Means of syntactic communication and construction of syntactic units. Ways to Express Syntactic Relationships

Subject of syntax. Units of syntax of the Russian language. Means of expression syntax. meanings in Russian language The concept of syntactic form.

syntax is a branch of linguistics, the subject of study of which is the syntactic structure of the language, i.e. its syntactic units and connections and relationships between them. Units of syntax are phrases and syntactic sentences. The means of expressing syntactic relations in a phrase, compared with a sentence, are quite limited: 1) word forms; 2) prepositions; 3) stable word order. We can talk about intonation as a means of conveying syntactic relations in relation to a phrase very narrowly: only as a means of detecting the core word and the dependent one.

The means of expressing syntactic relations in a sentence are as follows: 1) forms of words; 2) function words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles); 3) word order; 4) intonation. A sentence is the minimum unit of the upper level of the syntactic system, which has communicative significance; Units of a lower level are isolated from the sentence - phrases that carry a communicative load only as part of a sentence or when transformed into sentences; phrases based on a weak syntactic connection, in turn, are able to isolate from themselves syntactic units of an even lower level - syntactic forms of words. The latter are also, under appropriate conditions, capable of acquiring independent communicative significance or being included in a sentence as its structural element. Thus, sentences can consist of word combinations, whole or transformed, and of individual word forms. So, in the sentence I bought an interesting book, two phrases are distinguished: bought a book and an interesting book; in the sentence It's dark on the street there are no phrases; the word form on the street acts as an independent syntactic element of the sentence; in the sentence On a deserted street, it’s dark, the word form on the street is distributed by the agreed part of speech, as a result of which the phrase deserted street appears, but this combination itself does not depend on a separate word (cf.: It’s dark on a deserted street. - To be on a deserted street).

A phrase as a syntactic unit. Form and meaning of the phrase. Types of syntactic relations between the components of a phrase. Collocation and other combinations of words in a sentence.

A phrase is a semantic and grammatical combination of two (or several) significant words or word forms, demonstrating their subordinating properties: civilized society, rocket flight, desire to work, fly by plane, love sports, go to the city, be in an apartment, lie on the ground, read aloud, a man of strong character, ready to fight, free from prejudice, economically profitable. The phrase serves as a means of nomination and is built according to a certain pattern: a noun and a compatible adjective, a verb and a controlled word form, etc. The components of a phrase are: 1) the main word (or core) and 2) the dependent word. The main word is a grammatically independent word. A dependent word is a word that formally obeys the requirements emanating from the main word. The word forms that make up phrases are in certain syntactic relationships, which are built on the basis of the interaction of the lexical meanings of these words and their grammatical forms. All the diversity of these relations is generally reduced to the main ones: attributive, objective, subjective, adverbial and complementary. Attributive relations arise during the semantic-grammatical interaction of nouns: 1) with adjectives: beautiful girl, milepost, bear's den, useful work, Active participation; 2) with compatible pronouns: my book, our child, some object, every person; 3) with ordinal numbers: first trip, sixth house, thirtieth tour; 4) with full forms of participles: a loving woman, green fields, a cooked dinner, a solved problem, an edited manuscript. The attribution of such phrases is primarily based on the general lexical meaning of a noun - on its objectivity (it is natural for an object to have characteristics that define it) and on the general lexical meaning of the parts of speech combined with it, capable of denoting characteristics. The formal consistency of the components of a phrase is built on this basis. However, attributive relations arise when nouns are combined with some other parts of speech; 5) with prepositional and non-prepositional forms of nouns: a letter from Volgograd, a habit from childhood, a bottle of cream, fatigue from exertion, shoulder-length hair, a lid on a jar, a house near a river, love without hope, striped trousers, a man with a gun , a gazebo under the mountain, bound books, molasses jam; hotel gate, father's house, grief of separation, wedge-shaped beard; 6) with adverbs: driving at a walk, house opposite, Caucasian-style kebab; 7) with an infinitive: the desire to learn, the decision to go, the need to rest, the ability to hear, the opportunity to leave. Object relations arise during the semantic-grammatical interaction of verbs, including participles and gerunds, with nouns and, less often, with the infinitive. Such relationships are characteristic primarily of phrases with a verb that require the accusative case of the direct object to be extended: buy a book, put on a dress, invite a friend, think about a decision, write a letter. These phrases are semantically limited: the main word in them denotes an action, state, perception, feeling, and the dependent word is the object of this action, perception, feeling: fish, catch a hare, love a comrade, wait for a brother; a verb can also denote movement, and a noun can have a subject-spatial meaning: cross the road, run across the street. Object relations also arise when combining verbs of different semantic classes with other cases without prepositions: with the genitive part - drink water, buy milk; with the dative of a person or object to which the action is directed - to object to the speaker, to trust a friend, to worship beauty; with creative tools - writing with a pencil, chopping with an ax, etc. Nouns with prepositions also enter into object relations with verbs: learn from a friend, be treated by a doctor, sing for listeners, attach to a house, touch a hand, knock on a door, wrap yourself in a shawl, thank for kindness, hit the ground, talk about life , quarrel with a friend, send for a doctor, take pity on a person, work on a machine. Other parts of speech can also act as dependent words in verbal phrases - pronouns, numerals, quantitative-nominal combinations and, of course, substantivized adjectives and participles: wait for him, invite many friends, see two, interview students, visit the sick. Subject relations characterize phrases, the occurrence of which is associated with a special type of verbal sentences, as well as with passive phrases. Such phrases are based on the lexico-grammatical nature of passive verbs and passive participles. Dependent form the noun in them denotes an active person or object (the instrumental case). For example: given by people, planted by a father, returned by a brother, occupied by the enemy (region), spoiled by life, overturned by the wind, inspired by memories, drowned out by a siren, liberated by the army.

