Sumerian gods, initial knowledge of cosmology, mythology and ideas about anthropomorphic deities were formed at the time of the formation of the Sumerian state. The Sumerians are a people of unknown origin who, at the end of the fourth millennium BC, mastered the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and formed the first city-states in human history. The gods of the ancient Sumerians were primarily the patrons of the community, embodiments of the elements of nature and forces that the inhabitants of the ancient empire encountered in everyday life. From the written sources with which the Sumerian religion was rich, you can find out the names of such gods as Innana and Enlil, who embodied the forces of earth and sky. The earliest religious and literary texts, which are hymns to the gods, prayers to the gods of Sumer, tales and legends, lists of proverbs originating from the excavations of Abu Salyabih and Farah, give ideas about the mythology and cult of the deities of the Sumerian state.
Sumerian gods are prototypes of the creators of the universe.
Sumerian civilization is a state with a centuries-old history. The oldest list of deities discovered in Fara, which contained information about all the gods of the ancient Sumerians of that era, identified six supreme beings, namely Ennil, Anu, Inanna, Nanna, Utu and Enki. Sumerian gods, including astral deities, throughout history have retained the function of patrons of land fertility and harvests. One of the most frequently encountered images of the Sumerian gods is the image of mother earth, the protector of humanity with a child in her arms. In the mythology of the Sumerian and later Babylonian people, the Sumerian goddesses who nursed their children were known as Ninhursag, Ninmah, Nintu, Mami and Damgalnuna. This image of the foremother of people and Sumerian gods is also found in Akkadian legends - the goddess Beletili, in Assyrian myths - Aruru, and even in later Babylonian legends - the mother goddess Enkidu. It is possible that the goddesses who served as patroness of the Sumerian city-states, for example Bau and Gatumdug, were also associated with the face of the earth goddess, to whom the Sumerian gods owed their lives. By the way, the Sumerian female gods who protected human settlements are mentioned in legends and hymns under the epithets “mother” and “mother of all cities.”
In the legends of the Sumerian people, revealing which gods the ancient Sumerians worshiped, a close dependence of mythology on cult and vice versa, cult on mythology can be traced. Cult songs from the city of Ur, dating back to the third millennium BC, speak of the priestess’s love for the king, and most importantly emphasize the official status and nature of their relationship. Hymns in which the Sumerian gods are mentioned, tales dedicated to the deified rulers of Ur, show that a marriage ceremony was annually carried out between the king and the high priestess, during which the king, the representative of the Sumerian gods, appeared in the form of Dumuzi, and the priestess in the guise of Inanna. The plot of the works of the cycle “Inanna and Dumuzi” contains descriptions of the courtship and wedding of the heroes, who were the patrons of the Sumerians, the gods of this people, as well as details of the goddess’s descent into the underworld and her salvation at the cost of the life of her god-husband. Tales of this nature, describing the obstacles faced by the Sumerian gods, are in fact drama-action, forming the basis of the metaphorical ritual “life-death-life”. The numerous myths of tragedy affecting the lives of the Sumerian gods and the deities themselves found in these narratives are explained primarily by the disunity of the Sumerian religious communities.
Sumerian gods, the underworld and trials of the soul.
Legends that are directly related to the cult of the Sumerian gods of fertility give ideas about the mythological underworld. Almost nothing is known about the location of the underworld, called Eden, Irigal, Arali or Kur-Nu-Gi, which translates as “land of no return”. What is clear is that the Sumerian goddesses and deities created the underground kingdom in such a way that one could not only go down there, but also fail. The mythology that the Sumerians created, the religion of this people, says that the border of the underworld was an underground river through which the souls of people were transported with the help of a carrier. They could be supportive, but they could also be cruel. The fate of the dead people was difficult, their bread was bitter, and their water was not water. The underworld that the Sumerian gods created is a dark world, a world full of dust.
