Foreign policy in the 1920-1930s.
The end of the civil war and foreign intervention marked a new state of international relations. An important factor was the existence of the Soviet state as a fundamentally new, socialist system. A confrontation arose between the Soviet state and the leading countries of the capitalist world.
The foreign policy of the Soviet state from the moment the Bolsheviks came to power was based on two principles:
1. Principle internationalism provided for the most active support for the revolutionary movement in other countries, assistance to the international working class and anti-capitalist movements. It was based on the Bolsheviks' belief in an imminent socialist revolution on a global scale. To prepare it, the Communist International (Comintern) was created in Moscow in 1919. It included the Bolsheviks and foreign socialist parties.
2. Principle peaceful coexistence with the capitalist system (this term is believed to have been first used by the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs G.V. Chicherin) recognized the need to break out of foreign policy isolation, strengthen the country's position in the international arena, and establish mutually beneficial trade and economic relations with other states.
Both principles were mutually exclusive, so foreign policy was contradictory. In the early years, the first principle dominated; as hopes for a world revolution faded, the second one prevailed. The position of Western European countries towards Soviet Russia was also ambivalent. On the one hand, they sought to eliminate the new system. On the other hand, Russia remained a profitable trading partner.
The main direction of the foreign policy of the RSFSR, and then the USSR, in the 1920s. there was a breakthrough of the “diplomatic blockade”, i.e. recognition by the international community. In 1920-1921 At the cost of great efforts, agreements were signed with Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland, Poland, Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey, and Mongolia.
In 1922, the Genoa Conference took place. 29 states took part in it: Russia, England, France, Germany, etc. The United States participated as an observer. The Western powers demanded the repayment of the debts of the Tsarist and Provisional governments (18.5 billion rubles) and foreign property nationalized by the Bolsheviks, and to eliminate the monopoly of foreign trade.
The Soviet delegation led by People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs G.V. Chicherin put forward her own conditions: compensation for damage caused by foreign intervention during the civil war (39 billion rubles), ensuring broad economic cooperation, and a general reduction in armaments. Negotiations stalled and the conference failed. However, after its end, the Soviet state began to move closer to Germany, which was also under blockade. The result was the signing of the Treaty of Rapallo in 1922.
The breakthrough of the “diplomatic blockade” occurred in 1924. This year, diplomatic relations were established with 13 capitalist countries: England, Italy, France, Sweden, Austria, etc. The peculiarity of the USSR’s entry into the world community was that this process took place on the terms of the Soviet Union, which refused to pay the debts of the tsarist government.
At the end of the 1920s. There was a sharp deterioration in the international situation. In 1927, England broke off diplomatic relations with the USSR because of material support for striking English workers. In 1929, an armed conflict occurred with China on the Chinese Eastern Railway.
World economic crisis 1929-1933 (“Great Depression”) greatly affected European countries. In Germany, A. Hitler came to power in 1933. The new German government set as its task the revision of the results of the First World War and began to pursue a militaristic policy. The territory of the USSR was considered as “living space” for Germany. In response, the Soviet Union broke off all relations with Hitler's Germany in 1933 and began attempting to create a system of collective security in Europe. It was appreciated.
In 1933, the Soviet Union was recognized by the United States. In 1934, the USSR was admitted to the League of Nations - an international organization, the prototype of the UN.
In 1936-1937 The Anti-Comintern Pact was created, consisting of Germany, Italy and Japan, directed against the USSR.
Western European countries did not respond to the Soviet initiative to create a collective security system. On the contrary, the leadership of England and France set a course for "policy of appeasement"– providing Germany with concessions to direct its aggression against the USSR. Neither England nor France prevented Germany when it, bypassing the Treaty of Versailles, began to intensively arm itself. They took the same position in relation to the participation of Germany and Italy on the side of the rebels of General F. Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and the annexation of Austria to Germany (1938).
The peak of the “policy of appeasement” was the “Munich Agreement”. In 1938, a conference was held in Munich with the participation of England, France, Germany and Italy, by the decision of which part of Czechoslovakia was transferred to Germany. However, Germany captured Czechoslovakia completely.
The tense situation remained in the Far East. In 1938, Japanese troops invaded Soviet soil in the area of Lake Khasan and were defeated. In 1939, the Soviet-Japanese conflict flared up on the Khalkhin Gol River (Mongolia). Units of the Red Army under the command of G.K. Zhukov was defeated by Japanese troops.
In the spring and summer of 1939, the Soviet Union made its last unsuccessful attempts to create a system of collective security in Europe. After this, the Soviet government was forced to take a course towards rapprochement with Germany. The main goal of this policy was to avoid premature involvement of the USSR in the war and to steer Germany westward.
On August 23, 1939, the Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact (“Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact”) was concluded for a period of 10 years. It included a secret protocol that delimited the parties' spheres of influence in Eastern Europe. Western Poland fell into the German sphere, and Eastern Poland, populated by Western Ukrainians and Western Belarusians, the Baltic states, Finland, and Bessarabia fell into the Soviet sphere.
