Natural formations representing an accumulation of ice. On the surface of our planet, glaciers occupy more than 16 million km2, that is, about 11% of the total land area, and their total volume reaches 30 million km3. More than 99% of the total area of the Earth's glaciers belongs to the polar regions. However, glaciers can be seen even nearby, but they are located on the tops of high mountains. For example, the highest peak - - is crowned by a glacier, which is located at least 4500 m.
Glaciers form on areas of the earth's surface when the amount of solids that fall over many years exceeds the amount of precipitation that can melt or evaporate. The line above which the snow that falls during the year does not have time to melt is called the snow line. The height of its location depends on. In the mountains located near the equator, the snow line is at an altitude of 4.5-5 thousand meters, and towards the poles it drops to ocean level. Above the snow line, glaciers form from the snow that accumulates and compacts there.
Depending on the place of their formation, cover glaciers and mountain-valley glaciers are distinguished.
Ice sheet glaciers. They occupy 98.5% of the total area of glaciers on Earth and form where the snow line is very low. These glaciers are shaped like shields and domes. The largest ice sheet on Earth is the Antarctic. The ice thickness here reaches 4 km with an average thickness of 1.5 km. Within a single cover, there are separate ice streams flowing from the center of the continent to the periphery; the largest of them is the Bidmore Glacier, flowing from the Victoria Mountains; it is 180 km long and 15-20 km wide. Large glaciers are widespread along the edge of the ice sheet, the ends of which are floating in the sea. Such glaciers are called shelf glaciers. The largest of them in Antarctica is the Ross Glacier. It is twice the size of the territory.
Another largest ice sheet on Earth, covering almost the entire territory of the huge. The glaciers of other regions are significantly smaller in size. Greenlandic and often descend to the coastal parts of the ocean. In these cases, blocks of ice can break off from them, turning into floating sea mountains -.
Cover glaciers are found on the surface of the land regardless of its surface, and the relief has almost no effect on the nature of the glacier's surface.
Mountain glaciers. They differ from integumentary ones in being much smaller in size and in a greater variety of shapes, which is determined by the topography of the place of their origin. If the movement of cover glaciers occurs from the center of the ice sheet to the periphery, then the movement of a mountain glacier is determined by the slope of the underlying surface and is directed in one direction, forming one or several streams. If glaciers are located on flat tops, then they have a loaf-like shape; glaciers covering form ice caps. Many glaciers are bowl-shaped, filling depressions on the slopes. The most common type of mountain glaciers are valley glaciers, which fill river valleys. Mountain glaciers are located at almost all latitudes - from the equator to the polar. The largest mountain glaciers are located in Alaska, in the Pamirs, and. The following zones are distinguished in the structure of glaciers:
Glacier feeding area. Snow accumulates here, which does not have time to melt completely during the summer period. This is where the glacier is born from the snow. Snow is deposited every winter, but the thickness of the layer depends on the amount of precipitation falling in a particular location. In Antarctica, for example, the annual layer of snow is 1-15 cm, and all this snow goes to replenish the ice sheet. On the east coast, 8-10 meters of snow accumulates per year. Here is the “snow pole”. In glacier feeding areas in the Tien Shan and Pamirs, 2-3 meters of snow accumulates per year, and this is enough to restore summer melting costs.
In the area of nutrition, snow turns into ice in a variety of ways. First, the crystals become larger and the space between them decreases. This is how firn is formed - a transitional state from snow to ice. Further compaction under the overlying snow leads to the formation of milky ice (due to numerous air bubbles);
Ablation area(Latin ablatio - demolition, decline). In this area, the mass of the glacier decreases due to melting, evaporation, or the separation of icebergs (near ice sheets). Glacier ablation is especially strong in the mountains below the snow line, which contributes to high water levels starting from the glacier. For example, in the Caucasus, Central Asia, etc. For some rivers in Central Asia, the share of glacial runoff reaches 50-70% in summer. But the amount of water released by glaciers fluctuates greatly depending on melting conditions in a given summer. Glacier researchers also conducted a number of experiments on the Tien Shan glaciers to artificially increase the melting of glaciers in order to increase the flow of meltwater to cotton fields in dry years. It was found that glaciers can be strengthened by covering their surface with coal dust. On clear days, melting increased by 25% (dark surfaces absorb more sunlight than light ones). However, until artificial replenishment methods are developed, the method is not recommended.