Tales about the Sumerian gods do not contain a specific description of the court of the dead, where the dead would be judged according to the rules and norms established by the deities; there are only guesses and theories of researchers. It can be argued that the Sumerian gods awarded a tolerable life in the afterlife only to those people who were buried underground or sacrificed, as well as those who died in battle. The judges of the underworld were the ancient Sumerian gods, the Anunnaki, who sat on a pedestal in front of the mistress of the underworld. The supreme god of the Sumerian underworld, the goddess Ereshkigal, passed only death sentences. The names of the dead were recorded in the book by the Sumerian gods - the Anunnaki, as well as by a female scribe called Geshtinanna. According to the legends, the “honorable” inhabitants of the underworld included the Sumerian gods, numerous legendary heroes and figures of the Sumerian civilization, for example Sumukan and Gilgamesh, the former was the founder of the third dynasty of Ur, the latter was a god by birth.
The Sumerian gods, dominant in the underworld, returned people who were not buried at death and brought misfortune to earth, and those who were buried according to the rules were sent across the border of the underworld, the dark river, into the kingdom of dead souls. Souls of the dead and all the gods of Sumer, who were unlucky enough to end up in the underworld, were transported across the Ur-Shanab River by boat.
Sumerian religion - cosmology and mythology of human origins.
The Sumerian civilization was a practical people in its own way. However, the cosmology that the Sumerians possessed and the religion of this people, oddly enough, do not contain any specific theories and unambiguous hypotheses of the origin of man. Almost all the gods of the ancient Sumerians participated in the creation of man, at least this is the conclusion one can come to with a cursory study of the mythology of the Sumerian and Babylonian empires. Specifically, in the Sumerian religion one can only judge the time of the creation of humanity and the creation of the underworld. The text that the Sumerian religion produced, Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Underworld, states that the sacred events, namely the creation of humanity, took place during the period when the earth was separated from the heavens and when the gods of the Sumerian civilization, An and Enlil, divided the world's possessions among themselves. The legend of the hoe and the ax says that the earth was separated by the god Enlil, after which the pantheon of Sumerian gods moved to live in heaven, and those who did not make it went to and under the earth. Another fact that the Sumerian religion operates on is also known: the primordial paradise before the division of the universe was the island of Tilmun.
Several myths created by the Sumerian religion have survived to this day about the creation of people. But only one of them is completely independent - about Enki and Ninmah. Sumerian legends say that the gods Enki and Ninmah molded a man from clay. They were helped by Nammu, the goddess to whose life all the Sumerian gods owe and, as it turns out, humanity. The purpose for which people were created was to work for the glory of the gods. From this legend it becomes clear why and what gods the Sumerians worshiped. Sumerian mythology has a unique perspective on the lives of people and their role in this world. Sumerian religion says that people were obliged to cultivate the land, collect fruits, graze livestock, and most importantly, feed the gods with their lives, sacrificing them. Religious singing, which was organized by the Sumerians, prayers to the gods were also an integral duty of the common man. When the first people were born, created by the gods with whom the Sumerian religion is rich, the inhabitants of the pantheon determined their future fate and organized a great feast on this occasion. The Sumerians worshiped gods who were completely in charge of their lives. Ancient tales, legends, Sumerian myths and photos of Sumerian gods show that at the feast, the drunken creators Ninmah and Enki created bad people. This is how the Sumerians explained human diseases and illnesses: infertility, deformities, etc.
In myths, and specifically in the legend of the hoe and the ax, which describes the ancient Sumerian religion, the need to create man is explained primarily by the fact that the first gods were unable to manage a household. The same legend mentions the Sumerians and the names of the gods, who supposedly sprouted from the ground, and therefore did not know anything about labor. The people who also emerged from the ground were already endowed with knowledge about agriculture, which means they could serve their creators well.
The gods of the ancient Sumerians - the origin of the inhabitants of the pantheon.
A significant part of the myths of ancient Sumerians and Babylonians is devoted to the origin of divine beings. The gods of the ancient Sumerians are generally widely represented in mythology. The gods of the ancient Sumerians Enlil and Enki, who later created humanity, act as creator-demiurges in legends. Also visited as the first gods who created ancient Sumerian, goddesses Ninkasi and Uttu, responsible for brewing and weaving. Another significant character is also mentioned in the Sumerian legends about the creation of the world and the gods, the archaic king Enmeduranka, who was considered a predictor of the future. In general, the Sumerian civilization and its gods clearly separated roles, for example, one of the first gods Ningal-Paprigal was the inventor of the harp, and the great Gilgamesh was the creator of urban planning and the forefather of architecture. The line of fathers and mothers, creators and ancestors, related to the gods of the ancient Sumerians, is clearly visible in the myths about the flood and the “wrath of Inanna.”
