Shanghai, Singapore, Sydney and Vancouver
It is quite difficult to determine which port is the largest port in the Pacific Ocean today. The problem is that there are several criteria by which assessment can be made.
However, the largest existing ones are the Pacific ports of Shanghai, Singapore, Sydney and Vancouver. For example, Shanghai, since 2010, has been considered the world's largest port in terms of cargo turnover. The port is located near the metropolis of the same name and occupies an advantageous position, as it has open access to the sea. Thanks to the port, China communicates with 200 countries. About 99% of the country's foreign trade is carried out through these gates. The port operates around the clock, regardless of holidays and weekends. Oil, coal, metal ore, and construction materials are transported through Shanghai.
Another large port of the Pacific Ocean is Singapore. Since 1997, the port has been considered the largest in the world in terms of ship tonnage. Previously, this port was the largest in terms of cargo turnover, until it lost 1st place to Shanghai. Singapore is capable of receiving 150 ships every day and serves up to 250 lines. The mooring front of the naval base stretches for more than 3 kilometers. The total volume of sea transportation of the port is 112 million tons.
Sydney vs Vancouver
Sydney lags behind its competitors in terms of cargo throughput, with a throughput capacity of approximately 1.8 million tonnes. However, this port has a berth length of about 0.6 km. 100 berths with a depth of 3.5 meters are capable of accommodating aircraft carrier-class vessels. Today, wool, coal, dairy products, grains, fruits, hides, cocoa, oil, and industrial equipment are transported through Sydney.
Vancouver is Canada's largest port, located in the northeastern part of the Strait of Georgia. The harbor is perfectly protected from the wind and does not freeze in winter. The total length of Vancouver's berths is about 16 kilometers. The total turnover of cargo transportation is 45 million tons. Timber, grain, non-ferrous metals, paper, fish, plywood, and cellulose pass through Vancouver.
Russian ports
Since Russia also has access to the Pacific Ocean, it is not surprising that there are quite large Russian ports. One of them is Vladivostok, located in the south of the Muravyov-Amursky Peninsula. The advantage of the port is that it is completely accessible to any class of ships existing today. However, between November and March, navigation in this area is carried out using icebreakers. Every year up to 7 million tons of cargo passes through the port. Railway lines with a total length of 21 kilometers pass through the port. The length of the berths is 3.1 kilometers. The port specializes in cabotage transportation to Russian ports located in the Pacific Ocean and in the eastern Arctic.
Nakhodka is a Russian seaport of federal significance. Located in the northwestern part of the coast of the Sea of Japan. It includes oil and universal marine terminals. The port's cargo turnover reaches 15 million tons. Mainly oil, metal, coal, refrigerated cargo, and containers are transported through Nakhodka.
Of course, Vladivostok and Nakhodka are not competitors to foreign ports located on the Pacific Ocean, such as Shanghai, Vancouver or Singapore. However, these are one of the largest ports in Russia.
The longest transoceanic routes lie in the Pacific Ocean: the central route Singapore-Panama has a length of 10.8 thousand miles, and transitions of 6 - 7 thousand miles without calling at intermediate ports are considered common in the Pacific Ocean. Over vast areas of the Pacific Ocean, hydrometeorological conditions are more complex than in other oceans.
In terms of the intensity of global shipping, three main directions can be distinguished: American-Asian, American-Australian and Asian-Australian.
The American-Asian direction is the main one and, in turn, includes the three most used routes. The first, busiest shipping route runs from the ports North America(Vancouver, San Francisco, Los Angeles) to the western part of the Pacific Ocean and back from the ports of Japan, China, Philippines (Yokohama, Shanghai, Manila) to the USA and Canada. It takes place in harsh hydrometeorological conditions of a stormy seasonal area. Without calling at intermediate ports, its length is more than 4.5 thousand miles. This is the main supply route to Japan and other countries for various ores, coal, grain cargo from the United States, and from Canada coal, grain, timber and lumber, other cargo and various semi-finished products.
The second route runs from the Panama Canal and the ports of the west coast of South America (via the Hawaiian Islands) to the ports of the Philippines, Malaysia, China, Taiwan and Japan. The central route runs from the Panama Canal to Singapore. This route passes through an area of rare storms in the equatorial region.
The third, rather rarely used, route runs from Cape Horn to the ports of Asian countries. In the southern part, its path lies in a stormy area (seasonal) with difficult hydrometeorological conditions.
The American-Australian route connects the main ports of Australia (Sydney, Melbourne) and New Zealand (Wellington, Auckland) with various ports of the continent of America along three main shipping routes: Sydney - Hawaiian Islands - ports of North America; Sydney - Panama Canal and Sydney - ports of South America (Valparaiso, Callao). Ships sailing to South America during a dangerous period set course for destination ports within the boundaries of a seasonal area of rare storms; during favorable periods weather conditions- rounding the New Zealand Islands from the south and using the favorable current of the westerly winds. On ships of regular lines, wool, lead, zinc and other raw materials are delivered to American ports, and in the opposite direction, to Australia - machinery and equipment, machine tools, instruments, and various equipment.
The Asian-Australian route, unlike the previous ones, has a general North-South direction and connects Australian and New Zealand ports with Japanese ones. Intensive shipping on this ocean route in the second half of the 20th century is associated with the growth of the economic and technical potential of Japan and a number of countries in Southeast Asia, the development of shipbuilding and the growth of world trade volumes. Shipping companies from Japan and other Southeast Asian countries have organized regular cargo lines on this route to transport iron ore, coal, wool and other raw materials, grain and food products from Australia to the ports of Southeast Asia and Japan.
Ocean routes run along the coast of South America, | connecting the ports of South American countries with the Pacific and Atlantic (via the Panama Canal) ports of the United States. The main flows of raw materials (iron ore and non-ferrous metal ores, saltpeter, sulfur and other minerals) are directed from the ports of the west coast of South America to the ports of the east coast of the United States, where the main industrial base of the United States is located, through the Panama Canal.
