to fight the Mongols at the request of the Polovtsians. Let us repeat, a skirmish with the troops of Genghis Khan would have happened sooner or later anyway. Realizing that the Tatars would not stop, the princes decided not to refuse help. Having gathered in Kyiv, the troops of Mstislav Galitsky and (at that time the Kyiv prince) set out on a campaign. During the campaign, the Mongols twice sent their envoys, whose goal was to stop the Russian army. The Mongols claimed that they could cope with the Polovtsians, but would not attack Russian cities.
Battle with the Mongols
Knowing what event happened in 1223 shortly before the appearance of the hordes of Batu and Genghis Khan in Rus' (namely the conquest of the rich cities of the Caucasus), the Russian princes did not believe the ambassadors of the Horde. Therefore, the campaign continued. The gang moved down the Dnieper. On the territory of present-day Ukraine, the princely troops had to cross the Dnieper. Already here the first meeting with enemy troops took place. The Mongols had fast horses, so they were able to escape and lure Russian troops to a convenient battlefield, located near the modern Kalmius river (Zaporozhye region).
The beginning of the battle was with the Russian princes. To some extent, this can be explained by the speed of action of the princely troops. The Kiev prince crossed the river, studied the Mongol camp from afar, returned to the location of his troops and prepared them for battle. The Mongols began to retreat. The squad of Daniil Galitsky put especially strong pressure on them. But then the Golden Horde brought additional forces into the battle, which led to a typical outcome for many battles in the history of the Ukrainian and Russian peoples - the flight of the allies (Polovtsians), which destroyed the formation of the Russian army of the princes. After this, the victory of the Mongol-Tatars was a matter of time and technology. The Slavic army suffered heavy losses in this battle.
Conclusion
1223... The event in Rus' is truly tragic. The defeat at Kalka put all of Rus' in direct and complete dependence on the Golden Horde state. The Tatar-Mongol yoke lasted almost 300 years. This huge historical period of time left a negative imprint on the development of the modern lands of Russia and Ukraine.
Everyone remembers the Battle of Kulikovo.
But there were a great many battles in the history of the ancient Russian principalities. They were written about in chronicles, sometimes mentioned in passing in history textbooks, and in the end they were simply forgotten.
But these were huge, turning-point events for Rus', which cost the lives of thousands of Russian soldiers. Monuments have been erected to some of these battles. What kind of battles were these, where are the monuments located and when did it all happen?
1. Battle of Lipitsa - April 21, 1216 The monuments were erected in the Ivanovo region near the village. Osanovets and in the Vladimir region in Suzdal.
The battle between the troops of the Novgorodians and the Vladimir-Suzdal princes is one of the bloodiest battles of the time of massacres. The battle took place on April 21, 1216 near the village of Lipitsa, between the Gza and Lipna rivers.
2. Battle of Sith - March 4, 1238 Monuments were erected in the Yaroslavl region near the village of Lopatino and in the Tver region near the village of Bozhonka.
The Battle of the Sit River took place on March 4, 1238 between the Vladimir-Suzdal troops led by Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich and the Mongol-Tatars commanded by Batu Khan.
3. Battle of Bortenevskaya - December 22, 1317 The monument was erected in the Tver region, on the border with the Moscow region, near the village of Balashutino.
The battle between the troops of the Tver and Moscow princes (with the support of the latter Horde) ended in victory for the Tver inhabitants.
4. Battle of Vozh - August 11, 1378 The monument was erected in the Ryazan region, near the village. Glebovo-Gorodishche.
The Battle of Vozha, the predecessor of the Battle of Kulikov, took place on August 11, 1378 near Ryazan, on the Vozha River. This battle became the first major victory of Russian troops over the Horde.