Unfortunately, in Sumerian mythology very little information has been preserved about the gods of the ancient Sumerians who performed heroic deeds, about destructive natural forces and great monsters. Only two legends are known that tell about great divine deeds, namely the struggle of Ninurta with the demon Asag and the confrontation of Inanna with the monstrous Ebih. Essentially, heroic deeds were the prerogative of the people.
The Sumerian gods, photographs, engravings and images describing them, represent the ancient creators of the world as beings of two moods and hypostases. Alone gods of the ancient Sumerians were evil towards humanity and passive, others were kind and forgiving. So the most living images of the gods were Inanna, Enki, Dumuzi and Ninhursag, as well as some minor and local deities. The Sumerian gods, photos, tablets and ancient texts, say that An, Enlil and Enki were evil, and therefore passive towards people. These gods of the ancient Sumerians, their faces and images, had elements of comedy: people did not like them, which means they presented them in the appropriate light and made up ambiguous legends and tales about them. It is partly obvious why the alliance between the gods of the Sumerians and the year 2012 is endowed with such unfavorable predictions.
The development of the epic tradition of representing gods as heroic figures, characteristic of many mythological and cosmological systems, was not typical of the Sumerian empire. The Sumerian civilization and their gods developed according to their own, unique scenario. Their relationship was not characterized by love, and the Sumerians were not imbued with deep respect for their creators; on the contrary, the gods of the ancient Sumerians, at least today, appear as tyrants who in every possible way interfered with a calm way of life. Is it good or bad? Who knows? But one thing is certain: the Sumerian people with such an ambiguous pantheon of deities existed for many centuries, while civilizations with more gentle and good-natured gods were wiped out from the face of the earth almost immediately after their formation.
Sumerian civilization and Sumerian mythology are rightfully considered one of the most ancient in the history of all mankind. The golden age of this people, who lived in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), occurred in the third millennium BC. The Sumerian pantheon consisted of many different gods, spirits and monsters, and some of them were preserved in the beliefs of subsequent cultures of the Ancient East.
Common features
The basis on which Sumerian mythology and religion rested was communal beliefs in numerous gods: spirits, demiurge deities, patrons of nature and the state. It arose as a result of the interaction of an ancient people with the country that fed them. This faith did not have a mystical teaching or orthodox doctrine, as was the case with the beliefs that gave rise to modern world religions - from Christianity to Islam.
Sumerian mythology had several fundamental features. She recognized the existence of two worlds - the world of gods and the world of phenomena that they controlled. Each spirit in it was personified - it possessed the features of living beings.
Demiurges
The main god of the Sumerians was considered An (another spelling is Anu). It existed even before the separation of Earth from Heaven. He was depicted as an advisor and manager of the assembly of the gods. Sometimes he was angry with people, for example, he once sent a curse in the form of a heavenly bull to the city of Uruk and wanted to kill the hero of ancient legends, Gilgamesh. Despite this, for the most part An is inactive and passive. The main deity in Sumerian mythology had its own symbol in the form of a horned tiara.
An was identified with the head of the family and the ruler of the state. The analogy was manifested in the depiction of the demiurge along with the symbols of royal power: a staff, a crown and a scepter. It was An who kept the mysterious “meh”. This is how the inhabitants of Mesopotamia called the divine forces that controlled the earthly and heavenly worlds.
Enlil (Ellil) was considered the second most important god by the Sumerians. He was called Lord Wind or Mr. Breath. This creature ruled the world located between earth and sky. Another important feature that Sumerian mythology emphasized: Enlil had many functions, but they all boiled down to dominion over the wind and air. Thus, it was an elemental deity.