By analogy with verbal ones, some substantive phrases with subject relations can be formed: release by a medical commission, discussion by the government. Subjective relations are also characteristic of some phrases with a dependent word in the form of the genitive case, for example: the arrival of the father, the departure of the commander, the appearance of a car. In such cases, the relationship “action and actor or object” is also established.

Adverbial relations are characteristic of verbal phrases, since various adverbial meanings always accompany certain actions and states and are based on lexical procedurality. Circumstantial relationships are specified as determinative-circumstantial: run quickly, speak excitedly, love fiercely, look threateningly, remember often, look affectionately; temporary: arrive in the evening, return in a year, wait a minute, meet in the morning, happen at night; spatial: walk through the forest, be nearby, live in a hotel, leave the table, walk near the house, settle three kilometers from the city; causal: to make a mistake out of ignorance, to say by mistake, to forget out of absent-mindedness, to liquidate as unnecessary, to be overjoyed foolishly, to say rashly; target: to fall on purpose, to say as a joke, to come on a date, to go on vacation, to go on vacation, to give as a souvenir, to save in reserve, to keep in case. Complementary (replenishing) relationships arise from the need of some words for an obligatory semantic addition. The dependent word form compensates for the informative deficiency of the core word. For example: four corners, calling yourself a guest, being considered a simpleton. A sentence is the minimum unit of the upper level of a syntactic system that has communicative significance; Units of a lower level are isolated from the sentence - phrases that carry a communicative load only as part of a sentence or when transformed into sentences; phrases based on a weak syntactic connection, in turn, are able to isolate syntactic units of an even lower level - syntactic forms of words. The latter are also, under appropriate conditions, capable of acquiring independent communicative significance or being included in a sentence as its structural element. Thus, sentences can consist of phrases, whole or transformed, and of individual word forms. So, in the sentence I bought an interesting book, two phrases are distinguished: bought a book and an interesting book; in the sentence It's dark on the street there are no phrases; the word form on the street acts as an independent syntactic element of the sentence; in the sentence On a deserted street, it’s dark, the word form on the street is distributed by the agreed part of speech, as a result of which the phrase deserted street appears, but this combination itself does not depend on a single word (cf.: It’s dark on a deserted street. - Be on a deserted street).

Types of subordinating connections of words in a phrase.