Glaciers tend to flow, revealing plastic properties. In this case, one or more glacier tongues are formed. The speed of glacier movement reaches several hundred meters per year, but it does not remain constant. Since the plasticity of ice depends on , the glacier moves faster in summer than in winter. Glacial tongues resemble rivers: precipitation collects in a channel and flows along the slopes.
The work of a glacier can be either destructive (denudation) or cumulative (). At the same time, the glacier also includes all the material that fell into it. The denudation activity of a glacier consists of processing and deepening natural depressions in the relief. The accumulative work of a glacier occurs in the glacier's feeding area, where snow accumulates and turns into ice. Thanks to the accumulative work of the glacier in the area of its melting, what it deposits creates unique relief forms. For areas where mountain glaciers exist, a phenomenon such as is characteristic. Thanks to them, the glacial areas are unloaded. An avalanche is a collapse of snow that slides down mountain slopes and carries snow masses along its path. Avalanches can occur on slopes steeper than 15°. The causes of avalanches are different: the looseness of the snow in the first time after it falls; temperature rise in the lower snow due to pressure, thaw. In any case, it has enormous destructive power. The impact power in them reaches 100 tons per 1 m2. The impetus for the start of a snowfall can be the most insignificant imbalance of the hanging snow masses: a sharp cry, a weapon shot. In avalanche-prone areas, work is underway to prevent and remove avalanches. Avalanches are most common in (they are called here “white destruction” - they can destroy an entire village) in the Caucasus.
Glaciers play a big role not only in nature, but also in human life. This is the greatest repository of fresh water, so necessary for man.
It is known that glaciers are accumulations of ice that slowly move along the earth's surface. Sometimes the movement stops and a dead accumulation forms. Some blocks are capable of traveling many tens, hundreds of kilometers across oceans, seas, and inland.
There are several types of glaciers: continental-type covers, ice caps, valley glaciers, and foothill glaciers. The nappe formations occupy about two percent of the area of the ice formations, and the rest is continental species.
Glacier formation
What are glaciers and where are they found? There are many factors that influence the formation of a glacier. Although this is a long process, it depends on the relief and climate whether the Earth’s surface will be covered with ice formation or not.
So what is a glacier and what does it take to form one? For it to begin to form, certain conditions are necessary:
- The temperature should be negative throughout the year.
- Precipitation should fall in the form of snow.
- A glacier can form at a high altitude: as you know, the higher you go in the mountain, the colder it is.
- The formation of ice is influenced by the shape of the relief. For example, glaciers can appear on plains, islands, plateaus, and plateaus.
There are formations that can hardly be called mountain glaciers - they cover an entire continent. This is the ice of Antarctica and Greenland, the thickness of which reaches four kilometers. Antarctica has mountains, bays, pits and valleys - all covered with a thick layer of ice. And the island of Greenland is a huge glacier that covers the earth.
Scientists have proven that glaciers such as the Antarctic ones have existed on Earth for more than 800 thousand years. Although there is an assumption that ice covered the continent millions of years ago, scientists have so far established that the ice here is 800 thousand years old. But even this date suggests that there was no life in this part of the planet for many millennia.
Classification of glaciers
There are several classifications of glaciers, among which the main one is the division by morphological type, namely depending on the shape of the glacier. There are cirque, hanging, and valley types of blocks. In some areas of ice there are several varieties at once. For example, you can find hanging and valley varieties.
All accumulations can be divided globally according to morphological type into mountain glaciers, cover glaciers, and transitional glaciers. The latter are something between cover and mountain.
Mountain views
Mountain varieties come in a variety of shapes. Like all types of ice accumulations, this type tends to move: the movement is determined by the slope of the relief and is linear in nature. If we compare this type of formations with cover formations in terms of speed of movement, then mountain ones are much faster.
Mountain glaciers have a strongly defined area of feeding, transit and melting. The mineral is nourished by snow and water vapor, avalanches, and snow transfers during blizzards. When moving, the ice often descends into the melting zone: high mountain forests, meadows. In these territories, the accumulation breaks off and can fall into the abyss, and begins to melt intensively.