Enlil was considered the ruler of all countries foreign to the Sumerians. He has the power to arrange a disastrous flood, and he himself does everything to expel people alien to him from his possessions. This spirit can be defined as the spirit of wild nature that resisted the human collective trying to inhabit desert places. Enlil also punished kings for neglecting ritual sacrifices and ancient holidays. As punishment, the deity sent hostile mountain tribes to peaceful lands. Enlil was associated with the natural laws of nature, the passage of time, aging, death. In one of the largest Sumerian cities, Nippur, he was considered their patron. It was there that the ancient calendar of this vanished civilization was located.
Enki
Like other ancient mythologies, Sumerian mythology included exactly the opposite images. So, a kind of “anti-Enlil” was Enki (Ea) - the lord of the earth. He was considered the patron saint of fresh waters and all humanity in general. The lord of the earth was prescribed the characteristics of a craftsman, a magician and an artist who taught his skills to the younger gods, who, in turn, shared these skills with ordinary people.
Enki is the main character of Sumerian mythology (one of the three along with Enlil and Anu), and it was he who was called the protector of education, wisdom, scribes and schools. This deity personified the human collective, which was trying to subjugate nature and change its habitat. Enki was especially often turned to during wars and other serious dangers. But during periods of peace, its altars were empty; sacrifices, so necessary to attract the attention of the gods, were not made there.
Inanna
In addition to the three great gods, in Sumerian mythology there were also the so-called elder gods, or gods of the second order. Inanna is counted among this host. She is best known as Ishtar (an Akkadian name that was later also used in Babylon during its heyday). The image of Inanna, which appeared among the Sumerians, survived this civilization and continued to be revered in Mesopotamia in later times. Its traces can be traced even in Egyptian beliefs, and in general it existed until Antiquity.
So what does Sumerian mythology say about Inanna? The goddess was considered associated with the planet Venus and the power of military and love passion. She embodied human emotions, the elemental power of nature, as well as the feminine principle in society. Inanna was called the warrior maiden - she patronized intersexual relations, but she herself never gave birth. This deity in Sumerian mythology was associated with the practice of cult prostitution.
Marduk
As noted above, each Sumerian city had its own patron god (for example, Enlil in Nippur). This feature was associated with the political features of the development of ancient Mesopotamian civilization. The Sumerians almost never, with the exception of very rare periods, lived within the framework of one centralized state. For several centuries, their cities formed a complex conglomerate. Each settlement was independent and at the same time belonged to the same culture, bound by language and religion.
Sumerian and Akkadian mythology of Mesopotamia left its traces in the monuments of many Mesopotamian cities. It also influenced the development of Babylon. In a later period, it became the largest city of antiquity, where its own unique civilization was formed, which became the basis of a large empire. However, Babylon began as a small Sumerian settlement. It was then that Marduk was considered his patron. Researchers classify him as one of the dozen elder gods that Sumerian mythology gave birth to.
In short, Marduk's importance in the pantheon grew along with the gradual growth of Babylon's political and economic influence. His image is complex - as he evolved, he included the features of Ea, Ellil and Shamash. Just as Inanna was associated with Venus, Marduk was associated with Jupiter. Written sources of antiquity mention his unique healing powers and the art of healing.
Together with the goddess Gula, Marduk knew how to resurrect the dead. Also, Sumerian-Akkadian mythology placed him in the place of the patron of irrigation, without which the economic prosperity of the cities of the Middle East was impossible. In this regard, Marduk was considered the giver of prosperity and peace. His cult reached its apogee in the period (VII-VI centuries BC), when the Sumerians themselves had long disappeared from the historical scene, and their language was consigned to oblivion.
Marduk vs Tiamat
Thanks to cuneiform texts, numerous tales of the inhabitants of ancient Mesopotamia have been preserved. The confrontation between Marduk and Tiamat is one of the main plots that Sumerian mythology preserved in written sources. The gods often fought among themselves - similar stories are known in Ancient Greece, where the legend of gigantomachy was widespread.
