Relations between the Church and society in different eras in different countries have their own characteristics. There are no general schemes or universal recipes here. And even today, in times of globalization, regional and national differences remain.
For modern Russia, several points can be identified that influence the development of church-public dialogue. The first of them is the transitional state of modern Russian society. As participants in the events, we, it seems, have not yet fully realized the scale of the changes that have occurred over the past 15–20 years. And this process continues, although, of course, the contours of the new device have already been outlined and largely formed.
For centuries, Orthodoxy has been the spiritual core of Russia, permeating all spheres of life in society and the state. Having come to power in 1917, the Bolsheviks tried to destroy the Church and build an atheistic society. Despite the enormous efforts of state atheism - from propaganda to mass executions, the Church in Russia has been preserved, but society has largely become de-churched. A situation arose when a believer was forced to hide his faith.
And therefore, when in 1990 the law enshrined freedom of religion, we were faced with the fact that the institutions of the state and society were not ready for this. Yes, conceptually, at the level of legal acts and political statements, the Soviet model of the religious ghetto was abandoned. However, in practice, many issues remain that require resolution.
Consider, for example, the legal sphere. The Church entered the period of transformation of society without virtually any legal guarantees of existence and activity. Twenty years have passed, two laws have been adopted regulating church-public and church-state relations, and many other acts affecting this area.
However, we still have to deal with a non-legal approach in various situations. This is especially noticeable when it comes to the return of churches and monasteries. Proposals constantly arise to create a government agency in the field of religion. The most recent proposal of this kind was made on January 26, 2007 by Senator Slutsker.
This raises the question of whether we are striving to build a rule-of-law state and civil society, or whether we are planning to revive Soviet schemes, when the state tried to control everything. Everyone knows what this led to. Therefore, let’s say definitely: you cannot try to replace partnership and dialogue with the restoration of the Council for Religious Affairs. It's counterproductive.
Another example. Religious organizations were extended the scope of the new law on non-profit organizations last year. Including detailed reporting, such as how many meetings were held and how many organization members attended. Of course, to a certain extent, church structures can be called institutions of civil society. And these are truly non-profit organizations. But an Orthodox parish or monastery exists on completely different principles than a philatelist society and a human rights foundation. This means there must be a differentiation of approaches.
The same applies to the conscription of clergy into military service. For a long time this problem was not regulated and was resolved on the basis of respect for custom. This was followed by a Presidential Decree exempting the clergy from conscription. Today this norm has been abolished along with others. But there are church canons that must be respected. And this should depend not only on the goodwill of the head of the draft commission, but is enshrined in law.
In this regard, one cannot help but recall the question of the presence of the clergy in the army. The department's leadership, although not unconditionally, supports such a presence. The military personnel are waiting for this to finally happen. As the administrator of the diocese, I receive requests almost every day for a clergyman to come to the unit, hold a conversation, and perform a divine service. In many units, on their own initiative, they build chapels and temples and ask to appoint a permanent priest.
It would seem that the only thing that could interfere is the lack of clergy. But no. There are public and political figures organizing protest campaigns. And the solution to the issue, which is very, very pressing, is being delayed and delayed.
But the army really needs spiritual nourishment. For military service, even in peacetime, even in the most favorable living conditions, is always associated with trials, difficult, and often conflict situations. Imagine a barracks. Several dozen guys, cut off from their usual life. They are all different socially, ethnically, culturally. It is clear that such a collective especially needs peace and harmony, achievable only on a solid spiritual and moral basis. Who else but a priest will help soldiers find and maintain such a foundation!
Opponents of the presence of the clergy in the Armed Forces argue their position by saying that introducing a religious factor into the life of the army will harm its unity, thereby undermining its combat effectiveness. But let’s ask ourselves: does such unity exist today, and not only in the army, but throughout our entire society? Do we have a national identity?
Such an identity certainly existed in pre-revolutionary Russia. And it was based on religious unity, on Orthodoxy. Its own identity was present, albeit with reservations, in Soviet society. Modern Russia, it seems, is still searching for itself.
The search, frankly speaking, has been delayed, and this threatens the future of Russia. For the modern world has also entered the stage of another perestroika. The post-war world order, which was spoken of as eternal, lasted only half a century. Today the whole world is on the move. Ideology and politics change, new alliances are created and old ones disintegrate. Military threats are emerging where they have not existed for centuries. In these difficult conditions, the importance of public harmony increases for any country. For many times in human history the truth has been justified that “every kingdom divided against itself is desolate, and every house divided against itself will fall.”