A subordinating syntactic connection at the level of a phrase always has a subordinate character. A subordinate connection is a direct and one-sided connection, a connection between a subordinate and a subordinate. Such a connection is realized in three main ways: coordination, control and adjacency. Coordination is a type of subordinating connection in which the forms of gender, number and case of the dependent word are predetermined by the forms of gender, number and case of the subordinating word. The agreement can be complete: green grass, a little boy, wooden product (agreement in gender, number and case) or incomplete: our doctor, former secretary (agreement in number and case); Lake Baikal, on Lake Baikal (agreement in number); on the seven winds, by nine boys (case agreement). Control is a type of subordinating connection in which the subordinate word takes the form of one case or another depending on the grammatical capabilities of the dominant word and the meaning it expresses. When managing, relationships are established: objective (writing a letter, love for the homeland), subjective (brother's arrival), and complex (four sons, a chair leg). Phrases constructed according to the type of control always express a relationship with the subject. The controlled word form is always a noun or its equivalent: approached the neighbor, approached the departing person. The dominant word in control can be a verb, a name and an adverb; Verbal control is distinguished on this basis - buy a book, drive up to the house; common - a glass of milk, five brothers, a sport, hatred of the enemy, submission to fate; adverb - furtively from parents, alone with brother, upside down. Depending on the presence or absence of a preposition in a controlled form, there can be a prepositional control - love for the homeland, leave for your homeland and a non-prepositional control - send a letter, understandable to everyone, full of hope, a loaf of bread. Governance can be strong or weak. Under strong control, the dominant word, with its lexical and grammatical properties, predetermines the obligatory appearance of a certain controlled case form with it, i.e. communication is essential. Such a connection is required by transitive verbs, as well as some nouns, adjectives, numerals, for example: send a letter, break the silence, buy a book; nine days, a lot of time; full of hope, faithful to duty.

With weak control, the distribution of the dominant word by a given case form is not predetermined by its lexico-grammatical properties, i.e. the presence of controlled forms is optional; compare: watering flowers - strong control, watering from a watering can - weak control; liberation of the city - strong governance, liberation by the army - weak governance. Examples of weak management: knocking on the table, thanking for a gift, smiling at a friend, interruptions in supplies, interruptions in supplies, poor in spirit, deep in thought. Adjunction is a type of subordinating connection in which the subordinate word, being an unchangeable part of speech or a word form isolated from the system of cases, expresses its dependence on the dominant word only by location and meaning. In phrases with a connection of adjacency, relations of informative completion, adverbial and, less often, attributive relations are expressed.

Adjacent are adverbs (or functionally close word forms), gerunds, and infinitives. Such words do not have grammatically inflected forms of expressing syntactic relations, and the formal sign of adjacency is immutability. For example: read aloud, arrive late, walk during the day, work together, be nearby; sit bent over; drive faster; want to study, offer to come; very good, unusually cheerful; very close, this afternoon; an opportunity to relax, a reason to come.

Classification of phrases according to the nature of the main word. Simple and complex phrases.

By morphological properties of the main word of the phrase classified in the following way:

Verbal Examples: make a plan, stand at the board, ask to come in, read to yourself.

Personalized

1. Substantive(with a noun as the main word) Examples: essay plan, city trip, third grade, eggs in the refrigerator.

   Adjectival(with an adjective as the main word) Examples: worthy of a reward, ready for a feat, very diligent, ready to help.

   Quantitative(with a numeral as the main word) Examples: two pencils, the second of the contenders.

   Pronouns(with a pronoun as the main word) Examples: one of the students, something new.

Adverbial Examples: extremely important, away from the road.

Simple phrases usually consist of two significant words.

Examples: new house, man with gray hair (= gray-haired man).

Complex phrases are formed on the basis of simple phrases.

Examples: fun walks in the evenings, relaxing in the south in the summer.

Besides simple And complex phrases, also distinguished: combined. The main criterion for this classification is the way words are connected in a phrase.