The largest mountain formation is the Lambert Glacier, located in East Antarctica, 450 kilometers long. It begins in the north in the International Geophysical Year Valley and enters the Amery Shelf. Another long glaciers are formations in Alaska - these are Bering and Hubbard.
Mountain cover varieties
We looked at what glaciers are in general. When defining the concept of a mountain-cover type, I would immediately like to draw attention to the fact that this is a formation of a mixed type. They were first identified as a separate species by V. Kotlyarov. The glacial formations of the foothills consist of several streams with different types of feeding. At the foot of the mountains, in the foothills zone, they merge into a single delta. A representative of such a formation is the Malaspina glacier, located in southern Alaska.
Glaciers-plateaus
When intermountain valleys overflow, at the moments of flowing over low ridges, plateau glaciers are formed. What are glaciers in geography? Definition of the concept“plateau” sounds like this - it’s nothing more than huge chains of islands merging with each other and appearing on the site of ridges.
Formations in the form of plateaus are found on the edges of Antarctica and Greenland.
Ice sheet glaciers
Cover species are represented by the huge shields of Antarctica, the area of which reaches fourteen thousand square kilometers, and the formations of Greenland, the area of which is 1.8 million km 2. These glaciers have a flat-convex shape, independent of the topography. The formations are fed by snow and water vapor present on the surface of the glacier.
Ice sheets move: they are characterized by radial movement, from the center to the periphery, which does not depend on the subglacial bed, where the breaking off of the ends mainly occurs. The disconnected parts remain afloat.
Scientists have long been trying to figure out what glaciers are and how they form. As a result of the study, it was possible to establish that the Greenland formation was frozen to the very base, and the lower layers were frozen with the rock bed. In Antarctica, the connection between the platforms and the earth's surface is more complex. Scientists were able to establish that in the central part of the formations there are lakes under the ice. They are located at a depth of three or more kilometers. According to the famous scientist V. Kotlyarov, the nature of these lakes can be twofold: they can influence the melting of ice due to intraterrestrial heat. The theory of the formation of lakes as a result of friction of glaciers on the surface of the earth during their movement cannot be ruled out.
Classification of glaciers according to Alman
The Swedish scientist Alman proposed three classes of division of all existing world formations:
- Temperate glaciers. In another way, he called them thermal formations, in which the entire thickness, except for the upper layers, has a melting point.
- Polar ice. These species are not subject to melting processes.
- Subpolar. They are characterized by melting processes in the summer.
Avsyuk classification
Our compatriot proposed another classification option. Avsyuk believes that it is most correct to divide glaciers according to the type of temperature distribution in the thickness of the formations. According to this principle there are:
- Dry polar species. At moments when the temperature in the mass is lower than that at which crystallized water melts, dry polar species are formed. Avsyuk includes such formations on the territory of Greenland, Antarctica, on the mountains of Asia above 6 thousand meters high, where it is always cold, and in the thickness of the ice it is even colder than outside.
- Wet polar view. In this form, in the summer the temperature rises above zero degrees, and melting processes begin.
- Wet cold glacier. It is characterized by temperatures above average annual air temperatures, although they are both negative. Ice melting is observed only on the surface, even at sub-zero temperatures.
- Nautical. It is characterized by a temperature of zero in the region of the active layer.
- Warm ice. Such species are located in the mountains, namely in Central Asia, on the Canadian archipelago.
Dynamic classification
When considering the topic “What are glaciers and what are they like?” another question immediately arises: “Is there a division of formations according to the type of movement?” Yes, such a classification exists, and it was proposed by Shumsky, a Soviet glaciologist. This division is based on the main forces that cause the movement of formations: the spreading force and the runoff force. The latter is due to the curvature of the bed and the slope, and the spreading force is due to the sliding process. Based on these forces, glaciers are usually divided into runoff blocks, which are also called mountainous: in them the runoff force reaches one hundred percent. Spreading formations are represented by ice caps and sheets. They have no obstructions, so this species can spread out in all directions.
The largest glaciers on our planet
It has already been said above what glaciers are in geography and how they are classified. Now it’s worth naming the most famous glaciers in the world.
The first place in size is the Lambert Glacier, located in East Antarctica. He was found in 1956. According to preliminary calculations, the formation is about 400 miles long and more than 50 kilometers wide. This is approximately ten percent of the area of the entire ice formation.