The Sumerians associated Tiamat with the global ocean of chaos in which the whole world was born. This image is associated with the cosmogonic beliefs of ancient civilizations. Tiamat was depicted as a seven-headed hydra and a dragon. Marduk entered into a fight with her, armed with a club, a bow and a net. God was accompanied by storms and heavenly winds, called by him to fight monsters generated by a powerful enemy.
Each ancient cult had its own image of the foremother. In Mesopotamia, Tiamat was considered her. Sumerian mythology endowed her with many evil traits, because of which the rest of the gods took up arms against her. It was Marduk who was chosen by the rest of the pantheon for the decisive battle with the ocean-chaos. Having met his foremother, he was horrified by her terrible appearance, but entered into battle. A variety of gods in Sumerian mythology helped Marduk prepare for battle. The water demons Lahmu and Lahamu gave him the ability to summon floods. Other spirits prepared the rest of the warrior's arsenal.
Marduk, who opposed Tiamat, agreed to fight the ocean-chaos in exchange for the recognition by the other gods of their own world domination. A corresponding deal was concluded between them. At the decisive moment of the battle, Marduk drove a storm into Tiamat's mouth so that she could not close it. After that, he shot an arrow inside the monster and thus defeated his terrible rival.
Tiamat had a consort husband, Kingu. Marduk dealt with him too, taking away the tables of destinies from the monster, with the help of which the winner established his own dominance and created a new world. From the upper part of Tiamat's body he created the sky, the signs of the zodiac, the stars, from the lower part - the earth, and from the eye the two great rivers of Mesopotamia - the Euphrates and the Tigris.
The hero was then recognized by the gods as their king. In gratitude to Marduk, a sanctuary in the form of the city of Babylon was presented. Many temples dedicated to this god appeared in it, including the famous ancient monuments: the Etemenanki ziggurat and the Esagila complex. Sumerian mythology left many evidences about Marduk. The creation of the world by this god is a classic plot of ancient religions.
Ashur
Ashur is another Sumerian god whose image survived this civilization. He was originally the patron saint of the city of the same name. In the 24th century BC it arose there. When in the 8th-7th centuries BC. e. this state reached the peak of its power, Ashur became the most important god of all Mesopotamia. It is also curious that he turned out to be the main figure of the cult pantheon of the first empire in the history of mankind.
The King of Assyria was not only the ruler and head of state, but also the high priest of Ashur. This is how theocracy was born, the basis of which was Sumerian mythology. Books and other sources of antiquity and antiquity indicate that the cult of Ashur existed until the 3rd century AD, when neither Assyria nor independent Mesopotamian cities existed for a long time.
Nanna
The Sumerian moon god was Nanna (also a common Akkadian name Sin). He was considered the patron saint of one of the most important cities of Mesopotamia - Ur. This settlement existed for several millennia. In the XXII-XI centuries. BC, the rulers of Ur united all of Mesopotamia under their rule. In this regard, the importance of Nanna increased. His cult had important ideological significance. The eldest daughter of the king of Ur became the High Priestess of Nanna.
The moon god was favorable to cattle and fertility. He determined the fate of animals and the dead. For this purpose, every new moon Nanna went to the underworld. The phases of the Earth's celestial satellite were associated with his numerous names. The Sumerians called the full moon Nanna, the crescent moon Zuen, and the young crescent Ashimbabbar. In the Assyrian and Babylonian traditions, this deity was also considered a soothsayer and healer.
Shamash, Ishkur and Dumuzi
If the moon god was Nanna, then the sun god was Shamash (or Utu). The Sumerians believed that day was a product of night. Therefore, in their minds, Shamash was Nanna’s son and servant. His image was associated not only with the sun, but also with justice. At noon Shamash judged the living. He also fought evil demons.
The main cult centers of Shamash were Elassar and Sippar. Scientists date the first temples (“houses of radiance”) of these cities to the incredibly distant 5th millennium BC. It was believed that Shamash gave wealth to people, freedom to prisoners, and fertility to lands. This god was depicted as a long-bearded old man with a turban on his head.