Army of Ancient Rus'- the armed forces of Kievan Rus (from the end of the 9th century) and the Russian principalities of the pre-Mongol period (until the middle of the 13th century). Like the armed forces of the early medieval Slavs of the 5th-8th centuries, they solved the problems of fighting the nomads of the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and the Byzantine Empire, but were fundamentally different in the new supply system (from the first half of the 9th century) and the penetration of the Varangian military nobility into the social elite of East Slavic society at the end of the 9th century . The army of Ancient Rus' was also used by the princes of the Rurik dynasty for the internal political struggle in Rus'.
Background
Under the year 375, one of the first military clashes of the ancient Slavs is mentioned. The Antic elder Bozh and with him 70 elders were killed by the Goths.
After the decline of the Hunnic Empire towards the end of the 5th century, with the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe, the Slavs returned to the historical arena. In the 6th-7th centuries, active Slavic colonization of the Balkan Peninsula took place, which was owned by Byzantium - the most powerful state of the 6th century, which crushed the kingdoms of the Vandals in North Africa, the Ostrogoths in Italy and the Visigoths in Spain and again turned the Mediterranean Sea into Roman Lake. Repeatedly in direct clashes with the Byzantines, the Slavic troops won victories. In particular, in 551, the Slavs defeated the Byzantine cavalry and captured its chief Asbad, which indicates the presence of cavalry among the Slavs, and took the city of Toper, luring its garrison away from the fortress with a false retreat and setting up an ambush. In 597, during the siege of Thessalonica, the Slavs used stone-throwing machines, “turtles,” iron rams and pitons. In the 7th century, the Slavs successfully operated at sea against Byzantium (the siege of Thessaloniki in 610, the landing on Crete in 623, the landing under the walls of Constantinople in 626).
In the next period, associated with the dominance of the Turkic-Bulgarians in the steppes, the Slavs found themselves cut off from the Byzantine borders, but in the 9th century two events took place that immediately chronologically preceded the era of Kievan Rus - the Russian-Byzantine war of 830 and the Russian-Byzantine war of 860. Both expeditions were by sea.
Troop organization
9th-11th centuries
With the expansion in the first half of the 9th century of the influence of the Kiev princes on the tribal unions of the Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Krivichi and Northerners, the establishment of a collection system (carried out by 100-200 soldiers) and the export of polyudye, the Kyiv princes began to have the means to maintain a large army in constant combat readiness, which was required to fight the nomads. Also, the army could stay under the banner for a long time, making long-term campaigns, which was required to defend the interests of foreign trade in the Black and Caspian Seas.
The core of the army was the princely squad, which appeared in the era of military democracy. It included professional warriors. The number of senior warriors (without taking into account their own warriors and servants) can be judged from later data (Novgorod Republic - 300 “golden belts”; Battle of Kulikovo - more than 500 dead). The more numerous young squad consisted of gridi (the prince's bodyguards - Ibn Fadlan estimates the number of “heroes” in the castle of the Kyiv prince at 400 people in 922), youths (military servants), children (children of senior warriors). However, the squad was small and hardly exceeded 2000 people.
The most numerous part of the army was the militia - the warriors. At the turn of the 9th-10th centuries, the militia was tribal. Archaeological data indicate a stratification of property among the Eastern Slavs at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries and the emergence of thousands of mansions of the local nobility, while tribute was calculated in proportion to the households, regardless of the wealth of the owners (however, according to one version of the origin of the boyars, the local nobility was prototype of the senior squad). From the middle of the 9th century, when Princess Olga organized the collection of tribute in the Russian North through the system of churchyards (later we see the Kyiv governor in Novgorod, transporting 2/3 of the Novgorod tributes to Kyiv), tribal militias lost their importance.
Recruits of warriors at the beginning of the reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich or when Vladimir Svyatoslavich formed the garrisons of the fortresses he built on the border with the steppe are of a one-time nature; there is no information that this service had any duration or that the warrior had to report for service with any equipment .
Since the 11th century, the senior squad begins to play a key role at the veche. On the contrary, in the more numerous part of the veche - in young people- historians see not the prince’s junior squad, but the city’s people’s militia (merchants, artisans). As for the rural people's militia, according to various versions, the smerds participated in campaigns as servants of the convoy, supplied horses for the city militia (Presnyakov A. E.) or themselves served in the cavalry (Rybakov B. A.).