The territory of Russia is washed by the waters of 12 seas belonging to the basins of three oceans and the Caspian Sea, which belongs to the internal closed basin. Russia has a large commercial, fishing and naval fleet.
Water and Natural resources The seas washing the territory of the country are taken under state protection. Together with other countries, Russia is fighting pollution of the seas and oceans with oil and chemicals which negatively affect their organic world. Seas of the Arctic Ocean. The Arctic Ocean basin includes six seas: Barents, White, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi.
They were formed due to the flooding of coastal parts of the continent by sea waters and are therefore shallow. Their average depth less than 200 m. The seas are separated from each other by islands and archipelagos: New Earth, Severnaya Zemlya, New Siberian Islands and Wrangel Island.
All seas, except the White Sea, are marginal. They communicate with the ocean through wide open spaces of water. The White Sea is inland. The nature of the northern seas, lying in the Arctic zone mainly between 70° and 80° N, is very harsh. Temperature surface waters in the Arctic Ocean is low throughout the year. The severity of the climate and the associated sea ice cover increase from west to east. All year round Most of the ocean is frozen. Southwestern part only Barents Sea, where the branch of the warm North Atlantic Current enters, is ice-free in winter.
Here on the shore of the Kola Peninsula is the ice-free port of Murmansk. Other major pots here are Arkhangelsk and Severodvinsk. Ice cover and the long polar night are unfavorable for the development of plankton, therefore the biological productivity of the Arctic seas is low! Only the Barents Sea is of significant commercial importance.
A large amount of plankton comes here along with the Atlantic waters, followed by schools of fish. In second place is the White Sea, whose productivity is 4 times lower. In the seas of the Arctic Ocean, sea animals (seal, beluga whale) are caught.
The Northern Sea Route, 5,600 km long, passes through the seas of the Arctic Ocean. This is the shortest sea route from the western part of Russia to the Northeast and Far East.
The ships are completed in less than a month. The distance from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok through the North and Norwegian Seas and further along the Northern Sea Route is 14,280 km, and through the Suez Canal - 23,200 km. From Murmansk to Vladivostok - 10,400 km. The Northern Sea Route connects not only the western and eastern outskirts of Russia, but also the mouths of navigable rivers in Siberia.
This made it possible to accelerate economic development and use the rich natural resources of the northern regions of the country. Navigation along the Northern Sea Route lasts about four months. Seas of the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Ocean basin includes three seas: Bering, Okhotsk and Japan, washing the eastern coast of the country.
They are separated from the open ocean by the Aleutian, Komandorsky, Kuril and Japanese islands. These are the largest and deepest of the seas washing the territory of Russia. Through numerous straits between the islands, the water exchange of these seas with the Pacific Ocean occurs. They have clearly defined ebbs and flows.
The highest tide heights are observed in the Sea of Okhotsk; in Penzhinskaya Bay the tide reaches 14 m. The structure of the bottom and the depths of the seas of the Pacific Ocean differ sharply from the seas of the Arctic Ocean.
The relief of their bottom reveals the underwater margins of the continent, a shelf, a clearly defined continental slope and deep-sea basins. The maximum depths of each of the seas reach 3.5 - 4 thousand m near the island arcs that limit them, on which there are numerous active volcanoes.
The seas of the Pacific Ocean are located mainly in the temperate zone and differ more warm waters than the Arctic ones. However, in winter time In the waters of the seas, very cooled air is carried out from the continent, so almost the entire Sea of Okhotsk and the northern parts of the Bering and Sea of Japan freeze in winter. The organic world in the seas of the Pacific Ocean, especially in the Japanese Sea, is much richer and more diverse than in the Arctic seas. Only in the seas of the Far East do valuable sea animals live - the fur seal and the sea otter (sea otter).
Pacific herring, cod, flounder, salmon, as well as mollusks and crustaceans, crabs, mussels, oysters, and shrimp are important commercial fisheries. Seaweeds, such as kelp (seaweed), are of economic importance. The transport importance of the Pacific seas is also great. The largest ports of these seas are Vladivostok, Nakhodka, Magadan, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. The seas of the Atlantic Ocean and the Caspian Sea.
Three seas belong to the Atlantic Ocean basin: the Baltic, Black and Azov. They are all internal. These seas extend deep into the land and have a relatively weak connection with the ocean through narrow, shallow straits. Sea tides are practically not observed here. The seas are highly desalinated due to the influx of large amounts of river water.
The Caspian Sea is part of the ancient single Caspian-Black Sea basin. Currently, it is a closed, endorheic lake, preserving some marine features. The seas of the Atlantic Ocean and the Caspian Sea are quite warm. In winter, the Azov Sea, the shallow northern parts of the Black and Caspian Seas and the bays of the Baltic Sea are covered with ice for a short time. All seas are of great transport importance. Their ports serve international and domestic shipping lines.
The coasts of the Atlantic seas are of great importance for organizing recreation for the population. Due to the fact that the seas of the Atlantic Ocean have different story development and are distant from each other, their nature is very different. The Baltic Sea is the youngest. It was formed in the Quaternary period due to the flooding of a sagging section of the platform by sea waters.
The sea is shallow. Its coastline is characterized by significant ruggedness. Off the coast of Russia there are large sea bays: Finnish and Gdansk. Strong, long-lasting westerly winds raise the water level in the eastern part of the Gulf of Finland.
This caused floods in St. Petersburg, located at the mouth of the Neva River. Animal world The Baltic Sea is not rich and diverse. The main commercial fish are herring, Baltic sprat, cod and eels. The deep-sea basins of the Black and Caspian Seas are large tectonic depressions in the region of Alpine folding. When they sank, the adjacent southern parts of the platform were also lowered, and when they were flooded by sea waters, the shallow northwestern regions of the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov and the northern part of the Caspian Sea emerged.