In any ancient pantheon there were personifications of each natural element. So, in Sumerian mythology, the god of thunder is Ishkur (another name is Adad). His name often appeared in cuneiform sources. Ishkur was considered the patron saint of the lost city of Karkara. In myths he occupies a secondary position. Nevertheless, he was considered a warrior god, armed with terrible winds. In Assyria, the image of Ishkur evolved into the figure of Adad, which had important religious and state significance. Another nature deity was Dumuzi. He personified the calendar cycle and the change of seasons.
Demons
Like many other ancient peoples, the Sumerians had their own underworld. This lower underground world was inhabited by the souls of the dead and terrible demons. In cuneiform texts, hell was often called "the land of no return." There are dozens of underground Sumerian deities - information about them is fragmentary and scattered. As a rule, each individual city had its own traditions and beliefs associated with chthonic creatures.
Nergal is considered one of the main negative gods of the Sumerians. He was associated with war and death. This demon in Sumerian mythology was depicted as the distributor of dangerous epidemics of plague and fever. His figure was considered the main one in the underworld. In the city of Kutu there was the main temple of the Nergalov cult. Babylonian astrologers personified the planet Mars using his image.
Nergal had a wife and his own female prototype - Ereshkigal. She was Inanna's sister. This demon in Sumerian mythology was considered the master of the chthonic creatures Anunnaki. The main temple of Ereshkigal was located in the large city of Kut.
Another important chthonic deity of the Sumerians was Nergal's brother Ninazu. Living in the underworld, he possessed the art of rejuvenation and healing. His symbol was a snake, which later became the personification of the medical profession in many cultures. Ninaza was revered with special zeal in the city of Eshnunn. His name is mentioned in the famous Babylonian ones where it is said that offerings to this god are obligatory. In another Sumerian city - Ur - there was an annual holiday in honor of Ninazu, during which abundant sacrifices were held. The god Ningishzida was considered his son. He guarded the demons imprisoned in the underworld. The symbol of Ningishzida was the dragon - one of the constellations of Sumerian astrologers and astronomers, which the Greeks called the constellation Serpent.
Sacred trees and spirits
Spells, hymns and prescription books of the Sumerians testify to the existence of sacred trees among this people, each of which was attributed to a specific deity or city. For example, tamarisk was especially revered in the Nippur tradition. In Shuruppak's spells, this tree is considered to be Tamarisk, used by exorcists in rites of purification and treatment of diseases.
Modern science knows about the magic of trees thanks to the few traces of conspiracy traditions and epics. But even less is known about Sumerian demonology. Mesopotamian magical collections, which were used to drive out evil forces, were compiled already in the era of Assyria and Babylonia in the languages of these civilizations. Only a few things can be said for certain about the Sumerian tradition.
There were spirits of ancestors, guardian spirits and hostile spirits. The latter included the monsters killed by the heroes, as well as personifications of illnesses and diseases. The Sumerians believed in ghosts, very similar to the Slavic hostages of the dead. Ordinary people treated them with horror and fear.
Evolution of mythology
The religion and mythology of the Sumerians went through three stages of its formation. At the first, communal-tribal totems evolved into the masters of cities and demiurge gods. At the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, conspiracies and temple hymns appeared. A hierarchy of gods emerged. It began with the names An, Enlil and Enki. Then came the suns and moons, warrior gods, etc.
The second period is also called the period of Sumerian-Akkadian syncretism. It was marked by a mixture of different cultures and mythologies. Alien to the Sumerians, the Akkadian language is considered the language of the three peoples of Mesopotamia: the Babylonians, Akkadians and Assyrians. Its oldest monuments date back to the 25th century BC. Around this time, the process of merging the images and names of Semitic and Sumerian deities began, performing the same functions.
The third, final period is the period of unification of the common pantheon during the III dynasty of Ur (XXII-XI centuries BC). At this time, the first totalitarian state in human history arose. It subjected to strict ranking and accounting not only people, but also the disparate and multifaceted gods. It was during the Third Dynasty that Enlil was placed at the head of the assembly of gods. An and Enki were on either side of him.