In the wars of Ancient Rus', mercenary troops took a certain part. Initially these were Varangians, which is associated with friendly relations between Russia and Scandinavia. They participated not only as mercenaries. Varangians are also found among the closest associates of the first Kyiv princes. In some campaigns of the 10th century, Russian princes hired Pechenegs and Hungarians. Later, during the period of feudal fragmentation, mercenaries also often took part in internecine wars. Among the peoples who were among the mercenaries, in addition to the Varangians and Pechenegs, there were Cumans, Hungarians, Western and Southern Slavs, Finno-Ugrians and Balts, Germans and some others. They all armed themselves in their own style.
The total number of troops could be more than 10,000 people.
XII-XIII centuries
In the 12th century, after Russia lost the cities of Sarkel on the Don and the Tmutarakan principality, after the success of the first crusade, the trade routes connecting the Middle East with Western Europe were reoriented to new routes: the Mediterranean and the Volga. Historians note the transformation of the structure of the Russian army. In place of the senior and junior squads come the princely court - the prototype of a standing army and a regiment - the feudal militia of landowner boyars, the importance of the veche falls (except for Novgorod; in Rostov the boyars were defeated by the princes in 1175).
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As the princely lands became isolated under more stable princely rule, this latter not only strengthened, but also acquired a local, territorial character. Its administrative, organizing activities could not help but lay a hand on the structure of the military forces, moreover, in such a way that the druzhina troops became local, and the city troops became princely ones. And the fate of the word “druzhina”, with its fluctuations, testifies to this convergence of elements that were previously heterogeneous. The princes begin to talk about the city regiments as “their” regiments, and to call squads made up of the local population a squad, without identifying them with their personal squad - the court. The concept of the prince's squad expanded greatly by the end of the 12th century. It embraces the influential upper echelons of society and the entire military power of the reign. The squad was divided into the prince's court and the boyars, large and private. |
Already in relation to the pre-Mongol period it is known (for the Novgorod army) about two methods of recruitment - one warrior on horseback and in full armor (horse and weapon) with 4 or 10 sokh, depending on the degree of danger (that is, the number of troops collected from one territory could differ by 2.5 times; perhaps for this reason, some princes who tried to defend their independence could almost equally resist the united forces of almost all other principalities, and there are also examples of clashes between Russian forces and an enemy who had already defeated them in the first battle: victory at Snova after defeat at Alta, defeat at Zhelani after defeat at Stugna, defeat at City after defeat at Kolomna). Despite the fact that the main type of feudal land ownership until the end of the 15th century was patrimony (that is, hereditary unconditional land ownership), the boyars were obliged to serve the prince. For example, in the 1210s, during the struggle of the Galicians with the Hungarians, the main Russian army was twice sent against the boyars who were late for the general gathering.
The Kyiv and Chernigov princes in the 12th-13th centuries used the Black Klobuks and Kovuis, respectively: Pechenegs, Torks and Berendeys, expelled from the steppes by the Polovtsians and settled on the southern Russian borders. A feature of these troops was constant combat readiness, which was necessary for a prompt response to small Polovtsian raids.
Branch of the military
In medieval Rus' there were three types of troops - infantry, cavalry and navy. At first they began to use horses as a means of transportation, and they fought dismounted. The chronicler speaks about Svyatoslav and his army:
Thus, for speed of movement, the army used pack horses instead of a convoy. For battle, the army often dismounted; Leo the Deacon under 971 indicates the unusual performance of the Russian army on horseback.
However, professional cavalry was needed to fight the nomads, so the squad became cavalry. At the same time, the organization took into account the Hungarian and Pecheneg experience. Horse breeding began to develop. The development of cavalry occurred faster in the south of Rus' than in the north, due to differences in the nature of the terrain and opponents. In 1021, Yaroslav the Wise and his army traveled from Kyiv to the Sudomir River, where they defeated Bryachislav of Polotsk, in a week, that is, the average speed was 110-115 km. per day. In the 11th century, cavalry was compared in importance to infantry, and later surpassed it. At the same time, horse archers stood out; in addition to bows and arrows, they used axes, possibly spears, shields and helmets.
