It is not for nothing that they speak Russian - the richest and most beautiful, but at the same time the most difficult in the world. No language in the world has such a huge number of rules and exceptions to them, and none of them can boast of such a wide variety of not only words, but also their forms, which can be formed if, for example, the noun is declined by case, or conjugate verbs. Endings are especially difficult, since they connect all the words in a sentence into a single whole. Also, the definition of a zero termination can cause problems. To understand in more detail what is zero ending let's try in this article.
What is the ending?
The ending is one of the morphemes that indicates the connection of this word with other words in one phrase or in a sentence. The ending is most often at the end of a sentence, but there are some exceptions. We will touch on them a little later. Endings, unlike other morphemes, do not affect the meaning of the word, since they are not word-forming. It is thanks to him that you can determine the gender, case, number and face of a given word. For example, in the word "mainland" the ending -а indicates that given word v singular, genitive and masculine, and in the word "thinks" the ending -t says that this design third person singular.
Cases when the ending is not at the very end of a word
When determining the ending, some people may have difficulties, because they are sure that it must necessarily be at the end of a word. Cases in which the ending can be in the middle of a word:
If there is a postfix in a word, the ending will be located in front of it. For example: clean up, SOMETHING, SOMETHING, GO.
In complex cardinal numbers, the ending is present both in the middle of the word and at the end, that is, the ending will be after each stem. For example: fiftyØ, four hundred. However, you should not confuse ordinal numbers or adjectives that are derived from them. For example: fiftieth, four hundredth, thirty-five thousandth, eight-story, three-year-old, first-class, heptagonal.
Grammatical meanings of endings
Endings are a very significant morpheme as they completely affect lexical meaning words and the whole sentence as a whole. Indeed, sometimes the easiest way to identify foreigners among a crowd of people is due to the fact that correct use endings in words are given to them with great difficulty.
All endings in words can denote the following grammatical meanings:
Numbers, gender and case in such parts of speech as, for example, (for example: canvas - the ending -o indicates that the word is in the nominative case, it is also in the singular and neuter); adjective (for example: clean canvas - the ending -e indicates the singular, neuter and nominative); participle (for example: washed linen - the ending -e also says that we have a word in the singular, in the nominative and neuter); some pronouns (for example: your canvas - the ending -ё also indicates a word in the singular, nominative and neuter) and some numerals (for example: one canvas - the ending -o indicates a word in the singular neuter and in the nominative) ;
Only the case of some pronouns (for example: there is nothing - the ending -th speaks of the genitive case) and part of the numerals (no seven - the ending -and says that the given word is in the genitive case);
Only persons and numbers of verbs in the future and present tense (for example: I write - the verb of the first person singular);
Only numbers and gender for verbs in the past tense (for example: said - a verb female and singular).
What is zero ending?
Also, some difficulties may arise when determining the end, if it is zero. In order to easily identify it in a word, you need to figure out what the zero ending is. Words with similar endings are often confused with words with no endings at all.
The zero ending of a word is an ending that is not expressed in letters or sounds. Despite the fact that this type of ending is not materially expressed in any way, when analyzing the morphological structure of a word, it is imperative to designate it as an empty square.
Types of words with zero endings
The following types of words have a zero ending in Russian:
First-person nouns in genitive and plural. For example: Birds Ø, Seals Ø, Cows Ø, Pets Ø.
Qualitative adjectives, as well as participles in the short form of the singular masculine, for example: resourceful Ø, individual Ø, inclined Ø, magnificent Ø, delayed Ø, armed Ø.
Zero ending of masculine nouns of the second type, as well as feminine nouns in the third declension. For example: cockroach Ø, parkcan Ø, felt Ø, oven Ø, speech Ø, night Ø.
Possessive adjectives in the form For example: father Ø, mother Ø, cow Ø, fox Ø, Serezhin Ø.
Imperative singular verbs. For example: learn, look, help, translate, ask.
Subjunctive and indicative verbs in masculine past tense and singular. For example: talking Ø - talking Ø would, listening Ø - listening Ø, voting Ø - voting Ø, asking Ø - asking Ø.
Often when, people confuse zero-ending words with words that have no endings at all. To understand all the differences, consider which words have no ending at all.