Word combinations are free and syntactically related

Free phrases consist of words that retain their independent lexical meaning. The components of a free phrase can be replaced by words of the corresponding category, for example: late autumn, early autumn, cold autumn; love work, love science, love children; speak quietly, speak excitedly, speak kindly. Combining word forms are free here in the sense that they can be replaced when used in a sentence in accordance with a specific communicative task. However, free collocations can be lexically restricted. Unlike lexically unlimited ones, the place of one or another component in them can be filled not by any word of a given category, but only by some - those that form a certain semantic group. For example: the phrase listen to sounds is lexically not limited (listen to the radio, listen to a child, listen to a program, listen to noise, etc.), while the phrase listen to a conversation is lexically limited, since the semantics of the verb overhear does not allow wide combinability (impossible: eavesdrop on a lecture) .Syntactically non-free phrases are phrases that are lexically related and indivisible in a given context: for example, in the sentence A tall girl came up to me, the phrase tall is not free, it performs a single defining function, cf.: tall girl. The phrase tall is indivisible, since the noun in its composition is lexically impoverished (you cannot say a girl of height). However, the same phrase in other contextual conditions can appear as quite freely constructed, for example: Tall height made this girl stand out in the group (cf.: Height made this girl stand out in the group). Both words in such a phrase are lexically full. The phrase two boys, also, depending on the contextual conditions of its use, can be either free or not free, cf.: I admired the play of these two boys (both words are lexically complete and occupy an independent position in the sentence: I admired the play of these boys). In the sentence Two boys came to the table, both words are lexically connected, and the division of the phrase is impossible; it performs the function of one member of the sentence. This means that syntactically non-free phrases are revealed only when functioning in specific sentences, where they lose the separateness of their components.

The sentence as the basic syntactic unit. Signs of a sentence: predicativeness, intonation closure.

A sentence is a grammatically and intonationally designed minimal unit of speech that conveys the attitude of the speaker to reality. In a judgment, something about something is affirmed or denied, and in this the so-called predication (predication) finds its expression, i.e. disclosure of the content of a logical subject by a logical predicate. The relationship between the subject and the predicate in a judgment finds its parallel in the predicative relationship between the subject and the predicate in a sentence, which expresses the connection between the subject of thought, designated by the subject, and its attribute, designated by the predicate. For example: Spring has come; The report will not take place; The lecture was interesting. Predicative relations can only exist in a two-part sentence, therefore, although they are an essential feature of a sentence, they cannot be considered as a feature inherent in any sentence (cf. one-part sentences with one main member). Many grammarians consider predicativeness to be such a general, basic feature of a sentence, understanding by it the relation of the content of a sentence to objective reality (its possibility or impossibility, necessity or probability, reality or unreality, etc.). Grammatical means of expressing predicativity are the categories of tense, person, mood and Various types intonation (intonation of message, question, motivation, etc.). Since, by expressing his thoughts, feelings, expressions of will, the speaker at the same time expresses his attitude to the content of what is being expressed (its desirability or undesirability, obligation or convention, etc.), then an essential feature of a sentence is also modality. The means of expressing modality, as well as predicativity in general, are the category of mood (indicative, imperative, conditionally desirable) and special lexical and grammatical means (the so-called modal verbs and modal words and particles). Finally, an essential feature of a sentence, which, along with predicativity and modality, distinguishes a sentence from a phrase, is intonation. The intonation of the message, question, motivation, etc. differs. Thus, the main features of a sentence are modality (the attitude of the speaker to what is being expressed), predicativity (the attitude of the content of the sentence to reality), intonational design and relative semantic completeness.

Classification of sentences according to the purpose of the statement: Narrative, incentive, interrogative. Types of sentences based on emotional coloring: exclamatory and non-exclamatory. Sentences are affirmative and negative.

Narrative sentences are those that contain a message about some fact of reality, phenomenon, event, etc. (affirmed or denied). Narrative sentences are the most common type of sentences; they are very diverse in their content and structure and are distinguished by the relative completeness of thought, conveyed by specific narrative intonation: a rise in tone on a logically highlighted word (or two or more, but one of the rises will be the largest) and calm lowering the tone at the end of the sentence: The carriage drove up to the porch of the commandant's house. The people recognized Pugachev's bell and ran after him in a crowd. Shvabrin met the impostor on the porch. He was dressed as a Cossack and grew a beard (P.).

Interrogative sentences are those whose purpose is to encourage the interlocutor to express an idea that interests the speaker, i.e. their purpose is educational. For example: Why do you need to go to St. Petersburg? (P.); What will you tell yourself now to justify yourself? (P.).

