The ideas of political elitism, having arisen in ancient times (Confucius, Plato, Aristotle, etc.), became widespread in the 19th-20th centuries. During this period of radical social transformation, thanks to the founders modern theory elites (Pareto, Mosca, Michels) and their followers (Lasswell, Djilas, Mills, Dai, Ziegler, Voslensky, etc.), political science views began to organically include a conceptual justification for the role of elites in society. Philosophical reflections on the possibilities and personal qualities of the upper classes were complemented by pragmatic political and sociological
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logical analysis of interacting and replacing each other elite groups.
The main idea of political elitism, which has been developing over centuries, is the following: the existence of elites and the promotion of political leaders from among them is due to the fact that it is impossible to provide power to everyone, to carry out direct participation of the masses in the implementation of power; This requires a minority that represents the interests of citizens and is capable of managing government structures. If this power were given to everyone, only a few would be able to master the art of holding it and leading society due to the complexity of this type of human activity.
The category “political elite” refers to those who are directly involved in political decision-making. These are citizens who have received high public assessments of their activities, are included in government structures, and are also the most influential in political aspect, possessing popularity, authority, prestige and, as a rule, power-hungry individuals who are intellectually superior to the masses.
When determining the elite strata, it is also important how they identify themselves with the dominant or pretending to dominate ideologies, programs and doctrines, which put forward strategies for the development of the country and determine the diverse options for their implementation, how they relate to the people and take into account the interests of various social communities, nations, classes.
The power elite, as Mills defines it, “consists of people who occupy positions that give them the opportunity to rise above the environment of ordinary people and make decisions of major consequences... This is due to the fact that they command the most important hierarchical institutions and organizations of modern society. .. They occupy strategic command posts in the social system, where they are concentrated effective means, providing the power, wealth and fame that they enjoy"62.
62 Mills R. The Power Elite. M., 1959. P. 24. --164--
The ruling political elite is opposed by the opposition, the counter-elite, which, competing with it, influences the process of renewal and restructuring of elite structures and groups. The ruling elite can be divided into higher, middle and functional. The highest level includes those who make key, national decisions. In the middle are leaders from the regional elite. In the functional - those in reserve for leadership positions, professional employees of political organizations and government bodies.
With personal and value approaches to analysis political elites the essence of “elitism” is explained by the presence of special abilities among their representatives or all members of them, as well as their commitment to certain values. This is the ability to manage the state, and the willingness to take responsibility, and the ability to defend public interests, and knowledge of the mechanisms for operating huge material and financial resources, and understanding of both the norms of elite groups and the interests of other social strata, and compliance religious traditions and so on.
Most of these abilities are inherent in professional politicians. Already in 1919, Weber, in his work “Politics as a Vocation and Profession,” noted “the transformation of politics into an “enterprise” that requires skills in the struggle for power and knowledge of its methods created by the modern party system”63. In the political elites, everyone who has these skills and political culture is concentrated and concentrated.
The situational approach to the analysis of political elites emphasizes that the elite position is the result of mastery specific situation, which dominates everyone and places all political players. A politician only chooses a variety of means, varies and changes his abilities, striving to enter the political elite. Machiavellians even justify any means - immoral, violent, inhumane - in the struggle for dominance in the political sphere and for leading elite positions.
63Weber M. Izbr. pr. M., 1990. P. 660. --165--
With a systems approach, political elites are studied as subsystems integrated into social systems. In these subsystems, interrelated “roles” are distinguished - elements that represent standardized actions of certain policy subjects. The stability and effectiveness of both the elite strata themselves and the power structures depend on the coordination of actions and role compatibility of citizens included in the political elite. In society, there are legal ways of sanctioning role actions, supplemented by other (economic, etc.) measures of influence on all representatives of political elite groups in order to encourage them to act “politically justifiably,” “in the interests of the state,” etc.
The integration of roles and associated expectations is naturally supported by the process of institutionalization. To fulfill the role of “party leader” in the political elite, the institution of “political party” must exist. Without the functioning of the “institute of presidency” it is impossible to fulfill the “presidential role” even if the majority of citizens wish. The creation and development of democratic institutions (parliament, government, etc.) is the basis for the fulfillment of such “roles” as “deputy”, “faction leader”, “prime minister”, etc. The role structure is systemically interconnected with the institutional and official functions.
Although elite layers and groups are differentiated by role components, they implement complementary and interdependent programs of action and strive to achieve approved political goals. At the same time, the activities of political elites develop as a result of the interaction of all those playing certain roles. According to the law of systematicity, the integrated whole is qualitatively higher than the sum of its parts. Political elites force every citizen to take into account their requirements, norms and role expectations in order to consolidate into integral independent political entities. Therefore, the characterization of all members of the political elite as “selected”, “selected”, “chosen” is due to the fact that the subjects of this unique selection activity are the elites themselves.
