H Erenkov Pavel Alekseevich - Soviet physicist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
Born on July 15 (28), 1904 in the village of Novaya Chigla, Bobrovsky district, Voronezh province (now part of the Talovsky district of the Voronezh region). Russian. From the family of a wealthy peasant. Father, Alexey Egorovich Cherenkov, was arrested twice by the OGPU/NKVD and sentenced to exile in 1931 for counter-revolutionary agitation, and to execution in 1937.
He graduated from the rural parochial school in 1917. During the turbulent years of the Civil War, the village changed hands 18 times, it was impossible to study. During these years he worked as a laborer, then as a clerk. In 1920, he resumed his studies at the Chigol school of the second level, graduating in 1924. Also in 1922-1924 he worked as an accountant at the Novochigolinsk dump point of the Voronezh State Oil Trust. In 1924 he entered the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of Voronezh University, from which he graduated in 1928 with honors. Since 1928 - a physics teacher in schools in the city of Kozlov (now Michurinsk).
In 1931 he entered graduate school at the Leningrad Institute of Physics and Mathematics. In 1936, he defended his Ph.D. thesis, but began deep physical research immediately from the moment he enrolled in graduate school. In 1934 he was transferred with the institute from Leningrad to Moscow. He worked under the guidance of Academician S.I. Vavilova. Since 1935, he was a senior researcher at the P. N. Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow (FIAN), where he worked until the last day of his life.
Cherenkov's main scientific activities were in the areas of physical optics, nuclear physics, and high-energy particle physics. In 1934, he discovered the specific blue glow of transparent liquids when irradiated with fast charged particles. Cherenkov showed the difference between this type of radiation and fluorescence - similar in appearance, but having a completely different nature. In 1936, he discovered the main property of this type of radiation - the directionality of the radiation, the formation of a light cone, the axis of which coincides with the trajectory of the particle. Such a discovery interested the scientific community, and in 1937 I.E. joined Cherenkov’s work. Tamm and I.M. Franc.
The result of the research was the discovery of the Vavilov-Cherenkov effect (glow that is caused in a transparent medium by a charged particle under certain conditions), which has received wide practical application and formed the basis for the work of detectors of fast charged particles (Cherenkov counters). In 1937, the Tamm-Frank theory was developed, which fully explained all the basic properties of radiation. They showed that the observed P.A. Cherenkov glow is the radiation of a charged particle moving uniformly at superluminal speed in matter. In 1936-1937, Cherenkov conducted a series of additional experiments and completely confirmed the quantitative side of the Tamm-Frank theory.
During the Great Patriotic War, on instructions from the Academy of Sciences, he was involved in the development of acoustic direction finding devices for defense purposes, based on the use of certain methods of nuclear physics. In 1941-1943 he worked in evacuation in Kazan. In 1944-1947 - Scientific Secretary of the Physical Institute.
Since 1946 he worked on the creation of electronic accelerators. By 1950, he developed a physical device - a synchrotron with a power of 250 MeV. Subsequently, he headed the work to improve the synchrotron, as a result of which, in terms of its parameters, the accelerator took a leading place in the world among installations of this class. Thus, in the Soviet Union, a modern experimental base for that time was created for conducting research on the physics of electromagnetic interactions in the field of medium energies. In 1946 he joined the CPSU(b)/CPSU.
From 1959 to 1988 - head of the laboratory of photomeson processes at the P.N. Physical Institute. Lebedev Academy of Sciences. The main scientific direction of his activity was the study of electromagnetic interactions of elementary particles. Under his leadership, a number of fundamental studies related to the study of photon-nucleon interactions were carried out, and the process of photodisintegration of the lightest nuclei was also studied in detail.
He continued to lead the design and creation of a new, more powerful synchrotron with an energy of 1.2 GeV in the city of Troitsk, and also led the creation of a modern nuclear measurement and recording center there.