The grammatical means of forming interrogative sentences are as follows:

1) interrogative intonation - raising the tone on a word with which the meaning of the question is associated, for example: Are you on Western Front were? (Sim.) (Wed: Have you been on the Western Front?; Have you been on the Western Front?);

2) word arrangement (usually the word with which the question is associated is placed at the beginning of the sentence), for example: Isn’t a hostile hail burning? (L.); But will he return soon with a rich tribute? (L.);

3) interrogative words - interrogative particles, adverbs, pronouns, for example: Isn’t it better for you to get behind them yourself? (P.); Is there really no woman in the world to whom you would like to leave something as a keepsake? (L.); Why are we standing here? (Ch.); Where does the glow come from? (L.); What were you doing in my garden? (P.); What do you want me to do? (P.).

Incentive sentences are those that express the will of the speaker; their purpose is to encourage action.

They can express: 1) an order, a request, a plea, for example: - Be silent!.. you! - Survivor exclaimed in an angry whisper, jumping to his feet (M.G.); - Go, Peter! - the student commanded (M. G.); Uncle Grigory... bend your ear (M. G.); And you, my dear, don’t break it... (M. G.); 2.) advice, suggestion, warning, protest, threat, for example: This original woman is Arina; you will notice, Nikolai Petrovich (M.G.); Pets of windy Fate, tyrants of the world! Tremble! And you, take heart and listen, rise up, fallen slaves! (P.); Look, my hands are washed more often - beware! (M.G.); 3) consent, permission, for example: Do as you want; You can go wherever your eyes take you; 4) a call, an invitation to joint action, for example: Well, let’s try with all our might to defeat the disease (M. G.); My friend, let’s dedicate our souls to our homeland with wonderful impulses! (P.); 5) desire, for example: I would like to give him Dutch soot with rum (M. G.). Exclamatory sentences are sentences that are emotionally charged, which is conveyed by a special exclamatory intonation. According to the correlation of the components of thought (the subject of thought and its attribute), sentences are divided into affirmative (what is stated about the subject of thought is affirmed) and negative (what is expressed about the object of thought is denied).

Structural types of sentences: segmented and indivisible, simple and complex, one-part and two-part, common and non-common, complicated and uncomplicated, complete and incomplete.

Uncommon is a sentence that has only the positions of the main members - subject and predicate, for example: Several years have passed (P.); It was noon (Shol.); It began to get light (Prishv.); Silence. Gul (Cat.). Such sentences represent a structural minimum and include only a predicative basis.

Sentences that, along with the main ones, have positions of secondary members are called common, for example: Meanwhile, the sun rose quite high. Again, clear, as if swept out, without clouds, the sky shone with pale blue (B. Pol.); At noon Razmetnov came home to have lunch and through the gate door he saw pigeons near the threshold of the hut (Shol.); In every spiritually developed person, the outlines of his homeland are repeated and live (Rep.).

A sentence is considered two-part if its predicative core is represented by two positions - subject and predicate, and one-part if the structure of the sentence requires only one position of the main member.

In complete sentences, all the necessary formal links of a given structure are verbally presented, and in incomplete sentences, certain positions of this structure are unsubstituted. The latter can be caused by various reasons: context, speech situation, the shared experience of the speakers. In their communicative significance, incomplete sentences are no different from complete ones; they are quite understandable. However, they are characterized by the formal lack of expression of some components. Ahead is a deserted September day

A simple sentence has one predicative center that organizes it and thus contains one predicative unit. For example: The morning was fresh and beautiful (L.); From the station to the pier we had to walk through the entire town (Paust.); Lopatin saw the black pea coats of the sailors from afar (Sim.).

Ways of expressing relationships between words in a phrase and in a sentence. These include:

1) form of the word. With the help of the ending, a connection is formed and the relationships between the components of the phrase and between the members of the sentence are expressed. Making a plan, devotion to duty, passion for music, useful book, second generation, solve a problem worthy of an award;

2) function words:

a) prepositions (together with the form of the word). A non-smoking carriage, a trip out of town, a book with pictures, dreams of the future;

b) conjunctions (only in a sentence). Pencil and pen, spring or summer;

3) word order (only in suggested and and)„ Interesting book(attributive relations) - the book is interesting (predicative relations). Ten people (expressing the exact number) - ten people (expressing the approximate number).