The southern position of these seas determines high temperatures surface waters and significant evaporation from their surface. Despite this, the seas are highly desalinated. Together with river waters, a large amount of nutrients enters them, which creates favorable conditions for the habitat of living organisms. However, the waters of the Black Sea from a depth of 200 m are contaminated with hydrogen sulfide and are practically devoid of life, so its fishing value is small.
Azov and Caspian Sea- the most important fishing areas. Up to 80% of the world's reserves of the most valuable sturgeon fish are concentrated in the Caspian Sea. The Black and Caspian Seas are of great transport importance. The major ports of these seas are St. Petersburg, Sevastopol, Taganrog, Novorossiysk.
⇐ Previous13141516171819202122Next ⇒
Home > Tropical Articles > Pacific Island States
Pacific Island States
Here I will try to analyze all the island states of the tropical and equatorial climate through the eyes not of a tourist, but of a potential Robinson, but I will not choose any specific ones. I will not include island countries like Australia on the list, New Zealand, Japan, o.
Taiwan, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Caribbean countries, as well as states consisting of one inhabited island - due to my skepticism about Robinsonade on them. Why is it important to know the form of government in a state? Because some island states are overseas territories of others large countries such as Great Britain, France, New Zealand, USA, India. It follows that control in such countries is much more serious than in independent island states.
 |
Vanuatu
83 islands (mostly volcanic).
Parliamentary republic. Languages: Bislama, English, French. Population 215 thousand people. For Russian citizens visa-free entry for up to 30 days.
Standard rules for entry. To import seeds, plants, fish, seafood, meat and dairy products (including frozen and canned) a permit from the Vanuatu Ministry of Agriculture is required. The climate is tropical, close to equatorial. Precipitation ranges from 2000 to 5000 mm per year, depending on the area. High humidity: from 70% in the dry season and up to 100% in the rainy season. The soils are favorable for planting and there is a variety of vegetation.
A flight from Moscow to Port Vila costs about 38,000 rubles. Lack of large mammals. Presence of malaria.
The hut of one of the New Guinea tribes at an altitude of about 50 m.
Papua New Guinea
Consists of a large number of islands, many of which are uninhabited. A constitutional monarchy. Local languages and English.
Population 6 million people. Russian citizens require a visa. The climate is tropical, humid. The area is covered in damp tropical forests. Presence of malaria and other diseases. Presence of large mammals.
Solomon islands
Island state.
Consists of 992 volcanic (mostly) islands. A constitutional monarchy. English language. They are located in a seismically dangerous region where earthquakes often occur. Population 478 thousand people. A visa is required to enter. The climate is tropical, humid. The soil is favorable for vegetation.
Monoriki Island, the movie "Cast Away" was filmed here
Fiji
Consists of 332 islands of volcanic and coral origin.
Republic. Languages English and local. Population 849 thousand people. For Russian citizens, visa-free entry for up to 4 months. The importation of vegetables, seeds, meat and dairy products requires special permission from the Fiji Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests.
The climate is tropical. The amount of precipitation is from 2000 to 5000 mm. Many islands have soil favorable for planting. Transit routes to other Oceanian countries pass through Fiji. The most visited island country of all. Air travel from Moscow to Nadi (Fiji) usually passes through Hong Kong or Seoul; a ticket costs approximately 32,000 rubles.
Desert Flint Island
Kiribati
Consists of 33 atolls, 20 of which are uninhabited.
Presidential republic. Language English, Kiribati. Population 98 thousand people. Russian citizens require a visa to enter. The climate is equatorial, oceanic. The hottest months are September-November, the coldest are January-March. The amount of precipitation varies from 800 to 4000 mm. The soil is not favorable for planting. Vegetation is sparse. A flight from Moscow will cost approximately 57,000 rubles.
Classic atoll landscape
Marshall Islands
Consists of 29 atolls and 5 islands.
Republic. Languages Marshallese and English. Population 56 thousand people. Russian citizens require a visa. The climate is predominantly tropical, arid in the north and equatorial in the south. The amount of precipitation is from 300 to 4300 mm. The soil is not suitable for farming.
Famous islets in Palau
Palau
Consists of 328 islands (mostly small coral). Presidential republic.
Language English, Paluan. Population 20 thousand people. For Russian citizens, a visa is issued upon arrival (stamped into the passport) for a period of 30 days.
Identify the largest ports: a) Pacific Ocean _________ b) Atlantic Ocean__________
Import of seeds, plants, meat and dairy products requires permission from the Palauan Ministry of Agriculture. The climate is tropical, with a rainy season from May to November. The flight will cost about 30,000 rubles.
Northern Mariana Islands
Consists of 14 volcanic islands.
They are US territory. Languages English and local. Population 86 thousand people. Russian citizens require a US visa. The climate is tropical, trade wind-monsoon type.
Dry season from December to June, rainy season from July to October. Typhoons occur from August to November. The soil is suitable for farming.
Pohnpei Island
Federated States of Micronesia
Consists of 607 small islands and atolls, of which 65 are inhabited. Republic, free association with the United States. English language. Population 107 thousand
Human. For citizens of the Russian Federation, visa-free entry for up to 30 days. The climate is equatorial. Precipitation ranges from 2250 mm to 3000-6000 mm. Typhoon season is from August to December. The soil is suitable for farming, but not everywhere.
Cook Islands
Consists of 15 islands and atolls, 3 of which are uninhabited.
A constitutional monarchy. Free association with New Zealand. Languages local and English. Population 19 thousand people. For Russian citizens, visa-free entry for up to 31 days. The islands have a tropical maritime climate with a distinct rainy season from November to April and a dry season from May to October.