The development of the elite strata is an extremely complex and contradictory process, influenced by numerous factors. Its direction can be either positive, --166--
and negative: in the first case, in the course of a kind of selection, the most energetic, progressive, and talented are selected into the elite; in the second, elite groups are replenished, and sometimes led by figures, although energetic, active, but with negative personal qualities, with deviant or criminal behavior, which leads to the collapse of states, the decline of regions, loss of influence and departure from the political scene as these “ upper" strata and classes.
Weber wrote that politics is “the desire to participate in power or to influence the distribution of power, whether between states, whether within a state between the groups of people that it contains”64. Political elites, as associations of similar groups, have a decisive influence on these distribution processes. Many political scientists and sociologists have emphasized and emphasize, especially now, when power structures have become extremely complex and ramified, that the political elite includes those who are able to play a formalized, normative and legislatively enshrined social role in the political system. It is the degree of mastery of this role that determines the behavior of each person, the decisions he makes, and his support among citizens. The main thing in a particular representative of the political elite is not only and not so much a set of certain qualities, but how these qualities change, improve, and transform depending on the role he performs.
Elite groups are always associated with official status in power structures, with the institutionalization of their functions, with the mandatory vesting of authority. However, much of their status depends not only on their place in the political hierarchy, but also on mass support provided without the threat of force. This ensures the duration and stability of the rule of the elites: those who govern expect that their command orders will be obeyed; those who are governed expect a certain nature and content of decisions, orders, laws and regulations.
64Weber M. Izbr. Ave. S. 646. --167--
In the 21st century, analyzing the course of history, many political scientists and sociologists recognize the inconsistency of both aristocratic elitist views, which defend the postulate of a universal predisposition - by blood and origin - of all nobles and nobles to effective leadership, as well as the utopianism of populist ideas about the possibility of teaching “every cook” to govern the state and prepare her for the highest political elite.
In the history of mankind it is almost impossible to find a society in which the elites were absolutely closed. Social structures have never existed and will never be created in which all political elite positions will become publicly available. Most theorists and ideologists of elitism note that the most important task of society is to improve the channels of social movements and constant control over them so that they contribute to the renewal of the composition of the upper strata and their replenishment with elite human potential, and also prevent the accumulation of incapable politicians who have lost the corresponding qualities in elite groups and strata. A timely, justified and natural rise of citizens vertically is necessary, otherwise, with the emergence and concentration of progressive, elite elements in the lower strata, protests are possible.
Much in the predominance of a positive or negative trend in the development of elite groups depends on the historical situation, social environment. However, theorists of elitism, opposing the ideas of social determinism, as well as criticizing the idea of politics as a superstructure over a certain foundation of society, constantly and traditionally highlight the importance of elites as active, free subjects of political and social relations, personally responsible for all directions of their development: progressive and regressive, revolutionary and dead-end.
In society, there is an economic elite (large owners, bankers, etc.), a political elite (persons holding senior positions in civil and military authorities), a bureaucratic elite, and a spiritual elite (leading representatives of science, culture, religion, education, the media ). The political elite among them is distinguished by the fact that, concentrating political power in its hands, it is public, governs society, and makes strategically important decisions.
What is the structure of the modern political elite? Modern Indian political scientist P. Sharan identifies the following groups within the political elite.
Top Elite- these are people who occupy strategic political positions: in the government, parties, trade unions. They make the most important political decisions.
Middle elite is formed, first of all, from the most influential elected persons admitted to government: parliamentarians, deputies, governors, mayors. As a rule, this is 5% of the top legislative, executive and judicial powers in the country.
Administrative elite consists of the highest stratum of civil servants occupying key positions in the administrative apparatus.
The structure and social representation of the political elite is unstable. Changes taking place in society have a great impact on the composition of the elite. In the preparation of the political elite, a huge role belongs to parties, which nominate from among themselves political leaders capable of defending the interests of certain social groups.
How the political elite is recruited. In the formation of the elite, three principles of selection are usually distinguished: by blood (aristocracy of birth or rank); according to the principle of ownership (property or financial aristocracy); according to the success achieved (aristocracy of mind and talent).
Elites can be open or closed, which refers, first of all, to the process of influx into the elite ranks of people from other social strata. The political elite is called open if access to its circle is open to representatives of various strata. This trend is typical for democratic states. Thanks to the open elite, the most capable people rise to the top, with high professional qualities. This helps strengthen political power in society.
A closed elite is when it reproduces itself on the basis of a very narrow social base. This trend is typical for states with totalitarian and authoritarian regimes. Stagnation leads to an increase in crisis processes in society, as a result of which the closed elite loses the ability to effectively manage society.
However, there is no direct relationship between the type of political regime and the degree of openness of the political elite. In Soviet times in the 1930s, the state was totalitarian, but the process of recruiting the elite was open - worker-peasant origin was especially valued among Soviet commissars. On the contrary, a study of elite formation in the United States showed that, despite the democratic regime, the system of recruiting the political elite is slightly open to those who have low social status.