Words that have no ending at all
The endings do not have such immutable words and word groups:
Non-declining nouns, for example: taxi, coffee, auto, coat;
Non-declining adjectives, for example: bordeaux, khaki, marengo, net, baroque, esperanto, pleated;
Possessive pronouns that indicate belonging to a third person, for example: them, her, him;
All adverbs, since an adverb is an unchanging part of speech and, by definition, no longer has an ending, for example: bad, sad, noticeable, unclear, confused, colored, altered;
Words in comparative form, for example: stronger, smarter, faster, clearer, more beautiful, sadder, more majestic;
All adverbial participles, since this part of speech has taken its unwillingness from the adverb and, like the adverb, cannot have an ending, for example: after reading, washing, understanding, reading, remembering, remembering, disassembling, realizing;
All official parts of speech, for example: so that, if, not, nor, despite the fact that, only, just, just, without, over, under, in;
Interjections, for example: well, yes, yes, priests, wow, ah, slap, bang, those times;
The initial form of the verb if -ty and -ti is perceived as a suffix, for example: eat, accept, feel, understand, respect, experience, act.
Also, you should not indicate on the letter when morphological analysis empty square words that have no endings at all. One rule will help you easily distinguish between words without endings and zero endings. Words without an ending are not mutable, unlike words with a zero ending.
How do you determine the ending?
To determine the ending in any word, it is enough just to inflect it by case. The part of the word that will change is what it is. This is how it is easy to identify the zero ending. Examples of words with such an ending, as well as words that do not have it at all, are presented in the following table:
Singular | Plural | Unchangeable word |
||
Nominative | ||||
Genitive | Whom? What? | |||
Dative | To whom? What? | mirrors | ||
Accusative | Whom? What? | |||
Instrumental | MIRROR | MIRRORS | ||
Prepositional | About whom? About what? | mirrors |
In this example, it is noticeable how easily you can define a given morpheme in words. Since the word "pleated" is not inclined in cases, this is a word without an ending, and in the word "mirrors" only the root and zero ending are presented, because this is a noun in and in the genitive case.
Morphemes with which the null ending interacts
In most of the examples considered, most often there are words in which, among the morphemes, only the root and the zero ending are used. All other morphemes can be combined with this ending. For example, words that have a prefix, root, zero ending: story, transition, departure, exit, swim. There are also words, when morphemic analysis of which you can see the prefix, root, suffix and zero ending. For example: teenager, put, predicted, timed. Very often words are used in which the postfix and the zero ending are present at the same time in Russian. For example: put on makeup, cheered up, sit down, help, imagine, armed.
Morphemic analysis soft sign
Please note that soft sign cannot be the end of a word. This sign does not mean any sound, but only indicates the softness of the consonant that stands in front of it. If a word ends with a soft sign, then it should be considered that it has a zero ending. However, this rule does not apply to immutable words. For example, despite the fact that in the designs just, away, gallop there is a soft sign at the end, do not count these words with a zero ending. They are immutable and have no endings at all.
Features of morphemic word analysis
The ending is the only variable part in the word. All other morphemes together form its basis. In morphemic analysis, it is perhaps easiest to identify the ending in a word, since for this it is enough to only slightly modify the word.
Small difficulties that may arise when correct definition endings - this is to distinguish between words that have a zero ending, as well as words without any ending. Since in this article it was found out what the zero ending is, then this morpheme will not be difficult to analyze when analyzing.
Ending or inflection(lat. flixio- flexion) is a significant part of the word that changes and is formative. The ending serves to connect words in a sentence or phrase and indicates the relationship between words, expressing grammatical meaning.
The grammatical meaning of the endings of different parts of speech.
- Noun . Endings of nouns
river - rivers - rivers
- Adjective . Endings of adjectives indicate their number and case and gender:
beautiful - beautiful - beautiful
- Numeral . Endings of numeral names indicate their case and number:
second - second - second
- Verb . Endings of verbs present and future tense indicate a person and a number:
read - read
The endings of past tense verbs indicate their number, person and gender:
Watched - watched - watched - watched
- Pronoun. Pronoun endings indicate first of all the case, then the number and gender, if any:
he is his
your - your - your - your - Participle . Endings of the participles indicate number, gender and case:
read - read - read
The ending is exclusively formative morpheme which does not give the word any additional meanings.
Endings are materially expressed and zero.
Zero ending- this is the ending of variable words, which is not expressed by sounds during pronunciation and letters in writing, but at the same time conveys a certain grammatical meaning. The zero ending can be indicative of a certain gender or case, for example:
- Nominative and accusative nouns f. 3 declensions in the singular: daughter, oven, mother, rye;
- Nominative case nouns m. 2 declensions singular (for the inanimate - nominative and accusative): friend, chair, reed;
- Genitive case of nouns of different genders plural: countries, soldiers, windows;
- Short forms singular m.r. adjectives and participles: cheerful, read, kind.