The average annual precipitation is about 2000 mm. A flight from Moscow will cost approximately 40,000 rubles.
Samoa
Consists of several islands.
Parliamentary republic. Languages Samoan and English. Population 188 thousand people. For citizens of the Russian Federation, visa-free entry for up to 60 days.
The climate is humid, tropical. The amount of precipitation on the plains is from 2000 mm and in the mountains up to 7000 mm per year. Relative humidity is 80%. A flight from Moscow will cost approximately 45,000 rubles.
The extinct volcano Kao, as seen from Tofua Island
Tonga
Consists of 172 islands and atolls.
A constitutional monarchy. Languages Tongan, English. Population 120 thousand people. For citizens of the Russian Federation, a visa is issued upon arrival (stamp) for up to 31 days. The climate is tropical. The amount of precipitation is about 2500 mm. The soils on many islands are suitable for farming. The flight costs approximately 42,000 rubles.
Tuvalu
Consists of 5 atolls and 4 islands. Monarchy. Languages Tuvalu, English. Population 12 thousand
Human. For citizens of the Russian Federation, a visa is issued upon arrival for 1 month. The climate is tropical. The amount of precipitation is about 3000 mm per year. The wet season is from November to April, the dry season is from May to October. A flight from Moscow will cost approximately 44,000 rubles.
Bora Bora Island
French polynesia
Consists of a large number of islands and atolls.
Overseas Society of France. Language French. Population 287 thousand people. Russian citizens need a French visa to enter. The climate is tropical. A flight from Moscow will cost about 50,000 rubles.
Philippines
Large island state. Consists of 7100 islands.
Unitary presidential constitutional republic. Languages Pilipino, English. Population 101 million people. For Russian citizens, visa-free entry for a period of 21 days. The climate is tropical, monsoon. The northern regions of the country are often hit by typhoons and tsunamis are possible.
The amount of precipitation per year ranges from 1000 to 4000 mm. The soil is suitable for farming. A flight from Moscow will cost approximately 16,000 rubles.
Sections of the site
The most interesting
World maritime shipping
Shipping is the oldest branch of transport, originating in the distant past. And now sea transport is very important component global transport system, without which normal functioning world economy would be impossible. In the second half of the 20th century. The development of maritime transport was facilitated by the formation of a very large territorial gap between the areas of production and consumption, the increasing dependence of most economically developed countries on overseas supplies of fuel and raw materials, as well as on the sale of their products.
Suffice it to say that in the UK and Japan, sea transport services 98% of all foreign trade transport, in the USA - 90%. It is not surprising that in the world as a whole, shipping provides transport services approximately 80% of international economic relations.
Through maritime trade channels, goods worth more than $1.5 billion are transported annually. And in the total global cargo turnover, the share of maritime transport is 62% (Fig. 104).
For its part, the development of the world economy in the conditions of scientific and technological revolution and globalization constantly and strongly affects maritime transport. This is expressed in the formation of new sea routes and the formation of their special condensations in some directions, in the strengthening of the monopolization of shipping, in the intensification of the struggle for cargo, reaching the “war of flags”, in the containerization of sea transport, in changes in the forms of organization of transportation.
Until recently, there were two forms of transportation organization in maritime shipping: tramp and linear.
In tramp (from the English tramp - tramp) shipping, ships operate in different directions depending on the availability of cargo; the price of transportation appears in the form of a freight rate. In liner shipping, ships operate according to schedules of arrivals and departures at loading and unloading ports on strictly defined regular lines; in this case, the price of transportation is determined by tariffs. Tram vessels transport mainly bulk cargo, while regular cargo ships carry general cargo. However, in recent decades, the third, mixed, form, which is sometimes called regular tramp shipping, has received the greatest development.
It is characterized by the organization of transportation and operation of the fleet on regular routes on successive flights according to the “pendulum” or “shuttle” scheme. Already by the beginning of the 1990s.
It was under this scheme that about 3/5 of all cargo was transported by sea.
Table 448
DYNAMICS OF CARGO TURNOVER AND VOLUME OF FREIGHT TRANSPORTATION BY MARINE TRANSPORT IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XX CENTURY.
Transport in general is called a barometer of the world economy, but maritime transport in this regard has a special “sensitivity”.
To prove this point, it is enough to analyze Table 147, which reflects the dynamics of world maritime trade.
The data in Table 147 indicate very rapid growth maritime transport in 1950–1980 The global cargo turnover of maritime transport increased by 9 times during that period of time, and the volume of transported cargo increased by more than 6.5 times.
But in the first half of the 1980s. both absolute and relative indicators declined quite sharply as a result of the energy and raw materials crises of the mid-1970s. and the cyclical crisis of the world capitalist economy in the early 1980s. Started in the late 1980s. The new recovery in the world economy again led to an increase in demand for maritime transport, and it began to grow again.
It is interesting that this growth manifested itself primarily in the volume of cargo transportation and, to a much lesser extent, in cargo turnover. This is explained by a decrease in the transportation distance of many goods (for example, oil - from 13 thousand km to 8 thousand). In the second half of the 1990s. shipping continued to grow, but intermittently and generally not as quickly as expected.
So the forecasts for beginning of XXI V. had to be adjusted downwards.
At the same time, major changes were taking place in the structure of global maritime transport. Before the energy crisis began main feature These changes were an increase in the share of liquid cargo (in 1950 - 41%, in 1960 - 49, in 1970 - 55%). But due to the crisis, their share began to decrease, while the share of bulk, bulk and general cargo began to increase.
By the end of the 1980s. the share of liquid cargo decreased to 37%, the share of bulk and bulk cargo increased to 24, and piece (so-called general) cargo – to 25%. In the 1990s. This trend continued: transportation of coal, iron ore, bauxite, grain, food, and especially general cargo grew faster than transportation of oil and petroleum products.