The largest glacier in the Spitsbergen archipelago is Austfonna. In terms of its size, it ranks first among all existing formations of the Old World - the ice area is more than 8,200 square kilometers.
In Iceland there is a glacier whose size is one hundred square kilometers smaller - Vatnaekul.
South America also has a glacier, more specifically the Patagonian Ice Sheet, located in Chile and Argentina. Its area is more than fifteen thousand square kilometers. Huge streams of water flow from the glacier, creating the lake.
At the foot of Mount St. Elias in Alaska there is another giant - Malaspina. Its area is 4200 sq. km. But the longest ice formation located outside the polar zone is considered to be Fedchenko, located in Tajikistan. It is located at an altitude of six thousand kilometers above sea level. The glacier is so large that its tributaries exceed the size of the most powerful glaciers in Europe.
There is also an ice massif in Australia - this is Pastors. It is considered the largest education in this country.
There are many different glaciers in the world, located in different parts of the world, including on warm continents. Many of them are at least three thousand kilometers high, and there are objects that are melting at an accelerated pace. It would seem that ice of this size should only be found at the poles, but it exists on every continent in the world, including in warm countries. Such a scattering of formations indicates the movement of ice and the fact that the Earth was once completely different.
To see the most beautiful glaciers in the world with your own eyes, you don’t have to go to the ends of the world - to Antarctica or the North Pole. Many glaciers that are impressive in their beauty and scale are located closer. You can always go to Norway or Iceland, to the ski resorts in the Alps, and if you are traveling around Latin America, do not miss the opportunity to take an amazing trip to Patagonia - a piece of untouched nature at the end of the world.
We present the most famous, largest mountain and simply beautiful glaciers in the world that are worth visiting.
The most impressive glaciers:
- Uppsala, Argentina
- Margerie, Alaska
- Perito Moreno, Argentina
- Vatnajokull, Iceland
- Pastoruri, Peru
- Fox, New Zealand
- Gray, Chile
- Serrano and Balmaceda, Chile
- Tasman, New Zealand
- Furtwängler, Tanzania
- Bosson, France
- Aletsch, Switzerland
- Mer-de-Glace, France
- Briksdal, Norway
- Malaspina, Antarctica
- Jokulsarlon, Iceland
- Stubai, Austria
Uppsala Glacier, Argentina
The Uppsala Glacier is located in Argentine Patagonia. It is 60 kilometers long, 70 meters high with a total area of 870 km².
Uppsala Glacier, Argentina (photo: 7-themes.com)
Franz Josef Glacier, New Zealand
The glacier is located on the west coast of New Zealand, 23 km north of the Fox Glacier. Nearby is a village of the same name and Lake Mapourika, where you can engage in sports, recreation, fishing, and canoeing.
Franz Joseph Glacier, New Zealand (photo: hotels.com)Margerie Glacier, Alaska
Discovered in 1888, the Margerie Glacier (34 km long) is located in Alaska, on the border with Canada. The glacier was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992.
Margerie Glacier, Alaska (photo: earthporm.com)Perito Moreno Glacier, Argentina
About 50 km from El Calafate in Argentina lies the Natural Park of the Glaciers, of which Perito Moreno is one of the most impressive. It is 15 km long and 5 km wide, and is also listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Perito Moreno Glacier, Argentina (photo: moon.com)Vatnajokull Glacier, Iceland
Located in Iceland, Vatnajökull is the island's largest glacier. Vatnajökull National Park covers 13% of the entire island, covering an area of 13,600 km².
Vatnajökull Glacier, Iceland (photo: go4travelblog.com)Pastoruri Glacier, Peru
Peru is one of the countries in Latin America that has a large number of glaciers: about 3,000 throughout the country. But in 35 years, Peru's glaciers have lost 35% of their area. The Pastoruri glacier is one of the endangered ones.
Pastoruri Glacier, Peru (photo: journeymachupicchu.com)Fox Glacier, New Zealand
Fox Glacier is located in the very center of New Zealand, on its west coast. It is quite often visited by tourists; special tours are organized there.
Fox Glacier, New Zealand (photo: nztravelorganiser.com)Gray Glacier, Chile
The Gray Glacier is located in the Torres del Paine Natural Park and is one of the most visited in the country. Its dimensions are impressive: 300 km² in area and 25 km in length. It flows into Gray Lake, forming icebergs of dazzling blue color.