In the 1970s, Cherenkov's laboratory, using a new accelerator, experimentally studied undular radiation from the orbit of a cyclic electron accelerator for the first time. In simple and convincing experiments, so characteristic of P.A. Cherenkov, the spectral, angular and polarization characteristics of the radiation from an undulator installed in a rectilinear gap of the synchrotron were measured. He led studies of electromagnetic processes at high energies at accelerators at CERN, Hamburg, Serpukhov, Dubna. In 1970, together with the Institute of High Energy Physics and the Yerevan Physical Institute, he achieved the production of an electron beam at the Serpukhov proton accelerator at 70 GeV.
He paid a lot of attention to teaching. Since 1944 - teacher, from 1948 to 1951 - professor at the Moscow Energy Institute. From 1951 to 1981 he was a professor at the Moscow Engineering Physics Institute and was the chairman of its State Examination Commission.
In 1958, Pavel Alekseevich Cherenkov, together with Tamm and Frank, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery and interpretation of the Vavilov-Cherenkov effect.
Z and great merits in the development of physical science, training of scientific personnel and in connection with the eightieth anniversary of the birth of the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR dated July 27, 1984 to academician Cherenkov Pavel Alekseevich awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor with the Order of Lenin and the Hammer and Sickle gold medal.
Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1964). Full member (academician) of the Academy of Sciences (1970). Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences (1940). Professor (1953). At the Academy of Sciences he was also a member of the scientific council on the problems of acceleration of charged particles (1967-1990), a member of the Scientific Council for the Physics of Electromagnetic Interactions (1967-1990), and a member of the Bureau of the Nuclear Physics Division of the Academy (1971-1990).
Being focused on scientific work, he deliberately avoided socio-political activities. An exception was made only for the World Peace Council, of which he had been a member of the Presidium since 1965.
Since 1988 - Advisor to the Directorate of the P.N. Physics Institute. Lebedeva.
Lived in the hero city of Moscow. Died January 6, 1990. He was buried in Moscow at the Novodevichy cemetery.
Awarded three Orders of Lenin (07/28/1964, 07/26/1974, 07/27/1984), two Orders of the Red Banner of Labor (06/10/1945, 12/8/1951), the Order of the Badge of Honor (03/27/1954), the medal “For Valiant Labor in Great Patriotic War 1941-1945" (1946), anniversary medals, foreign award - Gold Medal “For services to science and humanity” (Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, 1981).
Winner of two Stalin Prizes (1946, 1951), USSR State Prize (1977).
The Chigol secondary school in his native village is named after the scientist; there is a memorial plaque on it. In 1994, in honor of P.A. Cherenkov Russian Post issued a postage stamp. Since 1999 Russian Academy Sciences awards the prize named after P.A. Cherenkov for outstanding work in the field of experimental high-energy physics.
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In 1928 he graduated from Voronezh University.
In 1930 he began working in Moscow - at the Physical Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Since 1948 - professor at the Moscow Energy Institute, and since 1951 - at the Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. Cherenkov's main works are devoted to physical optics, nuclear physics, cosmic ray physics, accelerator technology.
Since 1932, Cherenkov worked under the leadership of Academician S.I. Vavilov. It was he who suggested Cherenkov a research topic - the luminescence of solutions of uranium salts under the influence of gamma rays. He also proposed a method that he had used several times before. Oddly enough, Vavilov read the “quenching method” in the old memoir of the physicist F. Marie “New Discoveries Concerning Light.”
“...The method required careful training, a long stay in complete darkness,” wrote physicist V. Kartsev in his excellent book about physicists. – Every working day of Cherenkov began with him hiding in dark room and sat there in pitch darkness, getting used to this environment. Only after a long adaptation, sometimes lasting several hours, did Cherenkov approach the instruments and begin measurements. Having begun to irradiate uranium salts with a gamma source, he quickly discovered a strange phenomenon: a mysterious light. It must be said that he was not at all the first to notice this glow. It had already been observed in the Joliot-Curie laboratory and was attributed to the luminescence of impurities present in every, even very pure solution.
Cherenkov called for the leader.