What are the ways to move to the top? political career. World practice distinguishes between two systems for selecting elites: guild system and entrepreneurial system. When selecting candidates under the guild system, the emphasis is on their political preferences, strict adherence to the rules and regulations of the class and organization. As a result, the guild system is characterized by high predictability of political changes, continuity of political courses, low probability political conflicts. Careful selection of candidates is ensured big amount formal requirements (experience, age, characteristics, party affiliation, etc.), selection is carried out closed and by a narrow circle of the selectorate. The adherence of candidates to the same political values ensures high group cohesion among the elite.
The entrepreneurial selection system is based on different principles. She focuses on qualities of candidates such as his creative possibilities, the ability to persuade, to please people. Such a system opens access to power (at least formally) to various social groups of society, since it puts forward a limited number of demands. For example, to be nominated for the post of President of Kazakhstan, it is enough that the candidate is at least 40 years old, has lived in the country for at least 15 years, has owned state language. The selection process is characterized by intense competition among candidates. Such a system is democratic and involves an influx of the most gifted people into the elite. The downside of this system is: frequent changes of course due to changes in the ruling elite, poor predictability of political decisions, frequent conflicts within the elite, etc.
In practice, no system is used in pure form. As a rule, both systems are used more often in a certain combination.
Along with the selection system, some other factors also influence the social performance of elites.
The selection of the elite is significantly influenced by the quality of education. Thus, according to the results of a representative study of the elites of Sweden, Italy, Germany, England, Holland, the USA and France, conducted in 1989, 80% of members of parliament and 96% of government officials have a university education. In a number of countries, access to the elite is conditional on having diplomas from certain universities. In France, a special place among all educational and advanced training institutions, and even among Les Grandes Ecoles, is occupied by the National School of Administration under the Prime Minister of France - ENA. ENA ranks first not so much in terms of education level, but in terms of the prospects for career growth and life success it offers. The vast majority of French ENA graduates become leading government politicians, heads of French institutions, parliamentarians, senior officials, diplomats and members of international organizations, judges of the highest courts, lawyers of the State Council, administrative and financial controllers of the highest rank, directors and top managers of the largest state and international firms and banking, media and communications. The ENA gave France two presidents, seven prime ministers, big number ministers, prefects, senators and deputies of the National Assembly. In Great Britain, the so-called public schools - Eton, Winchester, Harrow - serve as the main centers for training the political elite. It is known that 18 prime ministers emerged from the walls of Eton alone.
In countries Latin America Quite often, the beginning of a successful political career is military service. In Brazil, Peru, and Argentina, it is the military that forms the basis of the political elite of society. Work in the public administration system is of great importance for a political career in Germany, Japan, Russia, and Kazakhstan. In many Islamic countries, the church is an important institution influencing the career development of a political leader. The whole world knows the name of the former religious leader of Iran, Ayatollah Khomeini.
In the history and modern political life of Kazakhstan dominant position mostly occupied by political and administrative elites. The following dominant stereotypes and value orientations of the elite can be identified: statism and paternalism; authoritarianism and “decree-guarantee law”; patriotism and tolerance towards other cultures; statehood and dedication in defending national interests and values, etc.
Political elite - the most active part of the ruling political class, playing a leading role in governing society, possessing the greatest power and relying on institutions of violence. = The highest and legitimate stratum (layer) for managing society and maintaining its stability. Relies on institutions of violence (army, police, bureaucracy). Has the right to physically coerce citizens to implement its acts and laws.
Typology of elites:
By types of activities(economic, political, military);
By personal qualities(charismatic, oligarchic, professional, aristocratic);
By attitude towards the authorities(dominant, potential, opposition);
By positions in the hierarchy management (ruling, top, middle, marginal);
By type of government(despotic, totalitarian, democratic, liberal);
By form of ownership(agricultural, industrial, financial, intellectual);
By species recruitment(selection): blood elite (by birth), open (from all segments of the population), closed (only from their “guild”, their class).
Elite theories– Michels, Mosca, Pareto, Berdyaev. Explained the reasons for the emergence of the ruling elite due to:
1) inequalities of abilities, qualities people and their life positions;
2) inevitability dividing society into a leading minority and a led majority;
3) prestige and significance managerial work (status, position in society);
4) privileges received from management: distribution of resources, funds, etc. benefits.
12. The essence and nature of political leadership .
Political leadership – interaction between the leader and his followers, based on the support of the leader's decisions and actions by his supporters and their willingness to follow him. = The permanent and legitimate influence of an individual in power on a group, organization and society as a whole.
Depends on personal qualities, on the situation (in peacetime they choose soft ones, in wartime - strong-willed, tough ones), on the ability to express and defend the interests of their group or class, on the quality and quantity of adherents and opponents.
13. Functions and typology of political leadership .
Max Weber :
1. Traditional Leadership: The right to leadership is acquired through birth. The basis is tradition.
2. Rational-legal leadership: relies on a generally accepted legal order through elections. The basis is the law.
3. Charismatic leadership: leadership depends on the personality of the leader, his charm, drive, passion. Relies on the emotional commitment of followers. The basis is the personal qualities of the leader. Short-lived, develops into either 1 or 2.
Tucker :
1 – conservatives: reliance on the strict preservation of the existing system;
2 – reformers: for the transformation of the system through reforms;
3 – revolutionaries: for the global transformation of the system through a revolution.