- Nominative case of possessive adjectives m. units: brothers, mother's, fox;
- The imperative mood of singular verbs: look, teach, watch;
- Indicative and subjunctive mood of singular verbs m .: I would write - I would write; I looked - I would look; I would have walked.
There are immutable words and word forms that do not have endings and a system of grammatical properties. These words and forms include:
Non-declining nouns, usually of foreign origin: taxi, coat
Possessive pronouns that indicate belonging to a third person: her, him, them
Undeclinable adjectives: bordeaux, khaki
Adverbs
Such words have connections with other words with the help of semantic relations, and the zero ending is not indicated in any way in writing.
I'll start with the second part of the question. There are no first, second and third endings.
Remember: the first, second and third can only be the declension for nouns and the face for verbs.
The null ending is the ending that occurs in a number of mutable words. It differs from other endings in that it is not expressed by any sounds or letters. Consider the words: table, horse... Zero endings in these words are indicated by empty rectangles.
Zero endings in these words are the same indicator of grammatical form, as are the "normal" endings for the same words in other forms, for example: table, horse.
Let's compare:
- Table: zero ending for masculine nouns 2 skl. - this is the indicator of I.p.
- Table a: ending a at inanimate nouns masculine 2 cl. - this is the indicator of R.p.
- Horse: zero ending for feminine nouns 3 skl. - this is the indicator of I.p. or V. p.
- Horse and:ending and feminine nouns have 3 skl. - this is the indicator of R.p., D.p. or P. p.
Attention:
V different forms the stem of one word will be the same. In our examples, these are the basics: table and horse.
It is a grave mistake to think that words table, horse there are no endings. There are no endings only for unchangeable words, for example, for adverbs.
The last vowels in adverbs are suffixes, for example: tomorrow a, in excess of at, left a.
Such as root, suffix, prefix, ending. In Russian, a word may not contain any of these components, except for the root. He is the main carrier of lexical meaning. The rest of the word only clarifies it or express grammatical meaning. A special place in this list is occupied by the ending, which is not necessary for independent words.
Independent words with an ending
Parts of speech of the Russian language are divided into independent and official. The latter include conjunctions, prepositions, particles and interjections. They have no lexical meaning and act only as an addition to the meaning of independent words or for their connection in a phrase, a sentence. Therefore, they are unchanging and have no endings.
They consist of morphemes that can change, expressing belonging to a particular grammatical category. Most often this is the ending.
Almost all full-valued tokens have it. The simplest structure + ending. The root is almost always unchanged. The only exceptions are complex language processes, such as the alternation of sounds. The ending is always changing.
The role of the ending in the word
The ending is the minimum significant part of a word that expresses grammatical meaning and serves to link words together. Full-valued words with the endings can change according to cases, persons, gender, numbers and other grammatical categories. This ensures grammatically correct combinations in phrases and sentences.
The end position in a word is the absolute end. True, in Russian there is a verbal postfix -sya, which is located only at the end of a word. Therefore, the ending may appear in front of him. But this is an exception to the rule.
To highlight the ending, you need to inflect a word in any of the known grammatical categories. For example, changing a number indicates which sound will change: dog - dogs, green - green, she - they... As you can see, in all these words the last letter (sound, morpheme) has changed. This will be the end.
Unchanging full-valued words
In the Russian language there are full-valued words without an ending. Examples of them are known to many: high, taxi, sing... These are full-valued parts of speech, but due to historical circumstances and grammatical features they do not change, which means they do not need endings. Prepositions are grammatically connected for these words.
The expression of gender, number, case in such words is determined by the dependent on them. For instance: green-eyed taxi- the last in the singular. This is evident from the name of the adjective, which is also in this form.
Unfortunately, not everyone knows what non-ending words are in Russian. These are nouns borrowed from other languages: kangaroo, coat, mississippi... Verb infinitives also have no endings: sing, dance, somersault... Adverbs act as full-valued unchanging words: high, hot, fast... The last sound, -o, is often called the ending, although this is an adverbial suffix.
A special form of the verb - the verb participle - also has no ending, since it has absorbed some adverbs: after reading, running away.
Zero endings
Also in Russian there are words without an ending, examples of which actually have an ending: horse, table, door, night... It appears when the case or number changes: horse - horses - horse - horses, table - tables - tables - tables, night - nights, door - doors.