Having gotten used to the darkness, Vavilov saw, as it seemed to him, a cone of weak blue light. But this glow was not at all similar to that which could be observed in solutions under the influence, for example, of ultraviolet rays. It was not the kind of glow that usually occurs due to, as Sergei Ivanovich put it, “dead bacteria,” that is, traces of luminescent substances. P. A. Cherenkov recalled: “Without dwelling on the details of this discovery, I would like to say that it could only be realized in such a scientific school as the school of S. I. Vavilov, where the main signs of luminescence were studied and determined and where they were developed strict criteria distinguishing luminescence from other types of radiation. It is no coincidence, therefore, that even such a major school of physicists as the Parisian one passed by this phenomenon, mistaking it for ordinary luminescence. I specifically emphasize this circumstance because it more fully and, it seems to me, more correctly defines the outstanding role played by S.I. Vavilov in the discovery of the new effect.”
Vavilov rejected the luminescent nature of the glow.
Firstly, it turned out that it is directed in a cone along the axis of gamma radiation. Secondly, it did not fit into the definitions of luminescence that had been formulated by Vavilov by that time. Ampoules with radium caused a new, unknown type of glow in a solution of uranium salt. The most interesting thing was that it continued even when the salt concentration was reduced to completely homeopathic doses. Moreover, pure distilled water glowed. At the same time, the intensity of the unusual glow was not affected by those substances that usually strongly quenched normal luminescence, such as potassium iodide and aniline. The spectral composition of the glow did not depend in any way on the composition of the liquid.
Rumors about the newly discovered glow spread throughout Moscow and Leningrad. I.M. Frank wrote that he remembers very well the caustic remarks about the fact that at FIAN they are studying the useless glow of who knows what, who knows where. “Have you tried studying with a hat?” - unfamiliar and familiar physicists asked Cherenkov sarcastically.
The message about the new discovery was published in the “Reports of the USSR Academy of Sciences” in 1934.
There were, in fact, two messages.
The first - about the discovery of the phenomenon - was signed by P. A. Cherenkov; Vavilov refused to sign so as not to complicate Cherenkov’s defense of his Ph.D. thesis. The second is signed by Vavilov - it describes the effect and definitely states that it is in no way related to luminescence, but is caused by free fast electrons formed when gamma rays act on the medium. It is interesting that Vavilov writes about the “blue” glow. This is proof of his rich physical intuition; the color of the radiation was impossible to detect under those conditions.
The effect was fully explained only in 1937, when two Soviet physicists I.M. Frank and I.E. Tamm developed its theory. The explanation was completely unusual: indeed, as Vavilov claimed, this glow is caused by electrons. But not simple ones, but ones that move at speeds exceeding the speed of light. Of course, we are talking about the speed of light propagation in a given medium. Moving faster than this speed, electrons emit electromagnetic waves. The Vavilov–Cherenkov glow appears. Subsequently, after the war (in 1958), both the discoverers and explainers of this phenomenon were awarded the Nobel Prize. The Nobel Prize was awarded to P. A. Cherenkov, I. E. Tamm and I. M. Frank. Vavilov had died by that time, and the Nobel Prize, as is known, is awarded only to the living.
Cherenkov defended his doctoral dissertation on the same phenomenon. One of his opponents was Academician L.I. Mandelstam. Professor S. M. Raisky later recalled: “I was sitting in the Mandelstam dining room when Leonid Isaakovich finished writing his review and left the office. He let me read his review. After reading, I asked why S. I. Vavilov occupies such a large place in the review of P. A. Cherenkov’s dissertation? Leonid Isaakovich replied: “The role of Sergei Ivanovich in the discovery of the effect is such that it should always be indicated when we're talking about about this discovery."
In 1947, V.L. Ginzburg theoretically showed that using the Vavilov–Cherenkov phenomenon it is possible to generate ultrashort, millimeter and even submillimeter waves. Cherenkov counters, whose operating principle is based on the detection of atomic particles due to the resulting glow, have become extremely widely used. This subtle method of research has led to brilliant discoveries of our time, in particular the discovery of the antiproton and antineutron, the first antimatter particles created on Earth.