The conclusion of an agreement with Germany made it possible to avoid a war on two fronts (against Germany and Japan), to remain outside the new European conflict for almost two years and to prevent an alliance between England, France and Germany against our country. Thanks to the treaty, the USSR was able to return part of the territories lost in 1918-1920. During the period of the pact, the USSR acquired valuable equipment and samples of military equipment for the defense industry in Germany.
Questions and tasks for self-control
1. What were the first transformations of Soviet power aimed at?
2. Name the reasons for the Reds’ victory in the civil war.
3. List the main activities of “war communism”.
4. What were the main contradictions of the NEP?
5. Which republics were included in the original composition of the USSR?
6. List the main sources of industrialization.
7. How did the process of dispossession take place during collectivization?
8. Indicate the consequences of the establishment of totalitarianism in the USSR.
9. Why did the cultural transformations of the 1920-1930s characterized by the concept of “cultural revolution”?
10. Why was the Non-Aggression Pact signed between the USSR and Germany in 1939 and what did it give to the Soviet state?
additional literature
1. Gordon, L.A. What was it? Reflections on the prerequisites and results of what happened to us in the 30-40s / L.A. Gordon, E.V. Klopov. – M.: Publishing House of Political Literature, 1989. – 320 p.
2. Civil war in Russia: causes, essence, consequences // Questions of history. – 2003. – No. 10.
3. Gusev, K.V., Protasov, L.G. All-Russian Constituent Assembly. History of birth and death / K.V. Gusev, L.G. Protasov // Domestic history. – 1998. – No. 5.
4. Daines, V.O. Civil war in Russia: events, opinions, assessments / V.O. Daines // Questions of history. – 2003. – No. 1.
5. Drabkin, Ya.S. Totalitarianism in Europe of the 20th century. From the history of ideologies, movements, regimes and their overcoming / Ya.S. Drabkin, N.P. Komolova. – M.: Monuments of historical thought, 1996. – 539 p.
6. Zhukov, Yu.N. Another Stalin / Yu.N. Zhukov. – M.: Vagrius, 2005. – 512 p.
7. Zelenin, I.E. “Revolution from Above”: completion and tragic consequences / I.E. Zelenin // Questions of history. – 1994. – No. 10.
8. Iskenderov, A.A. The first steps of Soviet power / A.A. Iskenderov // Questions of history. – 2003. – No. 2.
9. Kara-Murza, S.G. Soviet civilization / S.G. Kara-Murza. – M.: Eksmo, 2011. – 1200 p.
10. Kara-Murza, S.G. Civil war in Russia. 1918-1921 / S.G. Kara-Murza. – M.: Eksmo, 2003. – 384 p.
11. Kogan, L.A. War communism: utopia or reality? / L.A. Kogan // Questions of history. – 1998. – No. 2.
12. Kozhinov, V.V. Russia. XX century (1901-1939) / V.V. Kozhinov. – M.: EKSMO-Press, 2002. – 448 p.
13. Olshevsky, V.G. Financial and economic policy of Soviet power in 1917-1918. : trends and contradictions / V.G. Olshansky // Questions of history. – 1999. – No. 3.
14. Pavlova, I.V. The mechanism of political power in the USSR in the 20-30s / I.V. Pavlova // Questions of history. – 1998. – No. 11-12.
15. Pavlyuchenkov, S.A. Peasant Brest, or the prehistory of the Bolshevik NEP / S.A. Pavlyuchenkov. – M.: Rus. book publishing t-vo, 1996. – 299 p.
16. The tragedy of the Soviet village. Collectivization and dispossession. 1927-1939: Documents and materials. In 5 vols. / Ed. V. Danilova, R. Manning., L. Viola. – M.: ROSSPEN, 1999-2006.
17. Chemodanov, I.V. Was there an alternative to forced collectivization in the USSR? / I.V. Suitcases // Questions of history. – 2006. – No. 2.
18. Shishkin, V.A. Power. Policy. Economy. Post-revolutionary Russia (1917-1928) / V.A. Shishkin. – St. Petersburg. : Dmitry Bulanin, 1997. – 400 p.
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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RF
Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Ural State Economic University
Center for Distance Education
TEST
discipline: History
"Foreign policy of the USSR in the 1920s-1930s"
Executor:
student gr. UVR-11
Voshko. A.A
Teacher:
Ekaterinburg 2014
Introduction
1. Foreign policy of the USSR in the 1920-1930s
1.1 International situation in the 1920-1930s. Contradictions of the Versailles-Washington system
Conclusion
List of used literature
INTRODUCTION
The twentieth century was a period of the most acute conflicts, accompanied by high strategic and military preparation. But there is still no clear understanding of most of them to this day. Disputes continue among historians on the issue of the largest conflict of the century - the Second World War and its causes, namely on the universal interpretation of the so-called “policy of appeasement of Germany” carried out in the 1930s. British government led by Neville Chamberlain.