Moving on to the consideration of the geographical distribution of world maritime transport, we must first of all note the relationship between the three groups of countries in this transport.
At the end of the 1990s. Western developed countries accounted for 45% of maritime export shipments, developing countries accounted for 51%, and countries with economies in transition accounted for 4%. What is noteworthy here is the very large proportion of developing countries. This is due both to their general role in the international geographical division of labor and to the active maritime policies that many of them pursue; This primarily applies to newly industrialized countries.
And import unloading, as one might expect, continues to be dominated by Western countries. Developing countries account for approximately 25% and countries with economies in transition 3% of offloading.
WITH geographical point the most important part analysis of maritime transport is, perhaps, the question of the geography of world shipping routes. L.
I. Vasilevsky correctly wrote that the sea route is a conditional concept. Unlike land transport, the geography of maritime transport is determined not by a network of communication routes, but by a network of ports, sea canals and straits accessible to seagoing vessels, estuaries and the flows of large rivers. The geographical division of labor has led to the fact that most sea routes remain stable for many decades.
For a geographer, the question is also very interesting on the role of individual oceans in global maritime shipping.
For five centuries now - since the beginning of the Great Geographical Discoveries - the first place (3/5) in global linear and tramp shipping has been occupied by the Atlantic Ocean, which is explained by many natural, historical, and economic reasons.
Among them are the morphology of sea coasts, their ruggedness, especially in Europe and northeastern North America. One can mention the high level of population and urbanization of most coastal areas, reflecting the level of socio-economic development of dozens of countries.
Finally, across the expanses of the Atlantic there are the shortest sea connections between the Old and New Worlds. It is not surprising that most of the world's seaports arose on the shores of this ocean.
Several important areas of maritime shipping have developed in the Atlantic Ocean. The main one is the North Atlantic, which runs between 35–40° and 55–60° N. sh., incorporating many transatlantic shipping routes between the United States and Western Europe. They transport both raw materials (coal, ores, cotton, timber) and general cargo.
This direction is also adjacent to routes along the Mediterranean, North, and Norwegian seas. Until the middle of the 20th century. it was also the world's largest cluster of maritime passenger lines, but maritime transport could not win the competition with air transport.
In 1958, they were quantitatively equal in passenger traffic for the first time, and today almost all passenger traffic between Europe and North America is served by aviation.
WITH early XIX V. A competition between shipping companies began for the "Blue Ribbon of the Atlantic" prize, awarded to the ship that would cross this ocean in the shortest time.
The first such transatlantic voyage was made in 1819 by the American sailing-steam frigate Savannah, which, however, sailed almost the entire way to Liverpool; this voyage lasted about 28 days. In 1838, a giant steamship at that time, the English Great Western, covered the distance between Europe and America in 14.5 days. In the second half of the 19th century. The struggle for the Blue Riband of the Atlantic was fought between Great Britain, Germany, France and the USA.
Already at the beginning of the 20th century. The English Lusitania reduced travel time to 4 days and 20 hours. In 1938, the famous French passenger liner Normandy crossed the ocean in 4 days and 3 hours. In 1948, the even more famous English steamship Queen Mary covered it in 3 days and 12 hours, and finally, in 1952, the American United States set an absolute record - 3 days, 10 hours and 40 minutes.
Other important directions of maritime shipping in the Atlantic Ocean are the South Atlantic (Europe - South America), Western Atlantic (Africa - Europe).
Freight flows of oil and some other bulk cargo from Asia to Europe and the USA also pass through the Atlantic. However, in general, the importance of the Atlantic Ocean in global shipping has decreased in recent decades.
The Pacific Ocean, ranking second in terms of maritime traffic (1/4), still lags far behind the Atlantic.
But the potential of this ocean, which is bordered by 30 states with a population of about 3 billion people, is very great. Many of the world's largest ports are located here, and many bulk and, more recently, general cargo flows originate here.
Usually these flows are also combined into several main directions.
The first, northern transpacific, direction connects the USA and Canada with the countries of East and Southeast Asia. From North America, this flow transports coal, ores, timber cargo, grain, machinery and semi-finished products, from Asia - cars, steel products, various equipment, tropical wood, fish and fish products. The second group of shipping lines connects the Atlantic coast of the United States with the Hawaiian Islands and Japan through the Panama Canal.
Transoceanic bridges also include relatively new “transport bridges” (coal, iron ore, bauxite) that connect Australia with Japan and other East Asian countries. In addition, two more groups of shipping lines run along the coasts of continents - Asia and the Americas.
The third place in terms of maritime traffic volume (1/6) belongs to the Indian Ocean, whose shores are bordered by 30 states with a population approaching 1.5 billion people. The greatest importance in this ocean is shipping from Europe to Asia and Australia through the Suez Canal, and less important are those transoceanic routes that connect Australia with South Africa and Europe.
Although in general the Indian Ocean is inferior to the Atlantic and Pacific in terms of transportation intensity, in terms of oil transportation (from Persian Gulf) he surpasses them.
The Arctic Ocean plays a much smaller role in global maritime shipping. Through shipping is not supported along the North-Western Canadian route, and the Northern Sea Route, about 6,000 km long, runs along the northern coast of Russia.
Paradoxical as it may seem at first glance, recently maritime piracy has again become an obstacle to maritime commercial shipping.
It is known from history that even in the Roman era, piracy flourished in the Mediterranean Sea, and Gnaeus Pompey was allocated 500 ships to fight it.
Name the largest ports of the Pacific and Indian oceans. On the banks of which
In the Middle Ages and in modern times, piracy again flourished in the Mediterranean Sea, off the Atlantic coast of Africa, then its epicenter shifted to the Caribbean Sea, even nicknamed the Filibuster Sea.