In 1970, Cherenkov was elected a full member of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
“The initial experimental discovery is usually accidental. That is why it cannot be foreseen and it turns out to be the result of chance. Such happy occasions are very rare in the life of even the most active scientist. Therefore, they cannot be skipped. You should never ignore unexpected and incomprehensible phenomena that you accidentally encounter in an experiment.”
These words of Academician Semenov were undoubtedly well understood by Cherenkov.
Cherenkov made a significant contribution to the creation of electronic accelerators - synchrotrons. In particular, he took an active part in the design and construction of the 250 MeV synchrotron. For this work in 1952 he received the State Prize. He studied the interaction of bremsstrahlung with nucleons and nuclei, photonuclear and photomesonic reactions. He received another state prize in 1977 for a series of works on the study of the fission of light nuclei by high-energy gamma rays. In 1984 he was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor.
Russian physicist Pavel Alekseevich Cherenkov was born in Novaya Chigla near Voronezh. His parents Alexey and Maria Cherenkov were peasants. After graduating from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of Voronezh University in 1928, he worked as a teacher for two years. In 1930, he became a graduate student at the Institute of Physics and Mathematics of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Leningrad and received his Ph.D. degree in 1935. He then became a research fellow at the Physics Institute. P.N. Lebedev in Moscow, where he later worked.
In 1932, under the leadership of Academician S.I. Vavilova Ch. began to study the light that appears when solutions absorb high-energy radiation, for example, radiation from radioactive substances. He was able to show that in almost all cases the light was caused by known causes, such as fluorescence. In fluorescence, the incident energy excites atoms or molecules to higher energy states (according to quantum mechanics, each atom or molecule has a characteristic set of discrete energy levels) from which they quickly return to lower energy levels. The difference between the energies of higher and lower states is released in the form of a unit of radiation - a quantum, the frequency of which is proportional to the energy. If the frequency belongs to the visible region, then the radiation appears as light. Since the differences in energy levels of the atoms or molecules through which the excited substance passes, returning to the lowest energy state (ground state), usually differ from the energy of the quantum of incident radiation, the emission from the absorbing substance has a different frequency than that of the radiation generating it. Typically these frequencies are lower.
However, Ch. discovered that gamma rays (which have much higher energy and, therefore, frequency than X-rays) emitted by radium give a faint blue glow in the liquid, which could not be explained satisfactorily. This glow was also noted by others. Decades before Ch., it was observed by Marie and Pierre Curie while studying radioactivity, but it was believed that this was simply one of the many manifestations of luminescence. Ch. acted very methodically. He used double distilled water to remove any impurities that could be hidden sources of fluorescence. He applied heat and added chemical substances, such as potassium iodide and silver nitrate, which reduced the brightness and changed other characteristics of normal fluorescence, always doing the same experiments with control solutions. The light in the control solutions changed as usual, but the blue glow remained unchanged.
The research was significantly complicated by the fact that Ch. did not have high-energy radiation sources and sensitive detectors, which later became the most common equipment. Instead, he had to use weak, naturally occurring radioactive materials to produce gamma rays, which produced a faint blue glow, and instead of a detector, rely on his own vision, sharpened by long periods of time in the dark. Nevertheless, he was able to convincingly show that the blue glow is something extraordinary.
A significant discovery was the unusual polarization of the glow. Light represents periodic oscillations of electric and magnetic fields, the intensity of which increases and decreases in absolute value and regularly changes direction in a plane perpendicular to the direction of movement. If the directions of the fields are limited to special lines in this plane, as in the case of reflection from a plane, then the light is said to be polarized, but the polarization is nevertheless perpendicular to the direction of propagation. In particular, if polarization occurs during fluorescence, then the light emitted by the excited substance is polarized at right angles to the incident beam. Ch. discovered that the blue glow is polarized parallel, and not perpendicular to the direction of the incident gamma rays. Studies carried out in 1936 also showed that the blue glow is not emitted in all directions, but spreads forward relative to the incident gamma rays and forms a light cone, the axis of which coincides with the trajectory of the gamma rays. This was a key factor for his colleagues, Ilya Frank and Igor Tamm, to create a theory that provided a complete explanation for the blue glow, now known as Cherenkov radiation (Vavilov–Cherenkov radiation in the Soviet Union).