This phenomenon in philology is called the zero ending. In its initial form, it has no physical expression. In the Old Church Slavonic language, such an ending was expressed with the help of the letter ъ, which was not readable, but indicated that this word could change: stol, floor... Over time, this letter was lost, and the ending in such words was no longer physically present.
Therefore, you should be careful when defining this morpheme in full-valued words.
Foreign words
Language interactions are an invariable part of the lexical enrichment process. Depending on the borrowing time of the word and the activity of its use, it can be strongly embedded in the grammatical system or not. Long-term borrowed words are already perceived by many native speakers as native: mast, accountant, telephone.
There are a number of lexemes that have not been able to become a full-fledged part of the language: taxi, subway, kangaroo, coat, coffee.
In these words at the end there is which is perceived by many as a changeable part. In fact, these are words without ending, examples of which we see every day.
Therefore, it is grammatically wrong to say: conversation over coffee, a girl with a coat, come by meter, on two dachshunds... There are no grammatical grounds for such changes in the Russian language yet. Perhaps, over time, they will become full-fledged mutable words, but at the moment of language development, they remain in only one form.
Infinitives
When asked whether there are words without endings in Russian, every philologist will answer in the affirmative. Indeed, there are also quite a few native lexemes that do not change, which means they do not have a number of grammatical categories.
First of all, these are infinitives. The system of verb forms of the Russian language is quite extensive and diverse. The fact is that these forms can exist as independent parts of speech, while possessing the main feature - to indicate an action.
Infinitives are Their main task - to carry the lexical meaning: the action as such, without being tied to the person, time and the way of its implementation ( read, write, run, sing).
In this form, they can appear in sentences both in a verb role and in a noun. If the infinitive has an ending, it becomes either a personal verb or a participle.
Another invariable form of verbs - the verb participle - indicates the process of performing an action and is formed not by the ending, but by the suffix characteristic of this part of speech.
Adverb
The adverb has never played the role of a changing part of speech. These are exactly the words without ending, examples of which show that the connection in phrases is possible without changing the grammatical category.
The role of adverbs in a language is to indicate additional circumstances for performing an action. Although they have a lexical meaning, in fact, they do not have full independence.
For instance, " slowly" or " quickly" talk about the rate of performance of an action. But without a verb it's not clear what in question... The same applies to any other dialect.
Therefore, the richness of grammatical categories, like a verb or a noun, he does not have, and is not required. After all, the main semantic load is expressed by the lexical meaning and the suffix characteristic of the adverb.
Own foreign language names
The majority of foreign proper names also belong to the number of unchanging words, and therefore without endings: Rio de Janeiro, Mississippi, Peugeot... In these words, the prefix, root, ending, suffix are poorly distinguished.
The reason for this is the peculiarity of the system. foreign language... Some moments seem to the uninitiated person quite similar to the Russian language, although in fact we are faced with interlanguage homonymy at the level of specific morphemes.
There is, of course, a whole array of similar words that have long entered our language and have become part of its grammatical system: Sahara - Sahara, Andes - in the Andes, Rhine - on the Rhine... But in such lexemes, the endings are exclusively Russian and have nothing to do with the native languages of these words.
Morphological richness
Philology knows many words without endings, examples of which are used daily in speech by all native speakers. The possibility of the existence of these lexemes is provided by the richness of morphemes and their grammatical meanings.
Not only the ending can change the form of the word, but also the suffixes. In addition, it is more often observed when the ending of one word acts as an indicator of grammatical categories in the second. That is, the main word demands from the addict exactly the form that is characteristic of himself: a gray coat, in a gray coat, with a gray coat, a gray coat.
In the same English language most words have no endings at all, and grammatical categories are expressed using prepositions, which makes it very difficult for native speakers to learn Slavic languages, in which the paradigm of endings is quite developed, indicating one form or another of the word.
In most concepts, a morpheme is viewed as an abstract linguistic unit. The concrete implementation of the morpheme in the text is called morpho or (more often) morph.
Moreover, morphs representing the same morpheme can have a different phonetic appearance depending on their environment within the word form. A set of morphs of one morpheme with the same phonemic composition is called allomorph.
Varying the plan of expression of a morpheme forces some theorists (namely, I.A.Mel'chuk and N.V. Pertsov) to conclude that a morpheme is not a sign, but a class of signs.