The content and course of British foreign policy and diplomacy, on which the balance of power on the European continent largely depended, is one of the most pressing problems associated with the study of the prehistory of the Second World War. The British foreign policy line of “pacification” of Germany, the idea of a “balance of power” in Europe in the second half of the 1920s, faced a serious challenge after the Nazis came to power in Germany. The British government, led by the Conservative Party, did not immediately realize the need to unite the forces of the West in the face of growing Nazi aggression.
The problem of restoring the Anglo-French Entente became increasingly urgent. A number of factors led to the fact that it was not possible to create a combat-ready union of peace-loving states interested in maintaining the status quo on the European continent almost until the very beginning of the Second World War. The study of this complex of issues in both Russian and foreign historical literature is extremely controversial.
British foreign policy in the period between the two world wars was of great importance for the pan-European international situation and international relations in general. While the Soviet Republic and the United States had no influence on the course of world events, it was up to Great Britain and France to maintain peace.
The well-known aloofness in international relations that has become traditional British policy contributed to the formation of the “policy of non-intervention” in the 1930s. The consequences of this political course were the civil war in Spain against the Nazis, the seizure of Ethiopia by Italy, the demilitarization of the Rhineland, the Anschluss of Austria - events to which the British government turned a blind eye, hoping that Germany and Italy, having received a sufficient number of territories, would help stabilize international situation and maintaining peace.
The relevance of the topic under consideration is obvious. The period under review allows us to trace the strategy and tactics of the Bolshevik leadership, which managed to create conditions in the capitalist environment for the restoration and development of the national economy of the USSR, cooperating in the economic sphere with all the leading powers of the world.
In accordance with the relevance, the purpose and objectives of the study were set.
Goal of the work- characterize the foreign policy of the USSR in the 1920-1930s.
To achieve this goal, the following were formulated: tasks:
reveal the international situation in the 1920-1930s; contradictions of the Versailles-Washington system;
consider the goals and nature of Soviet foreign policy in the 1920-1930s; international position of the USSR on the eve of World War II.
1. FOREIGN POLICY OF THE USSR IN THE 1920-1930S. INTERNATIONAL SITUATION IN THE 1920-1930S. CONTRADICTIONS OF THE VERSAILLES-WASHINGTON SYSTEM
After the end of the civil war and intervention, the Soviet Republic found itself in conditions of capitalist encirclement and political isolation. The West declared an economic blockade. In their diplomatic relations with the capitalist countries of the West, the Bolsheviks were guided by two motives: the need to exploit any contradictions between the leading countries, as well as the conviction that without Russia’s natural resources the West would not be able to restore its economy.
At the beginning of 1920, the economic blockade was officially lifted, but this did not mean that trade relations resumed. In March 1921, an Anglo-Soviet trade agreement was signed in London, which in fact meant recognition of the Soviet government. German economic and military circles sought cooperation with Russia. The situation changed when the transition to the NEP created the impression in the West that the Bolshevik revolution was collapsing. Then Russia's proposal to convene an international conference to regulate economic relations was accepted. This initiative resulted in the organization of a pan-European conference in Genoa in the spring of 1922. Its most important event was the signing of the Soviet-German Treaty in Rapallo, which established diplomatic relations between the two countries. In general, the conference was inconclusive. The West demanded repayment of the debts of the tsarist government and compensation for nationalized property.
In 1921, treaties were concluded with Turkey, Iran, and Afghanistan. In 1924, relations with China were restored. 1924 opened a period of diplomatic recognition of the USSR: England, Italy, France, Japan. In just one year, the Soviet Union was recognized by 13 states. But the wave of recognition was not followed by other corresponding steps in the development of relations between countries.
Already in August 1925, serious complications emerged in relations with England, and in mid-1927 the British government broke off relations with the USSR. Relations with Germany were more successful. In 1926, it provided the first foreign loans, and a treaty on neutrality and non-aggression was signed. Similar pacts were also signed with Turkey, Iran, and Afghanistan. In 1927, not without the instigation of England, diplomatic relations with the Beijing government were severed.
In 1927, the USSR agreed to participate in the disarmament commission created by the League of Nations, which contributed to the growth of its prestige. The Soviet proposals were not accepted, but they attracted new peace-loving forces to the side of the USSR.
In 1929, a conflict occurred on the Chinese Eastern Railway, which was under joint Soviet-Chinese control. It was settled on terms satisfactory to us after the use of armed force.
The global economic crisis contributed to the strengthening of trade ties between the West and the USSR. In 1933, the United States officially recognized the USSR.
1.1 Contradictions of the Versailles-Washington system
Under the terms of the Compiègne Armistice (November 1918), Germany had to leave all captured territories in the west, and its army had to withdraw beyond the Rhine. It had to leave Eastern Europe as the Entente troops arrived there. All prisoners of war and military property were to be transferred to the allies. To prepare peace treaties with the vanquished, the Paris Peace Conference was convened (January-February 1919). 27 countries participated, the conference was led by the Council of Ten, the main role was played by US President William Wilson, and the Prime Ministers of Great Britain L. George and France J. Clemenceau. Formally, the work was carried out on the basis of V. Wilson’s “14 points”, which contained new principles of world relations (renunciation of secret diplomacy, disarmament, self-determination of peoples, ensuring freedom of trade and navigation). However, in reality, sharp contradictions and struggles between the participants, especially England, remained and France, who sought to obtain maximum benefits from victory. There were different plans for the vanquished: the greatest demands were from France, which suffered more than others during the war.