Below were the Anunnaki. Among them were Inanna, Nanna, and Nergal. About a hundred more minor deities were located at the foot of this staircase. At the same time, the Sumerian pantheon merged with the Semitic one (for example, the difference between the Sumerian Enlil and the Semitic Bela was erased). After the fall of the III dynasty of Ur in Mesopotamia it disappeared for some time. In the second millennium BC, the Sumerians lost their independence, finding themselves under the rule of the Assyrians. A mixture of these peoples later gave rise to the Babylonian nation. Along with ethnic changes, religious changes also occurred. When the former homogeneous Sumerian nation and its language disappeared, the mythology of the Sumerians also sank into the past.
Inhabitants and gods of Sumer du ej M SYRIA e IRAN fr Ev IRAQ r T ich re at Between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Western Asia there is a large valley called Mesopotamia. Its second name is Mesopotamia. SAUDI ARABIA Kmusser
This region is very hot and rarely rains, but the marshy soil near the rivers is very fertile. Bertramz
Vitold Muratov Reshetnikov Residents of the valley built dams and this hard work for hundreds of years in Mesopotamia communities united for irrigation canals, drained swamps and turned the desert into a blooming oasis. construction of dams and canals. deserted areas were greened. Jan van der Crabben
There were practically no trees or stones in Mesopotamia, so all buildings were made of clay bricks that were fired in the sun.
There were few metal ores in Mesopotamia, so tools were made from copper, and other metals were traded with foreign traders for grain. Eurico Zimbres Hi-Res Images of Chemical Elements
Rosemaniakos from Bejing Mesopotamia was inhabited mainly by Sumerians, who moved to the Tigris and Euphrates valley 7 thousand years ago.
Next to the Sumerians in the north lived another people - the Akkadians. City-states arose among the Akkadians later, and they were often at enmity with the Sumerian states.
The armies of Sumerian cities were units of archers, spearmen and chariots. Sumerian warriors had copper or bronze helmets, breastplates, spears, swords and bows. Laurent Nautilus
Sumerian writing is unique - words In total, there were several Sumerian writing Sumerians wrote using wedge-shaped dozens of icons that denoted syllables and words. icons applied to clay tablets.
The main god of the Sumerians was the god Enlil, who created all the other gods. People also worshiped the sun god Shamash and the goddess of love Ishtar, on whom the harvest depended. The god Ea fed the Tigris and Euphrates with water. Camocon
§ 11. Residents and gods of Sumer
Farmers of Mesopotamia
Between the two great rivers of Western Asia, the Tigris and the Euphrates, lies a vast valley, which is called Mesopotamia. The meager forests of Mesopotamia were cut down in ancient times. The people who settled here were surrounded by reed swamps and flat plains. The landscape was enlivened only by small groves of date palms. Almost all year round in Mesopotamia there is unbearable heat, the sun burns out all the vegetation.
But, despite the dry climate and rare rains, this land attracted people with its fertility.
The soils of Mesopotamia produced abundant harvests thanks to the floods of the Tigris and Euphrates, which fertilized and moistened the land. Residents of Mesopotamia were among the first on our planet to engage in agriculture. Like the Egyptians, they learned to build high dams along rivers. People built a whole network of canals that served to irrigate fields and drain excess water during floods. Canals were also dug to drain swamps. Over hundreds of years, the land of Mesopotamia was covered with a network of irrigation systems. Thanks to their tenacity and hard work, its inhabitants, century after century, conquered new lands from deserts and swamps. The previously deserted country was transformed into a flourishing land.
Mesopotamia in ancient times
Using the map and text, tell about the geographical location and natural conditions of Mesopotamia.
The first states of Mesopotamia
The construction of dams and irrigation canals required the hard work of many people. Farmers of Mesopotamia had to unite into large communities. Gradually these communities turned into small states. The first of them arose in Mesopotamia around 3 thousand years BC. e. The center of such a state was a city, whose ruler also ruled the agricultural district. Similar city-states arose near rivers or large canals.
Golden Sumerian helmet
Due to the lack of forests and stone suitable for construction in Mesopotamia, all buildings were erected from clay. Mixing it with straw remaining after harvesting, large bricks were sculpted. Since there was little wood for the kilns, the clay was fired not in the fire, but in the sun. Bricks were the material from which houses, temples, palaces and even city walls were built in Mesopotamia.