Tired children returned (adjective definition indicates a sign) - children returned tired (adjective indicates a state and forms part of a predicate);

4) intonation (only in a sentence). When you come home, change clothes (the intonation of the enumeration indicates relations of homogeneity). When you come home, you will change clothes (intonation of conditionality indicates a temporary relationship).

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Syntactic function (of a word, a stable combination) is the relationship of a unit to the whole of which it is a part, its syntactic role in a sentence or phrase. (You can say about connections the last point of the previous ticket)

Morphological ways of formally expressing syntactic connections and functions:

1 – coordination(repetition of one, several, all grammes of one word as part of another, connected with it): for example, agreement of the predicate and subject (I read - the grammemes of the noun are repeated in the verb - person and number). Also used as an expresser of defining connections, for example « A new book", "new book"- repetition of grammes of gender, number, case.

2 – control(one word causes in another word associated with it the manifestation of certain grammes that do not repeat the grammeme of the first word). Widely used as an expression subordinating connections(a transitive verb in Russian requires the accusative case: I'm reading a book and in general the placement of dependent words in certain cases ).

3 – combination of coordination and control. For example, in “noun + numeral” constructions, where the numeral controls the noun (either the case “five tables” or the counting form “two steps”) and at the same time agrees with it (“five tables”).

4 – morphological designation of connection in the dominant word. This is not in the Russian language, but there are many places (brain attack through 3-2-1): a noun defined by another word appears in a special form indicating that this noun has a dependent word. For example, Persian ketabexub ( good book) ketab “book” + connection indicator “e” and the adjective xub “good” without any morphological indicators.

Syntactic connections and functions. Arrangement and phrasal intonation as ways of their formal expression.

Syntactic function (of a word, a stable combination) is the relationship of a unit to the whole of which it is a part, its syntactic role in a sentence or phrase.

Arrangement (word order).

1 – juxtaposition(putting next to) something that is connected in meaning. Expression of semantic connection through positional proximity. When juxtaposition becomes the only means of indicating a syntactic connection, it is called positional connection(an English book). It should be distinguished from postposition and preposition (in Russian, postposition is a shade of approximation “ two hundred people", preposition and postposition of the defined word to the noun " red wall», « stone wall»).

2 – the tendency to assign certain places in a sentence to certain members of the sentence (we are talking about fixed word order) For example, thefatherlovestheson and nothing else.

In Russian, the members of a sentence are clearly demarcated by morphological means, so there can be no talk of a fixed order. We either direct order, or inversion. Special case in sentences where the complement accusative coincides with the nominative: daughter loves mother - It is only through the order of words that we can understand the meaning.

3 – word order characterizes sentence types. In Russian, for example, in non-union conditional clauses the verb always comes first: Gruzdev called himself get in the body. Also give an example of yes/noquestion in English and German.

Phrase intonation.

Intonation divides a statement into syntagms, but is also used in some types of sentences and syntactic constructions:

1 – intonation of interrogative sentences. In the Russian language (Peshkovsky), the pronunciation of the word to which the question refers is particularly high. If this word is in the middle of a sentence, then it is followed by a decrease in intonation (will he come SOON?). Sentences like “Who’s there?” similar in melodic pattern to a narrative sentence.

2 – intonation of enumerative constructions. A uniform movement of tone on each member of the listed series is a repetition of the melodic pattern - “night, street, lantern, pharmacy.”

3 – intonation adjacency- a pause between words placed next to each other, forcing listeners to perceive them as unrelated to each other: “ forever / frowning mother-in-law looks at me like a chronotope" And " eternally frowning mother-in-law / looks at me like a chronotope».

Syntactic connections have certain means of expression: formal and informal.

Formal means include:

• 1) endings (since Russian is an inflectional language), prepositions, conjunctions and allied words;
• 2) word order in simple sentence coupled with syntagmatic division, which combines syntactically related word forms in the speech stream into one rhythmic-intonation group:

I visited my birthplaces

That village

Where did you live as a boy?

Where is the tower with a birch tower

A bell tower without a cross rose up.

(S. Yesenin)

Only the location of the prepositional-substantive combination without a cross next to a noun Bell tower allows you to combine them in one syntagma. In meaning, this combination could stand with other nouns: tower(without cross), tower(without the cross), but then the syntagmatic division of the sentence and the syntactic connections between its members would be different. Wed: tower with birch tower And tower without a cross.