Wilson insisted on including the Covenant of the League of Nations in the preamble to the Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty of Versailles, the main document of the post-war settlement, was signed in June 1919.
The Versailles-Washington system was based on a number of acute contradictions:
A) the plight of the vanquished, especially Germany;
B) “redrawing” of borders is the basis for future disputes (for example, the Sudetenland in the Czech Republic);
C) Soviet Russia, which was against this system, was not involved in the agreements. Pushed away from solving world affairs, she could not help but become in opposition to the Versailles-Washington system;
D) the colonies did not receive freedom - a mandate system was created; The national liberation movement continues.
These contradictions ultimately led to the collapse of the Versailles-Washington system and the Second World War.
1.2 Goals and nature of Soviet foreign policy in the 1920-1930s. The international position of the USSR on the eve of World War II
foreign policy soviet union
The Soviet foreign policy concept was built in accordance with two contradictory goals: preparation of the world proletarian revolution and the establishment of peaceful relations with capitalist states. The task was set to turn the won peaceful respite into a lasting peace, to bring the country out of the state of foreign political and economic isolation, including by attracting foreign capital. The USSR sought to overcome the state of diplomatic isolation. However, the solution to this problem was made difficult by a number of factors, such as the rejection of the Soviet system and the Bolshevik slogan of world revolution by the Entente countries; claims against Russia for tsarist debts and discontent of the capitalist powers with the monopoly of foreign trade; as well as Russia’s course of supporting revolutionary organizations in Europe and America and the national liberation movement in colonial countries.
From the late 20s - 30s. Soviet foreign policy was carried out in a complex and rapidly changing environment. It was determined by the main foreign policy principle of the hostility of the imperialist powers towards the USSR and the need to take advantage of their mutual contradictions. Such a balance of power policy pushed the USSR first to create an alliance with Germany against the British threat, and then forced Soviet diplomacy to seek cooperation with England and France against the much more dangerous “Third Reich”.
The main directions of foreign policy of the Soviet state and the Bolshevik Party in the 1920s. was the strengthening of the USSR's position in the international arena and the ignition of a world revolution. Treaties concluded in 1920-1921 with Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, Turkey and other border countries, marked the beginning of widespread diplomatic recognition of Soviet Russia. Trade ties emerged with England, Germany, and Italy.
In April - May 1922, the International Economic and Financial Conference of European States was held in Genoa (Italy), to which Russia was invited. The Russian delegation spoke on behalf of all Soviet republics. The head of the delegation was G.V. Chicherin, People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs from 1918 to 1930. The capitalist countries expected to exert economic pressure and demanded to pay off the debts of Tsarist Russia, the Provisional Government, and the White Guards, to abolish the foreign trade monopoly, and to return nationalized enterprises. The Soviet side agreed to repay part of the debts subject to the receipt of loans and compensation for damage caused by the intervention, which was rejected by Western countries. However, Soviet diplomats managed, using the contradictions between the leading European powers and Germany, to conclude a bilateral agreement with Germany in the town of Rapallo (near Genoa) (April 1922). The treaty contained conditions on mutual refusal to reimburse military expenses, on the resumption of diplomatic relations and the development of trade relations on the basis of the most favored nation principle. 1924 was called the “stripe of recognition of the USSR”, since then many countries of the world established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union.
Within the framework of the Third International (Comintern), created in 1919, in the 20s. The activities of Soviet communists in the international arena intensified. The task was put forward of the speedy formation of communist parties in various countries of the world, the creation of mass revolutionary organizations in order to intensify the world revolutionary process.
In 1934, the USSR was admitted to the League of Nations, which was supposed to help establish diplomatic relations with other countries.
By the end of 1938, the foreign policy situation was very difficult. The Soviet military presence in Spain, the weakening of the Red Army due to repression - the Western powers stopped viewing the USSR as an adequate ally. Japan was friends with Germany and Italy. Axis Berlin - Rome - Tokyo. Complications in the East: 1938 - fighting at Lake Khasan from the end of July - August 11. May - September 1939 - battles on the Khalkhin Gol River in Mongolia - a counter-offensive began on August 20 - on August 23 the Japanese were surrounded, by September the territory was cleared.
The conclusion of the “Anti-Comintern Pact” between Germany and Japan and the accession of Italy to it were accompanied by an increase in the aggressiveness of the regimes established in these countries. In the East, the USSR was forced to take steps to curb Japanese expansion.
At the same time, the connivance of Western democracies to the aggressive actions of Hitler, Mussolini and Franco, inaction during the Anschluss of Austria and the Munich Agreement of 1938 strengthened the mutual distrust of the USSR towards England and France. The militarization of the Rhineland changed the balance of power in Europe and showed the inability of Western democracies and the League of Nations to resist Germany. The signing of a non-aggression pact by France in 1938 was regarded by the USSR as a step that freed Germany's hands in the East. All this forces the USSR to seek rapprochement with Germany.