And only the religious factor can be a solid basis for agreement. Because political and ideological concepts never keep up with real life, which is much more complex and dynamic than any doctrine. And only religion is unchanged and meets the deepest aspirations of people.
Every person and every society strives for good and happiness. In Orthodoxy, the solution to the question of good is based on the confession of the existence of God and the immortality of the human person. According to Christian revelation, God is Being (Existing) and Consciousness (Wisdom), Trinitarian Love, Truth. From this alone it is clear that God is the Good by Whom everything lives and moves and exists.
This principle determines the meaning and content of classical Russian culture in all its diversity, including social aspects. This principle determines the moral foundations of our people, and therefore the foundations of jurisprudence. It is from moral principles that laws grow. First there was God’s commandment “thou shalt not kill,” and then a legal norm appeared that provided for punishment for breaking God’s commandment, accepted as a moral law.
And in this sense, the modern legal system is also at a crossroads. Either remain faithful to God’s commandments and moral standards as the basis of lawmaking, or abandon morality and take political correctness as a basis, where the concepts of good and evil are so blurred that only one unconditional type of crime remains - against political correctness itself.
Naturally, for a believer this state of affairs is unacceptable. From the point of view of our legislation, a parade of homosexuals in Moscow or any other city or village in Russia is already possible today. But the Orthodox community does not think so. And he expresses his position clearly and unambiguously. While people are allowed to do this, as long as the authorities have the opportunity not to allow such a demonstrative action that promotes vice. But what will happen tomorrow? If we remain silent, do not shape public opinion, and seek from legislators to respect the rights of believers, the consequences could be sad for Russia.
The principle of freedom of conscience turns out to be one of the means of existence of the Church in a non-religious world, allowing it to have legal status in a secular state and independence from heterogeneous or non-believing sections of society. But on the other hand, religious freedom speaks of the loss of unity of spirit, the loss of religious goals and values by society, a departure from the faith, de-churching and virtual indifference to the cause of the Church and to the victory over sin. And most importantly, the idea of the unity of truth is lost. There are only opinions left - therefore, everything is blurred, there is a religious regression. Freed from religion and morality, society moves towards decay, slavery and tyranny! Replacing Christian freedom with the idea of freedom to live according to lust is the greatest deception.
This means that we need to go a different way, by respecting the spiritual and moral tradition of Russia, by respecting Orthodox culture. And a natural step on this path is teaching the fundamentals of Orthodox culture in secondary schools. Today only schools can carry out this task professionally and on a large scale.
But, as in the case of the presence of clergy in the army, the introduction of teaching the fundamentals of Orthodox culture in schools is met with serious opposition. And again we hear the same arguments about the multi-confessional and multi-ethnic nature of Russian society, about the need for tolerance.
Yes, our society is multi-ethnic, but more than 80% of the population is Russian. Yes, in addition to Orthodox believers, in Russia there are Muslims, there are Buddhists, Jews, representatives of other faiths, but more than half of the population are Orthodox.
But that's not the point. The foundations of Orthodox culture are not the Law of God, it is not a doctrinal subject, but a cultural course based on the recognition of an obvious fact: the culture of Russia is based on Russian Orthodox culture. Our customs and principles of our identity grow from its spiritual and moral foundations. And one of the principles of this identity is tolerance, rooted in Orthodox Philokalia. So the best vaccination against xenophobia and extremism is precisely the foundations of Orthodox culture.
The position of modern Russian media in the religious sphere deserves a separate discussion. Religious topics in secular media are present only in connection with any events in political or social life. These publications are not always competent, and sometimes they are quite malicious. In many ways, this state of affairs is a consequence of the unstructured relationship between religious organizations and the media. Still, journalists must admit that spiritual life exists and is important and significant for the majority of Russian residents. And we, the clergy and laity, need to learn to find a common language with the media, to convey our position to them.
This is all the more important because today television, the press and the Internet have a huge influence on the formation of public opinion and the development of the culture of society.
The main thing is that the voice of the Church is heard in the social sphere, in schools and military units, and in the media. So that Orthodox citizens are active participants in political life in the country, in particular, taking elections seriously to various bodies of municipal and state power. And having elected a deputy or mayor, they controlled his activities.
Today, in the conditions of transformation of society and the state, what Russia will become, what our Fatherland will be like – the Russia of Xerxes or Christ – depends on each of us.