Modern maritime piracy poses a threat to ships on many seas. But the Caribbean, South China Seas, and Indian Ocean are considered especially dangerous in this regard. Well-armed pirate crews on fast ships attack and rob merchant ships. In 2000 alone, 470 pirate attacks on civilian ships were recorded.
For Russia, sea transport also has great importance, primarily in ensuring foreign economic relations. In terms of cargo turnover, it is now tens of times inferior to pipeline and rail transport.
After the collapse of the USSR, due to large losses in the maritime fleet, coastal infrastructure and the general difficult economic situation, this cargo turnover in 1992–2006. decreased eightfold.
Magellan discovered the Pacific Ocean in the fall of 1520 and named the ocean the Pacific Ocean, “because,” as one of the participants reports, during the passage from Tierra del Fuego to the Philippine Islands, more than three months, “we never experienced the slightest storm.” By quantity (about 10 thousand) and total area islands (about 3.6 million km²) The Pacific Ocean ranks first among the oceans. In the northern part - Aleutian; in the western - Kuril, Sakhalin, Japanese, Philippine, Greater and Lesser Sunda, New Guinea, New Zealand, Tasmania; in the central and southern regions there are numerous small islands. The bottom topography is varied. In the east - the East Pacific Rise, in the central part there are many basins (North-Eastern, North-Western, Central, Eastern, Southern, etc.), deep-sea trenches: in the north - Aleutian, Kuril-Kamchatka, Izu-Boninsky; in the west - Mariana (with maximum depth World Ocean - 11,022 m), Philippine, etc.; in the east - Central American, Peruvian, etc.
The main surface currents: in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean - warm Kuroshio, North Pacific and Alaskan and cold Californian and Kuril; in the southern part - the warm South Trade Wind and East Australian Wind and the cold Western Wind and Peruvian Wind. The water temperature on the surface at the equator is from 26 to 29 °C, in the polar regions up to −0.5 °C. Salinity 30-36.5 ‰. The Pacific Ocean accounts for about half of the world's fish catch (pollock, herring, salmon, cod, sea bass, etc.). Extraction of crabs, shrimps, oysters.
Important sea and air communications between the countries of the Pacific basin and transit routes between the countries of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans lie across the Pacific Ocean. Major ports: Vladivostok, Nakhodka (Russia), Shanghai (China), Singapore (Singapore), Sydney (Australia), Vancouver (Canada), Los Angeles, Long Beach (USA), Huasco (Chile). The International Date Line runs across the Pacific Ocean along the 180th meridian.
Plant life (except bacteria and lower fungi) is concentrated in the upper 200th layer, in the so-called euphotic zone. Animals and bacteria inhabit the entire water column and the ocean floor. Life develops most abundantly in the shelf zone and especially near the coast at shallow depths, where the temperate zones of the ocean contain a diverse flora of brown algae and a rich fauna of mollusks, worms, crustaceans, echinoderms and other organisms. In tropical latitudes, the shallow water zone is characterized by widespread and strong development of coral reefs, and mangroves near the shore. As we move from cold zones to tropical zones, the number of species increases sharply, and the density of their distribution decreases. About 50 species of coastal algae are known in the Bering Strait - macrophytes, Japanese Islands- over 200, in the waters of the Malay Archipelago - over 800. In the Soviet Far Eastern seas known species animals - about 4000, and in the waters of the Malay Archipelago - at least 40-50 thousand. In the cold and temperate zones of the ocean, with a relatively small number of plant and animal species, due to the mass development of some species, the total biomass increases greatly; in the tropical zones, individual forms do not receive such a sharp predominance, although the number of species is very large.
As we move away from the coasts to the central parts of the ocean and with increasing depth, life becomes less diverse and less abundant. In general, the fauna of T. o. includes about 100 thousand species, but only 4-5% of them are found deeper than 2000 m. At depths of more than 5000 m, about 800 species of animals are known, more than 6000 m - about 500, deeper than 7000 m - slightly more than 200, and deeper than 10 thousand m - only about 20 species.
Among coastal algae - macrophytes - in temperate zones, fucus and kelp are especially notable for their abundance. In tropical latitudes they are replaced by brown algae - sargassum, green algae - caulerpa and halimeda and a number of red algae. The surface zone of the pelagic zone is characterized by the massive development of unicellular algae (phytoplankton), mainly diatoms, peridinians and coccolithophores. In zooplankton highest value have various crustaceans and their larvae, mainly copepods (at least 1000 species) and euphausids; there is a significant admixture of radiolarians (several hundred species), coelenterates (siphonophores, jellyfish, ctenophores), eggs and larvae of fish and benthic invertebrates. In T. o. It is possible to distinguish, in addition to the littoral and sublittoral zones, a transition zone (up to 500-1000 m), bathyal, abyssal and ultra-abyssal, or a zone of deep-sea trenches (from 6-7 to 11 thousand m).
Planktonic and bottom animals provide abundant food for fish and marine mammals (nekton). The fish fauna is exceptionally rich, including at least 2000 species in tropical latitudes and about 800 in the Soviet Far Eastern seas, where there are, in addition, 35 species of marine mammals. The most commercially important fish are: anchovies, Far Eastern salmon, herring, mackerel, sardine, saury, sea bass, tuna, flounder, cod and pollock; among mammals - sperm whale, several species of minke whales, fur seal, sea otter, walrus, sea lion; from invertebrates - crabs (including Kamchatka crab), shrimp, oysters, scallops, cephalopods and much more; from plants - kelp (sea kale), agarone-anfeltia, sea grass zoster and phyllospadix. Many representatives of the fauna of the Pacific Ocean are endemic (the pelagic cephalopod nautilus, most Pacific salmon, saury, greenling fish, northern fur seal, sea lion, sea otter, and many others).