In 1938, an agreement on economic cooperation between the USSR and Germany, an agreement to stop attacks on each other in the press. In May 1939, the Jewish Litvinov was removed and the racially loyal Molotov was installed.
On April 17, the USSR proposed that Great Britain and France conclude a trilateral agreement, the military guarantees of which would extend to the entire Eastern Europe. But the negotiations did not yield results. Poland and Romania did not want to allow the Red Army passage through their territory. Even in August 1939, when the British and French agreed to discuss the military aspects of the agreement and arrived in Moscow, they continued their previous tactics (those who arrived were of low rank and could not make such decisions).
The collapse of the idea of collective security led to the union of the USSR and Germany. Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact “On non-aggression and neutrality” for 10 years. Secret agreements - about spheres of influence. This is not our idea - Germany suggested. The USSR restored the old borders and gained time to prepare for war.
CONCLUSION
In the first half of the 20s, the economic blockade of Russia by capitalist countries was broken. In 1920, after the fall of Soviet power in the Baltic republics, the government of the RSFSR concluded peace treaties with the new governments of Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia, recognizing their independence and independence. Since 1921, the establishment of trade relations between the RSFSR and England, Germany, Austria, Norway, Denmark, Italy, and Czechoslovakia began. The political negotiation process with England and France has reached a dead end.
Taking advantage of the contradictions between the leading European powers and Germany, Soviet representatives in the town of Rapallo (near Genoa) concluded an agreement with it. The treaty resumed diplomatic and consular relations between the countries and thereby brought Russia out of diplomatic isolation. In 1926, the Berlin Treaty of Friendship and Military Neutrality was concluded. Germany thus became the main trading and military partner of the USSR, which made significant adjustments to the nature of international relations in subsequent years.
In the 20s On the basis of the treaties of the Versailles-Washington system, a relative temporary stabilization of interstate and world economic relations was achieved. In the 1920s, called the “era of pacifism,” politicians in Europe and the United States managed to come to an agreement and resolve differences through peaceful means. A new balance of forces was taking shape in the system of international relations, and new knots of contradictions arose. A series of trade and diplomatic agreements between the USSR and the countries of Europe and Asia, as well as neutrality agreements, were concluded. The USSR gradually returned to the normal system of international relations.
LIST OF REFERENCES USED
1. Bobylev P.N. It’s too early to put an end to the discussion. On the issue of planning at the General Staff of the Red Army for a possible war with Germany in 1940-1941 // Domestic History. - 2000. - No. 1. - P.56-58.
2. Choosing a path. History of Russia 1939-2000 / ed. A.T. Tertyshny, V.D. Kamynina, A.V. Trofimova. - Ekaterinburg, 2001. - 455 p.
3. History of Russia in the 9th-20th centuries / ed. G.A. Ammona, N.P. Ionicheva.- M., 2002.- 323 p.
4. Kantor Yu.Z. M.N. Tukhachevsky and Soviet-German alliance 1923-1938. // Questions of history.- 2006.- No. 5.- P. 40-45.
5. Kapchenko N.I. Foreign policy concept of Stalin // International life. - 2005. - No. 9. - pp. 12-16.
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As a result of the 1st World War, the world experienced significant changes. Collapsed largest empires: Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian and Turkish. IN February 1917. the autocracy was overthrown in Russia. 3 November 1918. there was a revolution in Germany. A Social Democratic government came to power and immediately signed a truce with the Entente. In June 1919 In Weimar, a constitution was adopted, according to which Germany was proclaimed a republic.
IN Austro-Hungary, which was a multinational state, intertwined anti-monarchist and national liberation revolutions. 12 November The monarchy was overthrown. A social democratic government came to power. Austria was proclaimed a republic. 16 November 1918 gained independence Hungary. The Soviet Republic was proclaimed there, the government of which included Social Democrats and Communists. However, it was soon replaced by a monarchy. 28 October 1918. was created Czechoslovakian republic.
IN November 1918. an independent Polish state. It included lands that were previously part of Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary. In the South Slavic lands, Serbia and Montenegro were joined by Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, which were part of the Austria-Hungary and Turkish Empire. Was created Yugoslavia.
In January 1919. The Parliamentary Peace Conference began its work. Was created League Nations- organization of victorious countries. The world was redivided in favor of the victorious states.
England acquired Turkish territories - Palestine, Jordan, Iran, and the German colony of Tanganyika in Africa. France received Syria and Lebanon, which previously belonged to Turkey. The government of the Sultan in August 1920 signed an agreement with the victorious countries, which essentially turned Turkey into a colony. However, the Turkish general Mustafa Kemal raised a rebellion against the terms of this treaty. The new agreement signed in 1923 g., liberated Turkey from occupation. Türkiye was proclaimed a republic, and Kemal, who received the nickname Ataturk(father Turk), was elected its president.