Horses were important not only for war, but also for the economy, so they were bred in the owner’s villages. They were also kept on princely farms: there are known cases when princes gave horses to militias during the war. The example of the Kyiv uprising of 1068 shows that the city militia was also mounted.
Throughout the pre-Mongol period, infantry played a role in all military operations. She not only took part in the capture of cities and carried out engineering and transport work, but also covered the rear, carried out sabotage attacks, and also took part in battles along with the cavalry. For example, in the 12th century, mixed battles involving both infantry and cavalry were common near city fortifications. There was no clear division in weapons, and everyone used what was more convenient for him and what he could afford. Therefore, everyone had several types of weapons. However, depending on this, the tasks they performed varied. Thus, in the infantry, as in the cavalry, one can distinguish heavily armed spearmen, in addition to the spear, armed with sulits, a battle axe, a mace, a shield, sometimes with a sword and armor, and lightly armed archers, equipped with a bow and arrows, a battle ax or an iron mace, and, obviously without defensive weapons.
Under 1185 in the south for the first time (and in 1242 in the north for the last time) riflemen are mentioned as a separate branch of the army and a separate tactical unit. The cavalry begins to specialize in direct strikes with edged weapons and in this sense begins to resemble medieval Western European cavalry. Heavily armed spearmen were armed with a spear (or two), a saber or a sword, bows or bows with arrows, a flail, a mace, and, less often, a battle hatchet. They were fully armored, including the shield. In 1185, during a campaign against the Polovtsians, Prince Igor himself, and with him the warriors, did not want to break out of the encirclement on horseback and thereby leave them to the mercy of fate. black people, dismount and attempt a breakthrough on foot. Next, an interesting detail is indicated: the prince, after receiving a wound, continued to move on his horse. As a result of the repeated defeat of the northeastern Russian cities by the Mongols and Horde and the establishment of control over the Volga trade route in the second half of the 13th century, regression and reverse unification of the Russian troops occurred.
The fleet of the Eastern Slavs originated in the 4th-6th centuries and was associated with the struggle against Byzantium. It was a river sailing and rowing fleet, suitable for navigation. Since the 9th century, flotillas of several hundred ships existed in Rus'. They were intended to be used as transport. However, naval battles also took place. The main vessel was a boat, carrying about 50 people and sometimes armed with a ram and throwing machines. During the struggle for the reign of Kiev in the middle of the 12th century, Izyaslav Mstislavich used boats with a second deck built above the oarsmen, on which archers were located.
Tactics
Initially, when cavalry was insignificant, the main infantry battle formation was the "wall". Along the front it was about 300 m and in depth reached 10-12 ranks. The warriors in the front ranks had good defensive weapons. Sometimes such a formation was covered from the flanks by cavalry. Sometimes the army lined up like a ramming wedge. This tactic had a number of disadvantages in the fight against strong cavalry, the main ones: insufficient maneuverability, vulnerability of the rear and flanks. In the general battle with the Byzantines near Adrianople in 970, the weaker flanks (Hungarians and Pechenegs) were ambushed and defeated, but the main Russian-Bulgarian forces continued to fight their way through the center and were able to decide the outcome of the battle in their favor.
In the 11th-12th centuries the army was divided into regiments. In the 11th century, the main battle formation became the “regimental row,” which consisted of a center and flanks. As a rule, the infantry was in the center. This formation increased the mobility of the army. In 1023, in the Battle of Listven, one Russian formation with a center (tribal militia) and two powerful flanks (druzhina) defeated another Russian simple formation of one regiment.
Already in 1036, in the decisive battle with the Pechenegs, the Russian army was divided into three regiments, which had a homogeneous structure, based on territoriality.