According to this theory, a gamma ray is absorbed by an electron in a liquid, causing it to escape from the parent atom. A similar collision was described by Arthur H. Compton and is called the Compton effect. The mathematical description of this effect is very similar to the description of collisions of billiard balls. If the exciting beam has sufficiently high energy, the ejected electron is ejected at a very high speed. Frank and Tamm's remarkable idea was that Cerenkov radiation occurs when an electron travels faster than light. Others were apparently deterred from making such an assumption by the fundamental postulate of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity, according to which the speed of a particle cannot exceed the speed of light. However, such a limitation is relative and is valid only for the speed of light in vacuum. In substances like liquids or glass, light travels at a slower speed. In liquids, electrons knocked out of atoms can travel faster than light if the incident gamma rays have enough energy.
The Cherenkov cone of radiation is similar to the wave that occurs when a boat moves at a speed exceeding the speed of propagation of waves in water. It is also similar to the shock wave that occurs when an airplane crosses the sound barrier.
For this work, Ch. received the degree of Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences in 1940. Together with Vavilov, Tamm and Frank, he received the Stalin (later renamed the State) Prize of the USSR in 1946.
In 1958, together with Tamm and Frank, Ch. was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics “for the discovery and interpretation of the Cherenkov effect.” Manne Sigbahn of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences noted in his speech that “the discovery of the phenomenon now known as the Cherenkov effect represents interesting example how relatively simple physical observation during the right approach could lead to important discoveries and pave new paths for further research."
Pavel Alekseevich Cherenkov
In 1928 he graduated from Voronezh University.
In 1930 he began working in Moscow - at the Physical Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Since 1948 - professor at the Moscow Energy Institute, and since 1951 - at the Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. Cherenkov's main works are devoted to physical optics, nuclear physics, cosmic ray physics, and accelerator technology.
Since 1932, Cherenkov worked under the leadership of Academician S.I. Vavilov. It was he who suggested Cherenkov a research topic - the luminescence of solutions of uranium salts under the influence of gamma rays. He also proposed a method that he had used several times before. Oddly enough, Vavilov read the “quenching method” in the old memoir of the physicist F. Marie “New Discoveries Concerning Light.”
“...The method required careful training, a long stay in complete darkness,” wrote physicist V. Kartsev in his excellent book about physicists. “Every working day of Cherenkov began with him hiding in a dark room and sitting there in pitch darkness, getting used to this environment. Only after a long adaptation, sometimes lasting several hours, did Cherenkov approach the instruments and begin measurements. Having begun to irradiate uranium salts with a gamma source, he quickly discovered a strange phenomenon: a mysterious light. It must be said that he was not at all the first to notice this glow. It had already been observed in the Joliot-Curie laboratory and was attributed to the luminescence of impurities present in every, even very pure solution.
Cherenkov called for the leader.
Having gotten used to the darkness, Vavilov saw, as it seemed to him, a cone of weak blue light. But this glow was not at all similar to that which could be observed in solutions under the influence, for example, of ultraviolet rays. It was not the kind of glow that usually occurs due to, as Sergei Ivanovich put it, “dead bacteria,” that is, traces of luminescent substances. P. A. Cherenkov recalled: “Without dwelling on the details of this discovery, I would like to say that it could only be realized in such a scientific school as the school of S. I. Vavilov, where the main signs of luminescence were studied and determined and where they were developed strict criteria for distinguishing luminescence from other types of radiation. It is no coincidence, therefore, that even such a major school of physicists as the Parisian one passed by this phenomenon, mistaking it for ordinary luminescence. I specifically emphasize this circumstance because it more fully and, it seems to me, more correctly defines the outstanding role played by S.I. Vavilov in the discovery of the new effect.”
Vavilov rejected the luminescent nature of the glow.