The large extent of the Pacific Ocean from North to South determines the diversity of its climates - from equatorial to subarctic in the North and Antarctic in the South. Most of the ocean surface, approximately between 40° north latitude and 42° south latitude, is located in the equatorial, tropical and subtropical climate zones. Atmospheric circulation over the Pacific Ocean is determined by the main areas of atmospheric pressure: the Aleutian low, the North Pacific, the South Pacific and the Antarctic highs. These centers of atmospheric action in their interaction determine the great constancy of northeastern winds in the North and southeastern winds of moderate strength in the South - trade winds - in the tropical and subtropical parts of the Pacific Ocean and strong westerly winds in temperate latitudes. Particularly strong winds are observed in the southern temperate latitudes, where the frequency of storms is 25-35%, in the northern temperate latitudes in winter - 30%, in summer - 5%. In the West of the tropical zone, tropical hurricanes - typhoons - are frequent from June to November. The northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean is characterized by monsoon atmospheric circulation. The average air temperature in February decreases from 26-27 °C at the equator to –20 °C in the Bering Strait and –10 °C off the coast of Antarctica. In August, the average temperature varies from 26-28 °C at the equator to 6-8 °C in the Bering Strait and to –25 °C off the coast of Antarctica. Throughout the entire Pacific Ocean, located north of 40° south latitude, there are significant differences in air temperature between the eastern and western parts of the ocean, caused by the corresponding dominance of warm or cold currents and the nature of the winds. In tropical and subtropical latitudes, the air temperature in the East is 4-8 °C lower than in the West. In the northern temperate latitudes, the opposite is true: in the East the temperature is 8-12 °C higher than in the West. The average annual cloudiness in areas of low atmospheric pressure is 60-90%. high pressure - 10-30%. The average annual precipitation at the equator is more than 3000 mm, in temperate latitudes - 1000 mm in the West. and 2000-3000 mm in the East. The least amount of precipitation (100-200 mm) falls on the eastern outskirts of subtropical areas of high atmospheric pressure; V western parts the amount of precipitation increases to 1500-2000 mm. Fogs are typical for temperate latitudes, they are especially frequent in the area Kuril Islands.
Under the influence of atmospheric circulation developing over the Pacific Ocean, surface currents form anticyclonic gyres in subtropical and tropical latitudes and cyclonic gyres in northern temperate and southern high latitudes. In the northern part of the ocean, the circulation is formed by warm currents: the North Trade Wind - Kuroshio and the North Pacific and cold California Current. In the northern temperate latitudes, the cold Kuril Current dominates in the West, and the warm Alaskan Current dominates in the East. In the southern part of the ocean, the anticyclonic circulation is formed by warm currents: the South Trade Wind, East Australian, zonal South Pacific and cold Peruvian. North of the equator, between 2-4° and 8-12° northern latitude, northern and southern circulations are separated throughout the year by the Intertrade Wind (Equatorial) Countercurrent.
The average temperature of the surface waters of the Pacific Ocean (19.37 °C) is 2 °C higher than the temperature of the waters of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, which is the result of relatively large sizes that part of the Pacific Ocean area that is located in well-warmed latitudes (over 20 kcal/cm2 per year), and limited communication with the Arctic Ocean. The average water temperature in February varies from 26-28 °C at the equator to -0.5, -1 °C north of 58° north latitude, near the Kuril Islands and south of 67° south latitude. In August, the temperature is 25-29 °C at the equator, 5-8 °C in the Bering Strait and -0.5, -1 °C south of 60-62° south latitude. Between 40° south latitude and 40° north latitude, the temperature in the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean is 3-5 °C lower than in the western part. North of 40° north latitude, the opposite is true: in the East the temperature is 4-7 °C higher than in the West. South of 40° south latitude, where zonal transport of surface water predominates, there is no difference between water temperatures in the East and West. In the Pacific Ocean there is more precipitation than evaporating water. Taking into account river flow, over 30 thousand km3 flows here annually fresh water. Therefore, the salinity of surface waters is T. o. lower than in other oceans (average salinity is 34.58‰). The lowest salinity (30.0-31.0‰ and less) is observed in the West and East of the northern temperate latitudes and in the coastal areas of the eastern part of the ocean, the highest (35.5‰ and 36.5‰) - in the northern and southern subtropical latitudes, respectively. latitudes At the equator, water salinity decreases from 34.5‰ or less, in high latitudes - to 32.0‰ or less in the North, to 33.5‰ or less in the South.
The density of water on the surface of the Pacific Ocean increases fairly uniformly from the equator to high latitudes in accordance with general character distribution of temperature and salinity: at the equator 1.0215-1.0225 g/cm3, in the North - 1.0265 g/cm3 or more, in the South - 1.0275 g/cm3 or more. The color of the water in subtropical and tropical latitudes is blue, transparency in some places is more than 50 m. In the northern temperate latitudes, the color of the water is dark blue, along the coast it is greenish, transparency is 15-25 m. In Antarctic latitudes, the color of the water is greenish, transparency is up to 25 m .
Tides in the North Pacific Ocean are dominated by irregular semidiurnal (height up to 5.4 m in the Gulf of Alaska) and semidiurnal (up to 12.9 m in Penzhinskaya Bay Sea of Okhotsk). The Solomon Islands and part of the coast of New Guinea have daily tides of up to 2.5 m. The strongest wind waves are observed between 40 and 60° south latitude, in latitudes where westerly storm winds dominate (the “roaring forties”), in the Northern Hemisphere - to the north 40° north latitude. Maximum height wind waves in the Pacific Ocean are 15 m or more, length over 300 m. Tsunami waves are typical, especially often observed in the northern, southwestern and southeastern parts of the Pacific Ocean.