Gray Glacier, Chile (photo: jennsand.com)Serrano and Balmaceda Glacier, Chile
The Serrano and Balmaceda glaciers are located in the Patagonia region of Chile. Both are in O'Higgins National Park, the largest park in Chile. They can be seen during river cruises.
Serrano and Balmaceda Glacier, Chile (photo: blog.tirawa.com)Tasman Glacier, New Zealand
Tasman is located in New Zealand, in the Canterbury region, being the longest glacier on the island (27 km). It is located in Mount Cook National Park, which has a total of 60 glaciers.
Tasman Glacier, New Zealand (photo: waitingroompoems.wordpress.com)Furtwängler Glacier, Tanzania
As the Kilimanjaro Ice Cap, Furtwängler sits atop the most famous mountain in Tanzania.
Furtwängler Glacier, Tanzania (photo: poul.demis.nl)Bosson Glacier, France
The Bossons Glacier is a stream of ice and snow that descends from the summit of Mont Blanc. Not far from here is the Chamonix Valley.
Bosson Glacier, France (photo: parcdemerlet.com)Aletsch Glacier, Switzerland
In the canton of Valais in southern Switzerland lies the Aletsch Glacier, the largest of the Alpine glaciers. It holds the record, including 27 billion tons of ice. The Aletsch region is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. Lake Märjelen at the foot of the glacier is fed by the melting of its ice and snow.
Aletsch Glacier, Switzerland (photo: artfurrer.ch)Mer de Glace glacier, France
The glacier, whose name translates as “Sea of Ice,” is 7 km long and is the largest glacier in France. It is located in the Chamonix Valley.
Mer de Glace glacier, France (photo: odyssee-montagne.fr)Briksdal Glacier, Norway
Briksdal is located in western Norway, in the Jostedalsbreen National Park. This glacier descends from an altitude of 1,700 meters above sea level, forming three lakes.
Briksdal Glacier, Norway (photo: smashwallpapers.com)Malaspina Glacier, Antarctica
Malaspina is a foothill glacier, that is, its formation occurs as a result of the merger of several valley glaciers. The area of the Malaspina glacier is 2000 km².
Malaspina Glacier, Antarctica (photo: glacierchange.org)Jokulsarlon Glacier, Iceland
Jökulsárlón is a periglacial lake in Iceland, the most famous in the country. Its name means "glacial lagoon".
Jökulsárlón Glacier, Iceland (photo: glacierguides.is)Stubai Glacier, Austria
The Stubai Glacier is located in the Tyrolean valley. This is one of the most famous glaciers in Austria and has many ski slopes within its borders.
Stubai Glacier, Austria (photo: tyrol.tl)- These are huge blocks of ice crawling along the earth's surface. A glacier standing still is called “dead” ice. In total, scientists consider four types of glaciers: continental glaciers, valley glaciers, widespread in the territory, glaciers located at the foot of the mountains and ice caps. In the world, the most famous are sheet glaciers. This huge mass of ice can cover the surface of mountain ranges. The large cover glacier is located in. This area covers 1.68 million square kilometers of ice. Pulsating glaciers are common throughout the world. A glacier up to one hundred meters high moves at a speed of 200-300 meters in one calendar day.
Glaciers form where more snow accumulates than melts. The snow that falls falls on the perennial snow. Melting occurs, leading to the appearance of ice crystals. Over a long period of time, many such crystals form, and large masses of ice accumulate, which eventually begin to move. There are a large number of glaciers in Russia. There are many glaciers on 2047 glaciers, the total glaciated area is 1,424.4 square kilometers; by 1,499 glaciers, with a glaciated area of 906.5 square kilometers; on 405 glaciers, with an area of 874.1 square kilometers; there are 1,335 glaciers on the Koryak ridge, the area is 259.7 square kilometers. Suntar-Khayata has 208 glaciers, their area is 201.6 square kilometers. There are 372 glaciers on the Chersky ridge, their area is 156.2 square kilometers. The Byrranga Mountains have 96 glaciers covering an area of 30.5 square kilometers. There are 105 glaciers with a glaciated area of 30.3 square kilometers. covers 143 glaciers with a total area of 28.7 square kilometers. Let's look at the most famous of them.