Firstly, it turned out that it is directed in a cone along the axis of gamma radiation. Secondly, it did not fit into the definitions of luminescence that had been formulated by Vavilov by that time. Ampoules with radium caused a new, unknown type of glow in a solution of uranium salt. The most interesting thing was that it continued even when the salt concentration was reduced to completely homeopathic doses. Moreover, pure distilled water glowed. At the same time, the intensity of the unusual glow was not affected by those substances that usually strongly quenched normal luminescence, such as potassium iodide and aniline. The spectral composition of the glow did not depend in any way on the composition of the liquid.
Rumors about the newly discovered glow spread throughout Moscow and Leningrad. I.M. Frank wrote that he remembers very well the caustic remarks about the fact that at FIAN they are studying the useless glow of who knows what, who knows where. “Have you tried studying with a hat?” - unfamiliar and familiar physicists asked Cherenkov sarcastically.
The message about the new discovery was published in the “Reports of the USSR Academy of Sciences” in 1934.
There were, in fact, two messages.
The first - about the discovery of the phenomenon - was signed by P. A. Cherenkov; Vavilov refused to sign so as not to complicate Cherenkov’s defense of his Ph.D. thesis. The second is signed by Vavilov - it describes the effect and definitely states that it is in no way related to luminescence, but is caused by free fast electrons formed when gamma rays act on the medium. It is interesting that Vavilov writes about the “blue” glow. This is proof of his rich physical intuition; the color of the radiation was impossible to detect under those conditions.
The effect was fully explained only in 1937, when two Soviet physicists I.M. Frank and I.E. Tamm developed its theory. The explanation was completely unusual: indeed, as Vavilov claimed, this glow is caused by electrons. But not simple ones, but ones that move at speeds exceeding the speed of light. Of course, we are talking about the speed of light propagation in a given medium. Moving faster than this speed, electrons emit electromagnetic waves. The Vavilov–Cherenkov glow appears. Subsequently, after the war (in 1958), both the discoverers and explainers of this phenomenon were awarded the Nobel Prize. The Nobel Prize was awarded to P. A. Cherenkov, I. E. Tamm and I. M. Frank. Vavilov had died by that time, and the Nobel Prize, as is known, is awarded only to the living.
Cherenkov defended his doctoral dissertation on the same phenomenon. One of his opponents was Academician L.I. Mandelstam. Professor S. M. Raisky later recalled: “I was sitting in the Mandelstam dining room when Leonid Isaakovich finished writing his review and left the office. He let me read his review. After reading, I asked why S. I. Vavilov occupies such a large place in the review of P. A. Cherenkov’s dissertation? Leonid Isaakovich replied: “The role of Sergei Ivanovich in the discovery of the effect is such that it should always be indicated when talking about this discovery.”
In 1947, V.L. Ginzburg theoretically showed that using the Vavilov–Cherenkov phenomenon it is possible to generate ultrashort, millimeter and even submillimeter waves. Cherenkov counters, whose operating principle is based on the detection of atomic particles due to the resulting glow, have become extremely widely used. This subtle method of research has led to brilliant discoveries of our time, in particular the discovery of the antiproton and antineutron, the first antimatter particles created on Earth.
In 1970, Cherenkov was elected a full member of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
“The initial experimental discovery is usually accidental. That is why it cannot be foreseen and it turns out to be the result of chance. Such happy occasions are very rare in the life of even the most active scientist. Therefore, they cannot be skipped. You should never ignore unexpected and incomprehensible phenomena that you accidentally encounter in an experiment.”
These words of Academician Semenov were undoubtedly well understood by Cherenkov.
Cherenkov made a significant contribution to the creation of electronic accelerators - synchrotrons. In particular, he took an active part in the design and construction of the 250 MeV synchrotron. For this work in 1952 he received the State Prize. He studied the interaction of bremsstrahlung with nucleons and nuclei, photonuclear and photomesonic reactions. He received another state prize in 1977 for a series of works on the study of the fission of light nuclei by high-energy gamma rays. In 1984 he was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor.
Died in 1990.
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