Sumerian woman. Ancient sculpture
In ancient times, southern Mesopotamia was called the country of Sumer. It was inhabited by strong, short people with large dark eyes and long straight noses. Men shaved their heads, but wore long thick beards. The Sumerians were not the only inhabitants of Mesopotamia. In its northern part was the country of Akkad. The Akkadians, like the Sumerians, eventually formed their own city-states. But they arose later than the Sumerians. Residents of the Akkadian city-states adopted many of the achievements of their southern neighbors.
The Akkadians often attacked Sumerian cities. More than once during their centuries-old history, the Sumerians had to defend their homes and crops from raids by warlike nomads. To protect themselves from enemy invasions, the Sumerians had to create a strong army. Their brave warriors were well armed. They had leather armor, spears, darts, bronze axes and swords. The formidable weapon of the Sumerians were battle carts - structures on massive wheels made from a single piece of wood. Such carts carried a charioteer and several warriors. In battle, they bombarded the enemy with darts and struck with spears.
Writing of Sumer
One of the greatest achievements of the Sumerians was the invention of writing. They came up with it even before the Egyptians. The rulers of the city-states needed to know exactly how much taxes were going to the treasury. Tax collectors sculpted clay images of items received from the population. These figures were placed in clay “envelopes”. For convenience, on each “envelope” they drew what was there. From these drawings Sumerian writing arose. It consisted of several dozen icons, denoting both whole words and syllables. The inhabitants of Mesopotamia wrote on clay tablets. It was difficult to draw complex designs on them, and therefore they were replaced with conventional images from large and small wedges. The wedges were squeezed out on damp clay with a pointed stick. Then such a “book” was burned. Because of its appearance, the writing system of Mesopotamia is called cuneiform.
Cuneiform tablet
Scientists have found many cuneiform tablets. Some of them contain business correspondence, others - records of tax collectors, others - fairy tales and legends of Mesopotamia. The oldest of them is the legend about the king of the city of Uruk, Gilgamesh, who traveled in search of the source of eternal youth.
Compare the writing of Egypt and Mesopotamia. What do they have in common, how are they different?
Gods of Mesopotamia
The inhabitants of Mesopotamia worshiped many gods. The main one was Enlil - the father of all higher powers. They worshiped the sun god Shamash, as well as the goddess of love and fertility Ishtar. People believed that the size of the harvest depended on her favor. The kind and wise god of water Ea, who nourishes the fields of farmers with moisture, enjoyed no less respect.
Every Sumerian city had a temple dedicated to the god who was considered the patron saint of the city. The inhabitants of Mesopotamia built their temples in the form of multi-stage pyramids. Each step of such a pyramid was painted a special color. Dwellings for priests and schools were built near the temples, where children of the nobility and priests were educated.
Scientific discoveries of the Sumerians
The Sumerian priests were excellent astronomers. From generation to generation they followed the Sun, Moon and stars. The results of these observations were carefully recorded. Even modern astronomers do not have such long-term astronomical observations as the ancient Sumerians had. By observing the movements of the planets for many generations, they learned to predict solar and lunar eclipses and the appearance of comets.
Sacrifice to the god Enlil. Clay tablet
The mathematical knowledge of the Sumerians reached a high level. But, unlike our decimal counting system, their calculations were based on the number 60. True, in some cases we also use this counting system invented by the Sumerians. For example, we divide a circle into 360 degrees, and an hour into 60 minutes, each of which, in turn, is divided into 60 seconds.
Let's sum it up
In the 3rd millennium BC. e. the people living on the territory of Mesopotamia began the transition to the stage of civilization. The ancient Sumerians managed to create a unique culture, many of whose achievements we still use today.
III millennium BC e. The emergence of the first Sumerian city-states.Questions and tasks
1. Write a story about the life and activities of the inhabitants of a Sumerian city.
2. Tell us about the emergence of Sumerian writing.
3. Which gods were most respected by the inhabitants of Mesopotamia and why?
4. Tell us about the development of science among the Sumerians. What achievements do we use?
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