In 1068, on the Snova River, the 3,000-strong army of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich of Chernigov defeated the 12,000-strong Polovtsian army. During the campaigns against the Polovtsians under the Kiev rule of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomakh, Russian troops repeatedly fought surrounded due to the multiple numerical superiority of the enemy, which did not prevent them from winning victories.
The Russian cavalry was homogeneous; different tactical tasks (reconnaissance, counter strike, pursuit) were performed by units with the same method of recruitment and the same organizational structure. By the end of the 12th century, to the division of three regiments along the front, a division of four regiments in depth was added.
To control the troops, banners were used, which served as a guide for everyone. Musical instruments were also used.
Armament
Protective
If the early Slavs, according to the Greeks, did not have armor, then the spread of chain mail dates back to the 8th-9th centuries. They were made from rings made of iron wire, which reached 7-9 and 13-14 mm in diameter, and 1.5 - 2 mm in thickness. Half of the rings were welded, and the other half was riveted during weaving (1 to 4). In total, there were at least 20,000 of them. Later, there were chain mail with copper rings woven in for decoration. The ring size is reduced to 6-8 and 10-13 mm. There were also weavings where all the rings were riveted together. Old Russian chain mail, on average, was 60-70 cm in length, about 50 cm or more in width (at the waist), with short sleeves of about 25 cm and a split collar. At the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century, chain mail made of flat rings appeared - their diameter is 13-16 mm with a wire width of 2-4 mm and a thickness of 0.6-0.8 mm. These rings were flattened using a stamp. This shape increased the coverage area with the same weight of armor. In the 13th century, a pan-European heavier armor took place, and knee-length chain mail appeared in Rus'. However, chain mail weaving was also used for other purposes - around the same time, chain mail stockings (nagavitsy) appeared. And most helmets were equipped with aventail. Chain mail in Rus' was very common and was used not only by the squad, but also by humble warriors.
In addition to chain mail, lamellar armor was used. Their appearance dates back to the 9th-10th centuries. Such armor was made from iron plates of a close to rectangular shape, with several holes along the edges. Through these holes, all the plates were connected with straps. On average, the length of each plate was 8-10 cm, and the width was 1.5-3.5 cm. More than 500 of them were needed for the armor. The lamellar had the appearance of a hip-length shirt, with a hem that widened downwards, sometimes with sleeves. According to archeology, in the 9th-13th centuries there was 1 lamellar for every 4 pieces of chain mail, while in the north (especially in Novgorod, Pskov, Minsk) plate armor was more common. And later they even supplant chain mail. There is also information about their export. Scale armor was also used, which were plates measuring 6 by 4-6 cm, attached at the top edge to a leather or fabric base. There were also brigantines. To protect hands, folding bracers have been used since the late 12th - early 13th centuries. And at the end of the 13th century, early mirrors appeared - round plaques worn over armor.
Helmets, according to archeology, have been in widespread use since the 10th century, and there are more archaeological finds of helmets (as well as chain mail) in Rus' than in any other European country. At first these were conical helmets of the Norman type, which were not of Norman origin at all, but came to Europe from Asia. This type did not become widespread in Rus' and was replaced by spheroconic helmets, which appeared around the same time. These were Chernigov-type helmets, riveted from four pieces of iron, and often richly decorated. There were also other types of spheroconic helmets. From the 12th century, tall helmets with a spire and a nosepiece appeared in Rus', and soon became the most common type of helmet, maintaining primacy for several centuries. This is due to the fact that the spheroconic shape is best suited for protection from attacks from above, which is important in areas of horse-saber combat. In the second half of the 12th century, helmets with a half mask appeared - they were richly decorated and were the property of noble warriors. But the use of disguises has not been confirmed by anything, therefore, if it happened, it was only in isolated cases. Western hemispherical helmets existed, but were also rare.
Large shields were the protective weapons of the ancient Slavs, but their design is unknown. In the 10th century, round, flat, wooden, leather-covered shields with an iron umbo were common. Since the beginning of the 11th century, almond-shaped shields, convenient for riders, have been widely used. And from the middle of the 13th century they begin to turn into triangular ones.