Intonation is an informal means of syntactic communication. Of course, this only occurs in oral speech. In Pushkin's lines:

And we will all die if we don’t have time soon

Find refuge; And where? oh woe, woe!

depending on whether you connect an intonationally emphasized adverb with a verb we'll have time or gain, the meaning of the statement changes.

... "Don't you see, Tell, something" -

The young man told me, pointing his finger into the distance.

When reading these lines in accordance with punctuation marks, it stands out intonationally as an introductory word Tell. But if there are no commas in the first line, it can be read and understood differently: "Don't you see, say something".

As part of the text, most of the sentences and parts of the text are also related in meaning and formally. Exist special means their connections, primarily in book styles (scientific, journalistic).

• 1. Noun repetition(without definition or with definition). There are two cases of repetition:
  • a) repetition of the noun that ends a sentence at the beginning of another sentence. For example: Matter is in continuous movement. Movement is an inherent property matter. Matter exists and moves in space and time. Space and time are forms of existence of matter; IN Russian Federation recognized and guaranteed local government. Local government within the limits of their authority independently(Constitution of the Russian Federation) ;
  • b) repetition of the same noun at the beginning of each sentence. For example: are used and protected in Russia as the basis for the life and activities of peoples, residing in the relevant territory. Earth and others Natural resources may be in private or other forms of municipal ownership(Constitution of the Russian Federation).
• 2. Personal pronouns 3 l., used when talking about specific objects and persons, and demonstrative pronoun This, usually used when talking about generalized facts and events. For example: International treaties of the Russian Federation are part of it legal system. They define the rules of some federal laws; The main thing in marketing is a thorough and comprehensive study of the market, demand, taste and needs, orientation of the organization's activities to meet these requirements, active influence on the market and existing demand, to shape needs and consumer preferences. This , as well as consistency, goal-oriented actions bring marketing and public relations closer together.
• 3. Words like Then, here, from here, So, there, higher, below. For example: We see movements every day in everyday life. From here clarity of mechanical representations follows; Movement occurs not only in space, but also in time. Higher , considering the subject of physics, we wrote, that space and time are an integral property of matter.
• 4. Words like what was said, last, mentioned; both, first, second. For example: The movement occurs as if in space, as well as in time. From what has been said should, that to describe the movement it is necessary to decompose into two main types - translational and rotational. First- this is such a movement, in which any straight line, associated with a moving body, remains parallel to itself.
• 5. Words and phrases like let's get started, let's stop at, Firstly, first of all, indicating a transition to a new question. For example: It was said above, that a point relates to the basic concepts of geometry. Let's move on to consider the projection of a point; First of all, let's address To a question, which has great importance when solving physical problems; Let's install , - the candidate spoke seriously, - What are we talking about? What is the subject of our conversation?(V. Shukshin).
• 6. Words and phrases like then (Further), Besides, simultaneously, at the same time, Firstly, Secondly, used when continuing a conversation on any issue. For example: At the end of the 19th century. the concept of quantum was introduced. Then the electron was discovered; Further we will turn to the consideration of two elementary concepts of geometry - a point and a line; Besides , Promotion of social, racial, national, religious and linguistic inequality; A little historical background, I say. But, Firstly , not you, and you. And secondly , Vladimir Mikhailovich Bastrygin - it's me(G. Nemchenko).
• 7. Words and phrases ( And) finally, Finally, all this, So, used at the end of a final sentence. For example: Automation is characterized by the use technical means and the use of mathematical calculation methods. Finally , automation is characterized by the use of control systems, which free a person from direct participation in production; So , management as an activity is carried out by communication management, communications of the organization and the social environment.
• 8. Words and phrases like So, For example, set an example, Let's give an example; as stated, speaks, writes; let, let's say, Let's imagine. For example: Oscillatory processes lie at the very basis of various branches of technology. So , All radio technology is based on oscillatory processes; As they say (They say ) witnesses, the accident occurred due to the fault of the victim; Let (let's say ) the body moved from point A to point B; But the phenomenon was discovered recently, that's why I'm asking. Natural philosophy, let's say, will determine this, strategic philosophy is completely different...(V. Shukshin).