Thus, in the works of N. V. Pertsov it is stated that “in everyday life, even among specialists in morphology, the term“ morpheme ”is often used in the meaning morph"And that" sometimes such a lack of distinction in word usage even penetrates into published scientific texts. " NV Pertsov believes that "one should be careful in this regard, although in the overwhelming majority of cases it is clear from the context which entity - a concrete-textual morph or an abstract-linguistic morpheme - is being discussed."
Classification of morphemes
Roots and affixes
Morphemes are classified into two main types - root (roots) and affix (affixes) .
Root- the main significant part of the word. The root is an obligatory part of any word - there are no words without a root (except for rare secondary formations with a lost root such as Russian "you-well-ty (prefix-suffix-ending)"). Root morphemes can form a word either accompanied by affixes or independently.
Affix- an auxiliary part of a word attached to the root and serving for word formation and expression of grammatical meanings. Affixes cannot form a word on their own - only in combination with roots. Affixes, unlike some roots (such as cockatoo), are not single, occurring only in any one word.
Classification of affixes
Affixes are subdivided into types depending on their position in the word. The most common in the languages of the world are two types of affixes - prefixes located in front of the root, and postfixes located after the root. The traditional name for the prefixes of the Russian language is prefixes... The prefix clarifies the meaning of the root, conveys the lexical meaning, and sometimes expresses the grammatical meaning (for example, the form of verbs).
Depending on the expressed meaning, postfixes are subdivided into suffixes(having a derivational, that is, word-formative meaning) and inflections(having a relational meaning, that is, indicating a relationship with other members of the sentence). The suffix conveys both lexical and (more often) grammatical meaning; can translate a word from one part of speech to another (transpose function). Inflections are inflectional affixes. The traditional name for the inflections of the Russian language is endings, since they are mostly located at the very end of words.
There are languages (Turkic, Finno-Ugric), which lack prefixes, and all grammatical relations are expressed by postfixes. Some other languages - for example, the Swahili Bantu family, (Central Africa) - use prefixes and almost no postfixes. In Indo-European languages, to which Russian belongs, both prefixes and postfixes are used, but with a clear preponderance towards the latter.
In addition to prefixes and postfixes, there are other types of affixes:
- interfixes- service morphemes that do not have eigenvalue, but serving to connect the roots in compound words(For example, forehead- O-shaking);
- confics- combinations of a prefix with a postfix, which always act together, surrounding the root (as, for example, in German word ge-lob- t - "vaunted");
- infixes- affixes inserted in the middle of the root; serve to express a new grammatical meaning; are found in many Austronesian languages (for example, in Tagalog: sumulat"to write", cf. sulat"letter");
- transfixes- affixes, which, breaking the root consisting of some consonants, break themselves and serve as a "layer" of vowels among the consonants, determining the grammatical meaning of the word (found in Semitic languages, in particular, in Arabic). V Arabic there are very few vowels, there are only 3 of them, since the language is consonant:
Literature
- A. A. Reformatsky. Introduction to linguistics
- Modern Russian language (under the editorship of V.A. Beloshapkova)
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Synonyms:See what "Ending" is in other dictionaries:
END, end, cf. (book). 1. Completion, the end of something. End of work. He left without waiting for the end of the performance. 2. The final part literary work... The end of the novel in the next book of the magazine. The ending follows ... ... Dictionary Ushakova
Cm … Synonym dictionary
Ending- printed in the issue (number, volume) of the serial edition, the final part of the work, published in parts in several (many) issues (numbers, volumes) of this edition. On the page where O. begins, in a footnote or before the main. text ... ... Publishing dictionary-reference
ending- END, completion, completion, end, final FINAL, final, last, book. definitive END / END, end / end, end / end, end / end, end / end, ... ... Dictionary-thesaurus of synonyms for Russian speech
In verse see Clausula ...
The same as inflection ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
END, I, cf. 1. see finish, smiling. 2. The end, the final part of which n. Safe Fr. story. About the novel in the next issue of the magazine. 3. In grammar: the same as inflection. Falling about. Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 ... ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary
ending- radio channel The physical location of the antenna of the radio equipment (ITU R F.1399). Topics telecommunications, basic concepts Synonyms of the radio channel EN radio termination ... Technical translator's guide
ENDING- (termination). The part of the word added to the stem when the word is grammatically changed, both in Latin and in Greek … Botanical nomenclature terms
ending- wait for the end of modality, wait wait for the end continuation, modality, wait wait for the end of the modality, wait wait for the end of the modality, wait for the end should the subject, approach / removal (not) ... ... Verb collocation of non-subject names