Ice in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean forms in seas with harsh winter climatic conditions (Bering, Okhotsk, Japanese, Yellow) and in bays off the coast of Hokkaido, the Kamchatka and Alaska peninsulas. In winter and spring, ice is carried by the Kuril Current to the extreme northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean. Small icebergs are found in the Gulf of Alaska. In the South Pacific, ice and icebergs form off the coast of Antarctica and are carried into the open ocean by currents and winds. The northern border of floating ice in winter runs at 61-64° south latitude, in summer it shifts to 70° south latitude, icebergs at the end of summer are carried to 46-48° south latitude. Icebergs are formed mainly in the Ross Sea.
(about 1/3 of the world's sea freight turnover), inferior to Atl-ka in terms of traffic volume, is ahead of it in terms of growth rates. A characteristic feature of the sea routes in the Pacific Ocean is their very large latitudinal extent (twice as long as the transatlantic routes). Transoceanic routes connecting the west. and east coasts are grouped in two directions: American-Asian and American-Australian. On the first of them, three heavy-duty routes were formed. Intensive shipping routes connect the Pacific ports of the USA and Canada (Los Angeles, San Francisco, Vancouver) with the ports of Japan, China, and the Philippines (Yokohama, Shanghai, Manila). Coal, timber, grain, ore, semi-finished and finished products are exported from North American ports to Japan. They go in the opposite direction different kinds industrial products (steel pipes, electrical and radio devices, fabrics, fish and fish products). Shipping on the second route from the Panama Canal and the western ports of South America to the ports of Southeast (Singapore, Manila) and East (Shanghai, Yokohama) Asia is less intense. Mostly mining and agricultural raw materials are exported from Latin American ports (to Japan), and industrial products in the opposite direction. The second American-Australian transoceanic route connects the ports of North America, Australia, and New Zealand. Lines from the ports of the USA and Canada to Sydney and other ports of south-eastern Australia (Newcastle, Melbourne) run here. From American ports, machinery and equipment, and in the opposite direction - industrial raw materials and agricultural goods. From the United States to Latin American ports, equipment for the mining industry, machinery and finished products are transported. The highest concentration of cargo turnover is observed in the ports of Eastern (Japan, Republic of Korea, China) and Southeast. Asia (more than 3/4 of the total cargo turnover of the Pacific Ocean). The largest oil terminals in the Pacific Ocean are concentrated in Japanese (Chiba, Yokohama, Kawasaki), American (Los Angeles, Long Beach, San Francisco, Valdez) and international transit ports (Singapore, Dumai).
30. Economic and geographical provinces of the Pacific Ocean and their characteristics.
NW: In economy the province stands out high level economic development and large scientific and technical potential, rich in mines. resources of its individual territories, huge fish stocks and the largest catches in the world, intensive maritime transport and a developed economy. Huge human resources are concentrated here and the third world economic center has been formed, the core of which is Japan, and the “newly industrialized countries” (Republic of Korea, Taiwan) and the rapidly growing economy of modern China play a complementary role. On the shelf of the province, oil and gas, solid minerals (iron ore, coal) are extracted, TiMg placers, cassiterite deposits are explored, table salt. Iron margs have been identified in the open part of the ocean. and phosphorite nodules. Z: Her characteristic feature are an advantageous location on the routes of intensive maritime traffic and the presence of large nodes of sea communications in the straits of the Malay Archipelago. Zap. The province has large reserves of mineral raw materials and biological resources, but is inferior to the North-West. provinces in terms of the level of industrial, scientific and technical potential, as well as the level of development of marine sectors of the economy. The province's subsoil contains deposits of world significance. From this region of the world, up to 70% of tin, significant volumes of oil, Fe, Mn and Cu ores, Ni, chromites, tungsten, bauxite and phosphate raw materials are obtained. Ferromanganese nodules and phosphates occur in the northeast of the province; deposits of oil, cassiterite, iron ore, and glauconite have been discovered on the shelf. S-W: fishing has not received widespread industrial development. The province's position away from the main world markets predetermines the leading role of sea communications to ensure connections with the North. America, Eastern and Southeast. Asia and Europe. are Sydney and Melbourne and the outport of Geelong (specializing in grain and oil cargo). In the state of New South. Wales has 9 seaports (Newcastle, Port Kembla, Hunter, etc.) YU.: The natural resource potential of the province has been poorly studied. Oil is being extracted on the Tongo Islands, and phosphorite deposits are being developed on the Society Islands. The waters of the province are characterized by a low content of zooplankton biomass and low fish productivity (less than 10 kg/km2. A characteristic feature of the Southern Province is the weak development of the economy, which does not allow for widespread study and development of marine resources. The basis of the economy of most island states is the plantation economy (growing coconut tree, citrus fruits, bananas, pineapples, sugar cane, coffee, cocoa, groundnuts, breadfruit), production of canned fish and copra. Fish catches of island states and territories are small. Fiji's economy is the most diversified; it is based on the sugar industry, tourism, forestry and wood processing industries. N-E: oil and natural gas (Alaska, the Los Angeles area and coastal waters of California), phosphorites (California coast), ores of precious and non-ferrous metals (gold, platinum, mercury). The exploitation of marine placers of gold (off the coast of the Seward Peninsula) and platinum sands (Goodnews Bay) plays a significant role. Open waters The provinces are characterized by extremely low fish productivity. The Northeast is a zone of very intense transport traffic. Routes from the Pacific ports of North America to the ports of the East pass here. Asia (Japan, China) and from the ports of the west coast of the USA and Canada to the ports of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. SE and E: Coastal countries (Peru, Chile, Bolivia) form a capacious regional raw materials market, exporting mining raw materials, agricultural and fishing products by sea. In Peru, large deposits of iron ore (area of the port of San Juan), polymetals, phosphorites are being developed, and oil and gas are being extracted on the sea shelf. The province is an important global fishing area.