28 June 1919. V Versailles(France) a peace treaty was signed with Germany. Germany lost its colonies and 1/8 of its territory. France received Alsace, Lorraine, the city of Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a free city, part of German territory went to Poland, Denmark, and Czechoslovakia. In addition, Germany had to pay 132 billion gold marks in reparations, it was prohibited from having a fleet, tanks, and aviation. The German army was limited to 100 thousand people.
In 1919-1920 were concluded peaceful contracts With Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria And Turkey. Was created Versailles system contracts, which consolidated the redivision of the world. Temporary stabilization was achieved, but it could not be durable, since it was achieved through the plunder of the defeated countries
Foreign policy Soviet Russia after the end of the civil war, it was based on two provisions formulated by V.I. Lenin:
1) principle proletarian internationalism, which provided for mutual assistance in the struggle of the international working class and national liberation movements in colonial and dependent countries. To implement this principle in 1919. The Communist International was created in Moscow. It included many left-wing socialist parties in Europe, Asia and Latin America, which switched to Bolshevik (communist) positions; 2) principle peaceful coexistence Soviet republic with capitalist states, which was officially proclaimed in the declaration of the Soviet delegation at Genoese conferences V 1922 g. It was determined by the need to strengthen the position of the Soviet state in the international arena, break out of political and economic isolation, and ensure the security of its borders. It meant recognition of the possibility of peaceful cooperation and the development of economic ties with the West, for which there were objective opportunities and conditions in the form of a natural trend in the international division of labor. The inconsistency of these two fundamental provisions often caused inconsistency in the foreign policy actions of the Soviet state.
But the policy of Western countries towards Soviet Russia was no less contradictory. On the one hand, they sought to strangle the new political system, isolate it politically and economically, and establish a “cordon sanitaire” against it. On the other hand, the leading powers of the world pursued the goal of gaining access to its raw materials, restoring the economic ties that had developed with it for centuries, the rupture of which had a detrimental effect on their economy.
In 1921 - 1922 were concluded trading agreements Russia with England, Austria, Sweden, Norway, etc. At the same time, treaties were signed with neighboring states formed as a result of the collapse of the Russian Empire - Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland.
Soviet diplomacy took measures to strengthen relations between the Soviet state and its eastern neighbors. In 1921 The RSFSR signed equal and mutually beneficial agreements with Iran, Afghanistan and Turkey. These treaties expanded the sphere of influence of Soviet Russia in the East. Soviet-Mongolian Treaty of 1921 meant the establishment of strong cooperation and mutual assistance between the two countries. The Red Army units brought into this country supported the Mongol revolution and strengthened the people's power established by its leader Suhe-Bator.
At the suggestion of the Soviet government in April 1922. took place pan-European conference V Genoa. 29 countries took part in it, including the leading ones - England, France, Germany, Russia, and Italy.
The Western powers presented Soviet Russia with demands to pay off the debts of the tsarist and Provisional governments (18 billion rubles in gold); return nationalized property to Western owners; abolish the foreign trade monopoly and open the way for foreign investors.
The Soviet delegation made a declaration of the principles of its foreign policy, primarily peaceful coexistence and cooperation of states with different socio-economic and political systems, put forward a program for a general reduction in armaments and a ban on the most barbaric methods of warfare. At the same time, it put forward its own conditions for resolving conflict issues: to compensate for the damage caused by the intervention (39 billion rubles); provide Russia with long-term loans to restore the economy. In this case, it will be possible to resolve the issue of debts.
As a result, the negotiations reached a dead end. However, the Soviet delegation achieved diplomatic success. Germany, due to its difficult political and economic situation, agreed to cooperate with Soviet Russia. In Rapallo, a suburb of Genoa, a Soviet-German agreement was signed on the establishment of diplomatic relations and broad economic cooperation. Both countries abandoned mutual monetary claims. This was a breakthrough in Russia's political and economic isolation.
In 1924 - 1925 The period of official recognition of the USSR by many countries of the world, especially Europe, began. The first to enter into diplomatic relations with our country were England, France, Italy, Sweden, Mexico, and others. This was due to three reasons: the coming to power of right-wing socialist parties in a number of countries, a broad social movement in support of the USSR, and the economic interests of capitalist states. Of the leading Western powers, only the United States refused to recognize the USSR.
In the second half of the 1920s, the Soviet Union continued to strengthen its international position. In 1926 A non-aggression and neutrality treaty was signed with Germany. In 1928 The USSR joined the Briand-Kellogg Pact, which called for the renunciation of war as a means of resolving interstate disputes. At the same time, the Soviet government came up with a draft arms reduction convention, which was not accepted by Western countries.
Activity Comintern and the USSR's policy in the East complicated relations with the West. In protest against the financial assistance of Soviet trade unions to English miners who carried out a general strike, Great Britain in 1927. broke off diplomatic and trade relations with the USSR, which, however, were restored a few years later. In 1929 due to the Soviet Union's support for the Communist Party of China in its struggle against the Kuomintang government, an armed conflict occurred in the area Chinese-Eastern iron roads. It was followed by a rupture in Soviet-Chinese relations, restored in the early 30s.