Hermann :
1. Standard Bearer: your vision of the future and knowledge of the means to achieve it.
2. Servant: recognition through the expression of the interests of its adherents.
3. Merchant: “sells” his ideas and plans in exchange for voter support.
4. Firefighter: speed, adequacy and effectiveness of actions in extreme conditions.
P. S. Is there some moreoppositional leadership – opposition to official power.
Functions political leadership: analytical(analysis of the situation, development of an action plan), organizational(mobilization of masses, team building, action planning, control), integrative(unification and coordination of interests based on general ideas), innovative(introduction of new ideas, updates), communicative (connection between the authorities and different social groups), function guarantor of justice, law and order.
14. Political system: concept, structure, functions .
Politic system – a set of state and public institutions that exercise political power in society + the relationships that have developed between them regarding power. = Political institutions, structures, processes, forms of behavior, political culture.
Structure, functions :
- State– manages the company;
- Political parties– represent the interests of certain classes;
- Public associations, unions– professional, by social status, age, etc.
- Socio-political movements– interests of wider sections of the population than parties; temporary association for a common idea.
- pressure groups(lobbying groups) - banking, industrial - to strengthen their position and influence.
- church– especially in the Muslim world. Forms a worldview.
- MASS MEDIA - press, radio, TV, Internet - propaganda of a certain lifestyle and values. They zombie the most.
15. Types of political systems, their characteristics .
In political science, there are various approaches to determining the types of political systems. Here are some of them:
- Marxist-Leninist concept - based on the principle of class approach and forms of ownership.
Elite structure. Research by sociologists and political scientists has shown that elites can differ in terms of their structure. Based on functional characteristics, several intra-elite groups are distinguished within the elite: political, economic, cultural and information elite. The composition of each of them is determined by its functions. So, political elite constitute groups and political leaders who carry out power decisions. Based on the scope of power, the following types of political elite are distinguished: higher, secondary and administrative. The highest political elite includes leaders who occupy strategic positions in the decision-making system major decisions. This type of elite includes the president and his entourage, government leaders, members of the highest judicial authorities, leaders of the most influential parties, the speaker of parliament and the heads of the largest parliamentary factions. The middle elite includes those who hold positions in elected authorities: deputies, representatives of regional elites (governors, mayors), leaders political parties and movements. The administrative elite includes members of the government, as well as the highest level of civil servants. Economic elite consists of the richest members of society - large owners, bankers, heads of financial and industrial groups, heads of leading corporations, owners of large capital. The interests of the economic elite directly or indirectly influence the nature of decisions made by the political elite. Cultural and information elite consists of outstanding figures of science and culture, prominent journalists who influence the formation of public opinion, and the highest hierarchs of the church. The main function of this elite group is the formation of public opinion favorable to the elite, ideological justification for the fact of the dominance of this elite, as well as the decisions it makes.
According to the intensity of circulation and methods of recruitment stand out open and closed elites. The open elite is characterized by a fairly dynamic circulation; it is characterized by openness, expressed in formally equal opportunities for members of non-elite groups to gain access to it. There is a relatively a small amount of formal restrictions on access to the elite. Selection for the elite is carried out on the basis of intense competition, in which great importance have personal qualities: energy, the ability to find and organize support for themselves, the ability to mobilize available resources. The open elite is replenished with new leaders who are bearers of new ideas and values. Therefore, it demonstrates a capacity for social innovation and reform. Her positive features are sensitivity to social moods and needs, flexibility and ample opportunities to quickly adapt to changing social conditions and respond to social changes. However, it has disadvantages: a tendency to populist and ill-considered decisions, an average or low degree of continuity in policy-making. Unlike the open elite, the closed elite is characterized by slow circulation, expressed in unequal opportunities for representatives of non-elite groups to gain access to it. First of all, formal indicators influence selection into the elite: age, length of service, party affiliation, affiliation with a particular corporation. The most important condition influencing selection into the elite is personal devotion to leadership and willingness to unquestioningly carry out orders. Ultimately, the elite strives for self-reproduction, which; in turn, dooms it to degeneration and degradation. Its positive features are: a high degree of continuity in policy development, balanced decisions, and a low probability of internal conflicts. The disadvantages of this type of elite include inertia, poor ability to respond to ongoing social changes, and a tendency toward casteism.
J. Higley and J. Pakulski distinguish four types of elites according to two criteria:
Differentiation of elites, which manifests itself in the functional division of segments of the elite, each of which has its own boundaries, organizations, formal and informal rules of behavior and power hierarchy;
The unity of the elite, which is manifested in the degree of its integration.
Consensus Elite characterized by agreement among elite groups regarding basic values, rules of political competition and procedures for the exercise of power, as well as the goals and methods of policies. For ideological elite characterized by unification on the basis of a single (and only) ideology, intolerance to any dissent. Fragmented Elite characterized by a low degree of intra-elite integration and the segmentary nature of intra-elite relations. To the divided elite There is an intense struggle between intra-elite groups for the acquisition of strategic positions, for areas of control and distribution of resources. J. Higley and J. Pakulski identify four models of elite circulation.