In the middle of the 13th century, the Galician-Volyn army had horse armor, called by the chronicler Tatar (mask and leather blanket), which coincides with Plano Carpini's description of Mongol horse armor.
Throwing machines
In Ancient Rus' there was the use of throwing machines. The earliest report of their use by the Slavs dates back to the end of the 6th century - in the description of the siege of Thessaloniki in 597. In the Greek source they are described as follows: “They were quadrangular on wide bases, ending in a narrower upper part, on which there were very thick drums, with iron edges, and wooden beams (like beams in a large house) with slings were driven into them (sphendons), raising which they threw stones, both large and numerous, so that neither the earth could bear their hits, nor human structures. But in addition, only three of the four sides of the ballista were surrounded by boards, so that those inside were protected from being hit by arrows fired from the walls.” During the siege of Constantinople in 626 by the Slavic-Avar army, the siege equipment consisted of 12 copper-clad mobile towers, several rams, “turtles” and throwing machines covered with leather. Moreover, it was mainly Slavic detachments that manufactured and serviced the vehicles. Arrow-throwing and stone-throwing machines are also mentioned during the siege of Constantinople in 814 by the Slavic-Bulgarian army. During the times of Ancient Rus', the use of throwing machines by both the Byzantines and the Slavs, notes Lev Deacon, speaking about the campaigns of Svyatoslav Igorevich. The message from the Joachim Chronicle about the use of two vices by the Novgorodians against Dobrynya, who was going to baptize them, is rather legendary. By the end of the 10th century, the Russians stopped raiding Byzantium, and a change in tactics led to a decrease in the use of siege weapons. Now the besieged city is taken either by a long blockade or by sudden capture; The fate of the city was most often decided as a result of a battle near it, and then the main type of military action was a field battle. Throwing weapons were used again in 1146 by the troops of Vsevolod Olgovich during the unsuccessful siege of Zvenigorod. In 1152, during the assault on Novgorod-Seversky, they destroyed the wall with stones from vices and took the fort, after which the struggle ended in peace. The Ipatiev Chronicle notes that the Polovtsians, led by Konchak, went to Rus'; they had an Islamic master with them, servicing powerful crossbows, which required 8 (or 50) people and “live fire” to pull. But the Polovtsians were defeated and the cars fell to the Russians. Shereshirs (from the Persian tir-i-cherkh), mentioned in the Tale of Igor's Campaign - perhaps there are incendiary shells that were thrown from similar crossbows. Arrows for them have also been preserved. Such an arrow was in the form of an iron rod 170 cm long with a pointed end and a tail unit in the form of 3 iron blades, weighing 2 kg. In 1219, the Russians used large stone-throwing and flame-throwing crossbows during the assault on the Bulgarian city of Oshel. In this case, Russian siege technology developed under West Asian influence. In 1234, vice was used in a field internecine battle, which ended in peace. In the 13th century, the use of throwing machines increased. The invasion of the Mongols, who used the best technology of that time when capturing Russian cities, played a great role here. However, throwing weapons were also used by the Russians, for example, in the defense of Chernigov and Kholm. They were also actively used in wars with the Polish-Hungarian invaders, for example, in the battle of Yaroslav in 1245. Throwing machines were also used by the Novgorodians when capturing fortresses in the Baltic states.
The main type of Russian throwing machines were not easel crossbows, but various lever sling machines. The simplest type was the paterella, which threw stones attached to the long arm of a lever when people pulled on the other arm. For kernels of 2 - 3 kg, 8 people were enough, and for kernels of several tens of kilograms - up to 100 or more. A more advanced and widespread machine was the manjanik, which was called a vice in Rus'. Instead of traction created by people, they used a movable counterweight. All these machines were short-lived; their repair and production were supervised by “vicious” craftsmen. Firearms appeared at the end of the 14th century, but siege engines still retained military importance until the 15th century.