In the extremely tense international atmosphere of the late 20s - 30s, the foreign policy of the USSR passed three main stage: 1) 1928 - 1933: in Europe, allied relations with Germany, confrontation with bourgeois-democratic countries, in the East - advance to China and activation in Afghanistan and Iran; 2) 1933 – 1939 (after Hitler came to power in Germany) rapprochement with England, France and the USA on an anti-German and anti-Japanese basis, the desire to maintain spheres of influence in the East and avoid direct confrontation with Japan; 3) 1939 - June 1941: rapprochement with Germany and Japan.
First hearth wars folded on Far East. In 1931, Japan occupied Manchuria, one of the most developed provinces of China. There, the Puppet State of Manchukuo was created, which was under the complete control of Japan and represented a springboard for an attack on China and the USSR. The League of Nations condemned Japan's actions, and in response, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations.
Second, the most dangerous hearth tensions became Europe. Hitler headed for a revision of the Versailles system of agreements. In 1933 Germany left the League of Nations in 1935. General conscription was introduced in Germany.
In the face of increasing aggression from Nazi Germany and its allies, the Soviet Union proposed creating a system collective security in Europe, by concluding a system of treaties that would make it impossible to start a war in Europe. In 1934 USSR enters V League nations, in 1935 concludes agreements on mutual assistance with France and Czechoslovakia. However, the position of England, which did not want to strengthen the USSR and did not trust Stalin’s diplomacy, did not allow the creation of such a system to continue.
Since the mid-30s, the world has been drawn into a new war. Until this time, the Soviet state, although not always consistently, demonstrated its peacefulness and interest in peaceful coexistence with capitalist countries. However, authoritarian methods of leadership in domestic political life, which were gaining strength, were reflected in international politics during these years.
Germany and its allies continued their line of dismantling the Versailles system. In 1935 Italy, under Mussolini's fascist regime, invaded and captured Ethiopia. In 1936 Civil war broke out in Spain. Left parties, united in the Popular Front, won the elections there. A rebellion was raised against the leftist government, led by General F. Franco. Spain became a kind of training ground where the first clash of pro- and anti-fascist forces took place. Germany and Italy actively supported the rebels, supplied them with weapons, carried out a naval blockade, and bombed a number of Spanish cities. The Republican government was supported by the USSR, volunteers from European countries and the USA, England and France declared non-interference in the conflict.
In 1936-1937 the so-called Anti-Comintern pact, which included Germany, Japan and Italy. They actively used anti-communist rhetoric to camouflage their true goals - the struggle for the redivision of the world.
The USSR consistently pursued a course towards creating a united anti-fascist front. The tactics of the Comintern also changed. Summer 1935 on VII Congress Comintern it was concluded that it was necessary to create single anti-fascist front all democratic forces, especially communists and social democrats.
In 1938 The Axis powers achieved decisive successes in the collapse of the Versailles system. In March 1939. Hitler carried out absorption (Anschluss) Austria, which became part of Germany. In March 1939. the rebels won Spain. In summer 1938 The Japanese conducted reconnaissance in force on the Soviet-Manchurian border near the lake Hasan, but were defeated. in autumn 1938 Hitler demanded Czechoslovakia transfer to Germany Sudetenland an area where the German population predominated. Czechoslovakia had treaties with France and the USSR. However, the Western powers pursued a policy of concessions to Hitler and believed that it was possible to direct German aggression to the east, while they themselves remained on the sidelines. Under pressure from the Western powers, Czechoslovakia refused assistance from the USSR.
29 -30 September 1938. V Munich The leaders of four European powers met: Hitler, Mussolini, Deladier and Chamberlain (representatives of Czechoslovakia were not invited to the meeting). England and France gave the go-ahead for the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia and the transfer of the Sudetenland to Germany (this is 1/5 of the territory of Czechoslovakia, where ¼ of the population lived) in exchange for Hitler’s verbal statement that he no longer had territorial claims.
Munich collusion was the point after which it was no longer possible to avoid war.
Despite Hitler's assurances March 1939 the city was occupied by German troops Czech Republic And Moravia, and in Slovakia A state controlled by Germany was created. Hungary joined the Anti-Comintern Pact. In April 1939 Italy captured Albania.
In the east in the spring of 1939. The Japanese attacked Mongolia, which had a mutual assistance treaty with the USSR. Until the end of August in the river area Khalkhin-Goal There were fierce battles between Soviet-Mongolian and Japanese troops. The Japanese troops were defeated.
German aggression forced England and France to go in the spring of 1939. for negotiations with the USSR, which, however, by mid-August 1939. reached a dead end. Both sides were responsible for this. England and the Soviet Union showed no willingness to compromise.
England demanded that the USSR undertake unilateral obligations to declare war on Germany in the event of an attack on Poland or Romania. England and France themselves did not want to take on any specific obligations. Moreover, the British government negotiated with Germany behind the back of the USSR. Under these conditions, the Soviet Union faced a real threat of war on two fronts (against Germany and Japan), while England and France would remain on the sidelines. Under these conditions, Stalin was forced to negotiate with Germany.