Classic circulation - this is the type of circulation that Mosca and Pareto associated with stable and efficient elite rule. The level of circulation is extensive and socially deep (covers many layers of the elite - A. X.). This type is characterized by the evolutionary nature of elite renewal. It leads to the emergence and existence of a consensus elite. The gradual and peaceful nature of elite renewal is based on negotiations and cooperation between ascending and descending groups. Classical circulation, in short, is a process of gradual changes in the elite.
Replacement circulation , like classical circulation, is characterized by breadth and depth, but is more dynamic and carried out in a forced manner. A typical case is the overthrow of the previous elite and the formation of a new one as a result of a revolution. In this case, the circulation is determined by the struggle between the elite of the old regime and the counter-elite, which seizes power and removes from it all those who previously dominated. This type of circulation gives rise to an ideological elite and a totalitarian regime.
Reproductive circulation - limited and superficial and gradual and evolutionary. An elite group abandons old doctrinal positions or significantly changes them in order to remain in power. Thanks to these maneuvers, most members of the elite manage to maintain power and status. Although there are no major changes, the social profile of the elite is changing. Some fragmentation of the elite is possible. This type of elite circulation is typical for some former republics of the USSR - now members of the CIS - Belarus, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, etc. Reproductive circulation is most often formed when the disintegration of the ideological elite occurs and its members form the “party of power”, occupying key positions in the economy and other areas separate from the state public life. Quasi-replacement circulation characterized by the least limited changes in the elite, but their sudden and forced nature. There is a division of elites, which may result in palace coups, in which political cliques change places. Their actions, despite the diversity of leadership styles, do not lead to fundamental changes in the nature of politics. So the division of the elite does not lead to serious changes.
Political elite- the most active part of the ruling political class, playing a leading role in governing society, possessing the greatest power and relying on institutions of violence.= The highest and legitimate stratum (layer) for managing society and maintaining its stability. Relies on institutions of violence (army, police, bureaucracy). Has the right to physically coerce citizens to implement its acts and laws.
Typology of elites:
By types of activities(economic, political, military);
By personal qualities (charismatic, oligarchic, professional, aristocratic);
By attitude towards the authorities(dominant, potential, opposition);
By positions in the hierarchy management (ruling, top, middle, marginal);
By type of government(despotic, totalitarian, democratic, liberal);
By form of ownership(agricultural, industrial, financial, intellectual);
By types of recruitment(selection): blood elite (by birth), open (from all segments of the population), closed (only from their “guild”, their class).
Elite theories– Michels, Mosca, Pareto, Berdyaev. Explained the reasons for the emergence of the ruling elite due to:
1) inequalities of abilities, qualities people and their life positions;
2) inevitability dividing society into a leading minority and a led majority;
3) prestige and significance managerial work (status, position in society);
4) privileges received from management: distribution of resources, funds, etc. benefits.
12. The essence and nature of political leadership .
Political leadership– interaction between the leader and his followers, based on the support of the leader's decisions and actions by his supporters and their willingness to follow him. = The permanent and legitimate influence of an individual in power on a group, organization and society as a whole.
Depends on personal qualities, on the situation (in peacetime they choose soft ones, in wartime - strong-willed, tough ones), on the ability to express and defend the interests of their group or class, on the quality and quantity of adherents and opponents.
13. Functions and typology of political leadership .
Max Weber :
1. Traditional Leadership: The right to leadership is acquired through birth. The basis is tradition.
2. Rational-legal leadership: relies on a generally accepted legal order through elections. The basis is the law.
3. Charismatic leadership: leadership depends on the personality of the leader, his charm, drive, passion. Relies on the emotional commitment of followers. The basis is the personal qualities of the leader. Short-lived, develops into either 1 or 2.
Tucker :
1 – conservatives: reliance on the strict preservation of the existing system;
2 – reformers: for the transformation of the system through reforms;
3 – revolutionaries: for the global transformation of the system through a revolution.
Hermann :
1. Standard Bearer: your vision of the future and knowledge of the means to achieve it.
2. Servant: recognition through the expression of the interests of its adherents.
3. Merchant: “sells” his ideas and plans in exchange for voter support.
4. Firefighter: speed, adequacy and effectiveness of actions in extreme conditions.
P.S. Is there some more oppositional leadership – opposition to official power.
Functions political leadership: analytical(analysis of the situation, development of an action plan), organizational(mobilization of masses, team building, action planning, control), integrative(unification and coordination of interests based on common ideas), innovative(introduction of new ideas, updates), communicative (connection between the authorities and different social groups), function guarantor of justice, law and order.
14. Political system: concept, structure, functions .
Politic system– a set of state and public institutions that exercise political power in society + the relationships that have developed between them regarding power. = Political institutions, structures, processes, forms of behavior, political culture.
Structure, functions:
- State– manages the company;
- Political parties– represent the interests of certain classes;
- Public associations, unions– professional, by social status, age, etc.