Toll Glacier is divided into two branches: eastern and western, or left and right. The western branch has a length of two kilometers. The eastern branch stretches for 3.9 kilometers. The height of the glacier reaches 2441 meters. In the western part the glacier is heavily eroded by sediments. The Tolla glacier is located in close proximity to two rivers: Tsaregradka and Lyunkide.
Smirnov Glacier(named in honor of the scientific mineralogist S.S. Smirnov) stretches for three kilometers. This is a glacier with small cracks. Its peculiarity is red spots in the ice. In some places on the glacier there are rocks up to 250 meters high. It has the Kaunas pass.
Glacier Double Satostobustsky under the influence of positive temperatures, it formed two glaciers: the left and right Satostobust glaciers. The left glacier is 3.5 kilometers long and its area reaches 2.6 square kilometers. There are three passes on it: , Kapugina and Ural. The right glacier stretches 3.2 kilometers in length. The area of the glacier is 2 square kilometers. On this glacier there are the Zalgiris and Satostobustskiy passes.
Chernyshevsky Glacier looks like a horseshoe. The glacier is also called Egelyakh glacier. It stretches for 5 kilometers. The width of the glacier is 1.5 kilometers. There are cracks at the top of the glacier. The glacier is steep – up to 20-23 degrees. The Omsky and Zenit passes are located on the glacier. The southern part of the glacier is rocks.
Atlasov Glacier – This is a glacier with steep slopes. The top of the glacier at the Sovetskaya Yakutia pass reaches 2885 meters. In the south of the glacier there is the Kazansky pass. This glacier has no cracks .
Tsaregradsky Glacier located near the Tsaregradka River. It stretches 8.9 kilometers in length. The total area of glaciation is 12 square kilometers. The highest point of the glacier is 3030 meters. The lowest point of the glacier is at an altitude of 1600 meters.
Very close to the Tsaregradsky glacier is located Oyunsky glacier. The Oyunsky Glacier was named after the writer P.A. Oyunsky. The glacier is forked in its northern part, two kilometers from the center of the glacier. There are many cracks on the glacier. Some of them are up to 1.5 kilometers. There are rock formations on the slopes of the glacier. Sometimes there is a rockfall here. Stones can fly from a height of 3029 meters.
Schneiderov Glacier It is not located in a very wide gorge. It stretches 3-4 thousand meters in length. There are a lot of rocks on the glacier. Some slopes of the glacier are steep - up to 25 degrees. On the slopes of the glacier the steepness drops to 13 degrees. There are several passes on the glacier: Avangard, Slavutich, Krasnoyarsk passes and Surprise 2 pass.
Selishchev Glacier has a length of 5.1 kilometers. At the very bottom the glacier is heavily cluttered with stones. There is a step on the glacier at an altitude of 1.5 kilometers (an open, flat space). There are four passes on the glacier: Moskovsky, Oyunsky, Omsk Tourists Club Pass and Murmansky Pass.
Chernyshevsky Glacier
Obruchev Glacier. The glacier is located next to Lunkide and stretches for 8.6 kilometers. The total area of the ice masses is 7.6 square kilometers. The highest point of the glacier is the peak - 3140 meters. The glacier is quite steep to climb - 20 degrees on the left side of the glacier. On the right side the glacier is not so steep - 10 degrees. There are passes on the glacier: Leningradsky, Kyuretersky and Kazansky. The northern part of the glacier has steep slopes (up to 40 degrees).
Sumgin Glacier the length is 6.8 kilometers, the total area of the glacier is 37 square kilometers. The highest point of the glacier is a snow-rock cover at an altitude of 3140. The lowest altitude is 1500 meters, there is more rock here. This glacier borders the Obruchev glacier. Almost everywhere on the glacier the elevation is 20 degrees.
Isakov Glacier stretches for 2.5 kilometers. The glacier is divided by two bends. The left bend is not very steep - it is 20 degrees. The right bend is steeper - 35-40 degrees. On the glacier there is the UPI pass and the Blue Bird pass. Next to the glacier there is a spring - Scout, which forms a small lake only in the warm season.
Schmidt Glacier, named after the scientist O.Yu., stretches for 2 kilometers. The glacier's steepness varies from 10 to 30 degrees. The glacier is divided in the north into two parts. In one part there is the Podarok pass. In the other - Chernivtsi and Kuvaev pass.