23 August 1939. A non-aggression pact was concluded between the Soviet Union and Germany. A secret protocol was attached to the agreement. It spoke about the delimitation of “spheres of influence” in Eastern and South-Eastern Europe. Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Bessarabia were recognized as the sphere of influence of the USSR. Somewhat later, according to the “Treaty of Friendship and borders» between the USSR and Germany from 28 September 1939. Lithuania was included in the “sphere of influence” of the Soviet state. It was envisaged that the eastern regions of Poland (Western Ukraine and Western Belarus) would be included in the Soviet state.
1 September 1939. Germany attacked Poland, has begun second global war. 17 September 1939 units of the Red Army entered Western Ukraine And Western Belarus, and soon the annexation of these territories to the USSR was formalized. They became part of the Ukrainian and Belarusian Union Republics, respectively.
TO autumn 1939. relations with Finland. Both sides were determined and did not want to make any compromises. 30 November Soviet troops invaded Finland. The war dragged on, and there was a real threat of intervention in it by Great Britain and France (on the side of Finland). That's why 12 Martha 1940 The Soviet Union had to make peace, according to which it received the city of Vyborg, with the adjacent territory on the Karelian Isthmus and the port of Petsamo in the north.
In parallel with the Soviet-Finnish conflict, important processes took place in Baltics. With the support of the government of the USSR, the left-wing political forces of the Baltic countries, led by the communists, achieved the resignation of the Baltic governments, the formation of government bodies that took a position friendly to the Soviet Union, and the introduction of additional large military units. 3- 5 August 1940. At the VII session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR it was decided to adopt: Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia into the USSR.
In 1940 the Soviet government raised the question of returning to Romania Bessarabia, torn away from Soviet Russia in 1918, and about the transfer Northern Bukovina, populated mainly by Ukrainians. Romania was forced to meet these demands. 2 August 1940. VII session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, adopted the law on education Moldavian USSR, and Northern Bukovina became part of Ukraine.
40. Socio-political development of the USSR at the end of the 1920-1930s.
41. Foreign policy of the USSR in the 1920-1930s.
Foreign policy of the USSR in the 20-30s. developed in the direction of establishing official diplomatic relations with other states and illegal attempts to transport revolutionary ideas. With the advent of understanding the impossibility of immediately implementing a world revolution, more attention began to be paid to strengthening the external stability of the regime.
In the early 20s. The USSR achieved the lifting of the economic blockade. The decree of the Council of People's Commissars on concessions dated November 23, 1920 played a positive role. The signing of trade agreements with England, Germany, Norway, Italy, Denmark and Czechoslovakia meant the actual recognition of the Soviet state. 1924-1933 - years of gradual recognition of the USSR. In 1924 alone, diplomatic relations were established with thirteen capitalist countries. The first Soviet People's Commissars for Foreign Affairs were G.V. Chicherin and M.M. Litvinov. They achieved great success in the international development of the Soviet state thanks to the brilliant education and manners received in Tsarist Russia. It was through their efforts that relations with England were renewed, peace and trade treaties were signed with France, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and thereby the cordon between the Soviet Union and Europe was lifted.
At the end of the 1920s, there was a sharp deterioration in the international position of the USSR. The reason for this was the Soviet government's support for the national liberation movement in China. There was a rupture in diplomatic relations with England due to attempts to provide material support to striking English workers. Religious leaders of the Vatican and England called for a crusade against Soviet Russia.
The policy of the Soviet state changed in accordance with the changing political situation in the world. In 1933, after the National Socialist dictatorship came to power in Germany, the Soviet Union began to show interest in creating a system of collective security in Europe.
In 1934, the USSR was admitted to the League of Nations.
In 1935, the USSR concluded an agreement with France on mutual assistance in the event of aggression in Europe. Hitler saw this as an anti-German move and used it to seize the Rhineland.
In 1936, German intervention in Italy and Spain began. The USSR provided support to the Spanish Republicans, sending equipment and specialists. Fascism began to spread across Europe.
In March 1938, Germany captured Austria. In September 1938, a conference was held in Munich with the participation of Germany, England, France and Italy, the general decision of which gave the Sudetenland to Czechoslovakia to Germany.
The USSR condemned this decision.
Germany invades Czechoslovakia and Poland.
The tense situation remained in the Far East. In 1938-1939 Armed clashes occurred with units of the Japanese Kwantung Army on Lake Khasan, the Khalkhin Gol River and on the territory of Mongolia. The USSR achieved territorial concessions.
Having made several unsuccessful attempts to create a system of collective security in Europe, the Soviet government set a course for rapprochement with Germany.
The main purpose of this policy was to avoid premature military conflict.
In August 1939, a non-aggression pact between Germany and the USSR (Molotov-Ribbentrop) and a secret protocol on the delimitation of spheres of influence were signed. Poland went to Germany, the USSR - the Baltic states, Eastern Poland, Finland, Western Ukraine, Northern Bukovina. Diplomatic relations with England and France were severed.
On November 30, 1939, the Soviet-Finnish war began, which caused enormous financial, military and political damage to the country.