- Socio-political movement– interests of wider sections of the population than parties; temporary association for a common idea.
- pressure groups(lobbying groups) - banking, industrial - to strengthen their position and influence.
- church– especially in the Muslim world. Forms a worldview.
- MASS MEDIA - press, radio, TV, Internet - propaganda of a certain lifestyle and values. They zombie the most.
15. Types of political systems, their characteristics .
In political science, there are various approaches to determining the types of political systems. Here are some of them:
- Marxist-Leninist concept - based on the principle of class approach and forms of ownership:
1. Slaveholding (ancient and Asian);
2. Feudal;
3. Bourgeois;
Socialist.
5. Mixed type– during transitions from one formation to another and historically transitional type ( state of the dictatorship of the proletariat), which exists temporarily and involves the complete destruction of the old us and the creation of a new type of state. - Robert Dahl's classification – according to the degree of democratization of power: 1. Democratic;2. Authoritarian;3. Totalitarian. - Gabriel Almond classification – by type of political culture: 1. Anglo-American(democratic stable) ;2. European-continental(democratic unstable) ;3. Pre-industrial(developing countries, undemocratic, unstable) ;4. Totalitarian(homogeneous political culture, high level integration that is achieved through violence).
16. Political regime. Totalitarianism and its essence and varieties .
Political regime– a system of methods used by the state to exercise its powers and functions + the level of provision by the authorities of the rights and freedoms of its citizens.
Totalitarian regime : complete (total) state control over all spheres of social life, their strict regulation and predominantly repressive methods of management and coercion. Signs:
- Strict regulation
- Total control of the authorities
- Repressive
- One-party
- Suppression of dissent
Varieties: fascist dictatorship, dictatorship of the proletariat, ...
Authoritarian regime
- Unlimited power in hand one faces.
- Fictitious multi-party system.
- Absence real opposition.
Varieties : absolute monarchy, dictatorship, military dictatorship.
18. Democracy: concept, principles .
Democratic regime
1. Source of power – people.
2. Electivity and regular turnover authorities.
3. Competitive multi-party system.
4. Legal political opposition.
5. Real freedom of speech.
6. The desire to create a civil society and the rule of law.
19. Political regimes and their comparative analysis .
1. Democratic regime : liberal management methods, respect for human rights and freedoms, political pluralism. Methods of influence are limited by law and are controlled by society. Signs:
Source of power - people.
- Electivity and regular turnover authorities.
Competitive multi-party system.
- Legal political opposition.
Real freedom of speech.
The desire to create a civil society and a rule of law state.
2. Authoritarian regime : concentration of power in one hand, methods of management through coercion and repression, blatant restriction of individual rights and freedoms. Leaders are an absolute monarch, a dictator, a leader with unlimited authority.
- Unlimited power in hand one faces.
- Fictitious multi-party system.
- Absence real opposition.
3. Totalitarian regime : An extreme form of authoritarianism. Complete (total) state control over all spheres of social life, their strict regulation and predominantly repressive methods of management and coercion. Signs:
- Strict regulation all aspects of society, mainly on the basis of some ideology. Everything that is not permitted is prohibited.
- Total control of the authorities over all spheres of society’s life and the activities of its members. Even over personal life (what they think and talk about).
- Repressive justice system: maximum penalties, conviction, criminal penalties (not fines, but prison).
- One-party system, absence and suppression of political competition.
- Suppression of dissent. Possible pockets of resistance to the regime are nipped in the bud; citizens are prohibited from publicly discussing and evaluating the ruling regime; freedom of the press, speech and defending one's opinion is excluded.
4. Military dictatorial regime : seizure and retention of power by the military under the pretext of establishing order + military-police methods of management, restriction of individual rights and freedoms. Signs:
Concentration of power in the hands military.
- Significant limitation democratic rights and freedoms.
free violation power constitutionally declared rights and freedoms under the pretext of establishing and maintaining order in the country.
20. The role of elections and the political life of society. Suffrage: principles and types. Absenteeism .
Elections– a method of forming a system of representative power, carried out through voting.
Must be free, periodic, mandatory, open, public, alternative ( at least 2 candidates), fair (objective and protected from falsification).
Role elections:
1. Representation public interests (different social groups and strata).
2. Legitimation authorities: the authorities elected by the people are legitimate.
3. Social barometer political life: the degree of influence of different political forces, the attitude of citizens towards the political regime, the ruling elite and the opposition.
4. Recruitment political elite.
5. Institutionalization participation citizens in the political life of the country.
6. Political socialization citizens: adaptation to a given political system.
Suffrage– 1) the right of citizens to participate in the formation of elected institutions of government; 2) A set of legal norms that ensure and regulate the formation of elected institutions of government.
Kinds voting rights:
2) Passive– right to be elected.
Principles voting rights:
1. Principle universality– all adults and mentally healthy citizens participate.
2. Principle equality– every citizen participates in elections on an equal basis with others.
3. Age qualification – the right to participate in elections from a certain age.
4. Census citizenship– voting rights are granted only to citizens.
6. Principle direct voting rights - voting directly, in person. Indirect suffrage - voting through an elected body of representatives (electing the President of the United States).
7. Census settled life– a condition of residence in a given territory for at least a certain period of time (in Japan – 3 months).
8. Census gender– recognition of voting rights only for men (some Muslim countries).
9. Property qualification - the right to participate in elections only if you have property of a certain size or pay taxes.
Absenteeism– evasion of voting. The reasons are apoliticality, lack of worthy candidates, lack of faith in the possibility of personal influence on the situation in the country, + “everyday” absenteeism – bad weather, illness, absence from the city.
21. Electoral systems and their types .
Electoral system(electoral formula) – a method for determining election results.
Three main types:
1. Majoritarian (majority vote principle): the candidate with the most votes wins. Varieties: relative majority votes (the candidate must get more votes than any of his opponents) and absolute majority votes (the candidate must get 50% of the votes + 1 vote). Australia, Brazil, France. Russia – based on a majoritarian system of absolute majority.
2. Proportional (voting for lists of candidates nominated by parties): the distribution of mandates between parties is carried out in proportion to the number of votes cast. Valid protective barrier (the minimum number of votes that a party must collect to participate in the distribution of mandates is determined). Austria, Denmark, Belgium, Latvia, Switzerland, the Netherlands.
3. Mixed (combines the advantages of both systems and mitigates their disadvantages): either with dominance of some type, or balanced. Armenia, Germany, Lithuania, Mexico, Japan.
22. Theories of the origin of the state. The essence of the state, its main features and functions .
State– main institute political system society. Governs society, protects its political and social structure on the basis of law using a special mechanism (apparatus).
Signs:
Availability systems of organs and institutions(representative, executive, judicial), performing the functions of power;
Availability rights, a system of norms that are binding on all members of society;
Availability of a certain territories, subject to the power and jurisdiction (laws) of that state;
Exceptional the right to collect taxes and fees from the population.
Functions :
1. External:
-protection society from external enemies
-development of a relationship with other states;
2. Internal:
- political(exercise of political power),
- legal(development and implementation of laws, protection of the rights and interests of citizens),
- economic(tax policy, loans, investments, sanctions) ,
-organizational(decision making, coordination, control),
- social(caring for citizens) ,
-cultural and educational(creating conditions to satisfy the cultural and educational needs of people).
Theories of the origin of the state :
1. Patriarchal theory (Ancient Greece): the state is the continuation of the paternal guardianship power in the family, exercised for the common benefit.
2. Theological concept: the state is a sacred and inviolable institution, given by God to organize people’s lives . Thomas Aquinas, Augustine Aurelius.
3. Social contract theory. Locke, Hobbes, Rousseau: the state is the result of a kind of agreement between individuals in order to ensure a legal order that guarantees the use of natural rights and property.
4. The theory of "violence" or "capture". Gumplowicz, Kautsky: a state is the result of an act of violence, the conquest of one people by another, stronger and more organized.
5. Socio-economic (Marxist) concept: the state is the result of the social division of labor and the emergence of classes that are in antagonism to maintain the dominance of some classes over others. Marx, Engels
6. Racist concept: state - product natural selection among people according to their biological or personal qualities to establish the dominance of “higher” people over “lower” people. Nietzsche, Chamberlain.
23. Forms of government and their characteristics .
1. Monarchy : The formal source of power is the monarch. Power is inherited. Sustainable form of government.
- Absolute- power is completely in the hands of the monarch. Few countries. Saudi Arabia.
- Constitutional- the limited or nominal power of the monarch as a symbol of the nation. Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Great Britain, Denmark, etc..
2. Republic : the formal source of power is the will of the popular majority. We are replacing the head of state.
- Presidential– the country is led by one person elected by the population.
- Parliamentary– the country is governed by a collective elected body.
- Mixed (semi-presidential)– the country is led by both the president and the parliament at the same time.
- Theocratic- The country is led by the clergy. Vatican.
24. State-territorial structure .
1. Unitary state- a single state entity, divided into administrative-territorial units that have the same legal status and do not have independence. France, Poland, Belarus.
2. Federation- a union state, which includes constituent units (republics, lands, states, cantons, etc.), which have their own rights comparable to the rights of the center. The federation has 2 levels of government: federal and local, + a bicameral parliament, representing the interests of both the constituent entities of the federation and the entire federation as a whole. USA, Russian Federation, USSR.
3. Confederation– a state legal association (union) of legally independent states. The goal is to pursue a unified policy, solve joint defense, economic and other problems. The most unstable association. United Arab Republic - Union of Syria and Egypt, Senegambia – Senegal and Gambia.
25. Constitutional state: essence, principles, ways of formation. Social state. Main directions, goals, methods social policy social state .
Constitutional state– a state with stable legislation, where law takes precedence over power.
Principles:
1. Inviolability of the Constitution, which even the state itself has no right to violate; stable legal system; primacy constitution and laws over other acts, orders and instructions.
2. Equality all citizens before the law.
3. Responsibility of the state to the citizen and the citizen to the state: full guarantee of rights and freedoms, protection from arbitrariness of power + protection by the authorities of society from attacks on it by antisocial elements.
4. Availability of effective systems law enforcement subject only to the law.
5. Developed legal consciousness citizens and officials, respect for the law.
Welfare state– a state oriented towards social justice(the right to work and its decent remuneration, fair distribution of material benefits) and solution social problems (growth of the material well-being of citizens, protection of their health, spiritual development, education).
Methods legitimate, democratic, based on social justice.
26. Civil society: concept and characteristic features .
Civil society– in which the transformation of “subjects” of the state into free citizens capable of doing independent choice (political, ideological, etc.)
Signs:
Significant limitation of government intervention in economic activity citizens;
Ensuring a wide range of their economic, political, cultural rights and freedoms.
27. Head of state and his role in the structure of supreme bodies of state power .
Head of State- a person or body considered the supreme representative of the state. Connects the legislative, executive and judicial powers.
In the United States, the president is the head of the executive branch. In Germany, the president has only representative functions. In other countries, he is also the head of the highest judicial and/or legislative branch and/or the supreme commander in chief armed forces countries.
In republics, the head of state is the President or Parliament, in monarchies - the king or queen, in Japan - the emperor.
President of the Russian Federation calls elections for State Duma and dissolves it, exercises the right of legislative initiative, can return a bill approved by parliament, signs and promulgates laws. But: he cannot make laws, and those issued by him regulations must not contradict the Constitution and fundamental laws.
28. Government: order of formation, powers and functions .
Government– the highest collegial body of executive power that manages public administration. RB – Council of Ministers.
Consists of members of the government (ministers) and is headed by the head of state or prime minister.
Functions:
Enforces laws passed by the highest legislative body,
Provides operational management state affairs,
Ensures order in society and protection of citizens' rights.
Formed in two main ways:
1. Parliamentary(in countries with a parliamentary form of government: parliamentary republic, monarchy, mixed republics.). Formed by a party or coalition of parties that has a majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.
2. Extra-parliamentary(in presidential republics, some forms of monarchies and mixed republics). The government is formed by the president.
Authority:
Develops federal budget and ensures its implementation;
Provides a unified financial, credit and monetary policy;
Ensures the implementation of a unified state policies in the field of culture, science, education, healthcare, social security, ecology;
Manages the federal property;
Implements measures to ensure the country's defense and state security, implementation foreign policy states;
Implements measures to ensure the rule of law, rights and freedoms of citizens, protection of property and public order, fight against crime;
29. Political parties: concept and origin. Types and functions of political parties .
Political Party- an organized group of like-minded people, representing the interests of a certain part of the people and setting the goal of their implementation by conquering state power or participating in its implementation.
Appeared in ancient Greece (clientele – groups in support of a figure). In the modern sense - since the 19th century. Target - conquest and exercise of political power. There is a detailed political program And charter. Eat organizational structure in the center and locally. Actively participate in election campaigns.
Types:
By social attribute (what social layers, strata it represents: bourgeois, peasant, workers etc.);
By ideological sign ( conservative, liberal, socialist, communist, nationalist, clerical(religious), etc.);
By organizational sign ( personnel– no fixed membership, freedom within the party, candidates for power are selected; massive– rigid fixed membership, contributions, hierarchy, conduct ideological work);
By orientation , methods of achieving goals ( left– socialist and communist orientation, radical revolutionary methods; rights– conservative and bourgeois values, support for traditions, against reforms and revolutions; centrist– for moderate, unsharp changes and an evolutionary path of development, methods – reforms and compromises).
By in relation to the existing regime (ruling– those who won the elections and formed the government and opposition- deprived of the opportunity to influence the formation of the government, who are in opposition to the authorities and criticize them).
Functions:
Expression of the interests of certain strata and an attempt to realize these interests;
Participation in government formation;
Development of a course for the socio-political development of the country;
Exercising or attempting to influence political power.
30. Party systems and their characteristics. The transition from one-party system to multi-party system in Russia and Belarus .
Party system– the totality of political parties existing in society and their relationship.
1. Mono-party system - power in society is controlled by one party ( CPSU). Characteristic of a totalitarian society. Leads to stagnation in all spheres of life and bureaucratization.
2. Bipartisan system - only two leading parties (even with the formal presence of others) constitute political competition. In countries with a stable social and cultural environment and traditional values. Great Britain - Labor and Conservatives, USA - Republicans and Democrats. They successively replace each other in power, a “swing”. Effective development of the country + expression of interests of different layers.
3. Multi-party the system is a real struggle for power of more than two parties. Fragmentation of political forces. The result is the unification of parties with similar goals and views, the creation cross-party coalition to win a majority in parliament and form a cabinet of ministers.
The USSR had a monoparty system: there was only one, communist party. With the dissolution of the USSR and the formation of republics (1991) - the emergence of a multi-party system. There are about 100 parties in the Russian Federation. BUT: the creation of parties often comes not “from below”, but “from above”: the leader himself looks for supporters, finances them and then creates a party. In the Republic of Belarus it’s the same, only there are fewer parties.