Religion, religious studies, faith, spiritual life of society, ontology, epistemology, theology, religious idea, religious cult, religious organization, church, sect, denomination, sacralization, secularization, national religions, world religions.
Questions for control
1. What is religion?
2. What is the original element of every religion?
3. What are the main functions of religion?
4. What sciences study religion?
5. How can we classify religions that exist in the modern world?
6. What is the role of religion in human life and society?
Abstract topics
1. The role and significance of the religious factor in the life of the peoples of the world.
2. Development of ideas about religion.
3. Methods for studying religion.
4. Elements and structure of religion.
5. Problems of modern religious studies.
Test topics
1. Scientific definitions of religion.
2. Religion as a worldview phenomenon.
3. The role of religion in the spiritual life of modern society.
4. The structure of religion.
5. The main functions of religion.
6. Typology of religion.
Tasks for independent work
1. Name the religious organizations that exist in your city (district) and give them brief description. Select several examples from Russian history that
would allow us to evaluate the role of religion and the church in the life of society.
Literature
Vasiliev L. S.. History of the religions of the East. M., 1988.
Garadzha V.I. Religious Studies. M., 1994.
Bible. M., 1996.
Donini A. U the origins of Christianity (from its origins to Justinian). M., 1987.
Kosidovsky 3. Biblical stories. M., 1975.
Koran. M., 1963.
Kimelev Yu.A., Polyakova N.L. Science and religion: historical and cultural essay. M., 1988.
Kryvelev I.A. The Bible: historical and critical analysis. M., 1982.
Kryvelev I.A. History of religion: an essay. In 2 volumes, 2nd ed. M., 1988.
Klimovich L.I. A book about the Koran, its origins and mythology. M., 1986.
Kublanov M.M. Origin of Christianity. M., 1974.
Kulanov A.E. Religions of the world. M., 1996.
Lectures on the history of religion. Tutorial. St. Petersburg, 1997.
Lobovik B.A. Religious consciousness and its features. Kyiv, 1986.
Lozinsky S.G. History of the Papacy. M., 1986
Markevich S. Modern Christian Democracy. M., 1982.
Martin W. Kingdom of cults. St. Petersburg, 1992.
Men A. History of religion in search of the Path, Truth and Life. M., 1985.
Mitrokhin L.N. Religions of the “new century”: M., 1985.
Mchedlov M.P.. Catholicism. M., 1974.
Nikonov K.I. Contemporary Christian Anthropology. M., 1983.
Fundamentals of Religious Studies/Ed. N. Yablokova. M., 1994.
Religion in US political life. M., 1986.
Religions of the World: A Manual for Teachers / Ed. Ya.N. Shchapova. M., 1994.
Ugrinovich D.N. Introduction to Religious Studies. M., 1979.
Yablokov I.N. Sociology of religion. M., 1979.
Topic 2. The origin of religion and its early forms
When considering the problem of the origin of religion, we are faced with very complex questions about when religion arose and in what forms it existed in the early stages of its development. For a long time, the answers to these questions seemed obvious. Most people who have studied Judaism and Christianity have been satisfied with the answers contained in the first two chapters of the Bible, which outline the concept of the creation of the world and man. According to the Bible, having created man “from the dust of the ground,” God “breathed into his nostrils the breath of life” and entered into direct relationship with him. Consequently, religion has a divine nature, arises with man and moreover, immediately in the form of monotheism (belief in one God).
Since ancient times, various theories of the origins of religion have been put forward. Thus, the ancient philosopher Kitius (5th century BC) believed that people invented gods in order to instill fear in others and to carry out laws. The founder of ancient materialism, Democritus (5th century BC), pointed out that the basis of religion is the fear of formidable forces of nature. B. Spinoza (1632-1677) saw the roots of religion in man’s lack of confidence in his own abilities, in his constant oscillations between hope and fear. French enlighteners of the 18th century. saw the roots of religion in the suffering and fear that oppress people. They believed that religion originally arose from man's powerlessness before the elements of nature.
The above-mentioned theories of the origin of religion were widespread among a narrow circle of intellectuals and were most likely of a speculative nature. The theological concept regarding the emergence of religion was subjected to serious criticism only in the second half of the 19th century, when, at the junction of rapidly developing sciences (archeology, ethnography, anthropology, sociology, etc.), modern religious studies arose, which from the very beginning set as its task not the defense of established ideas, but a dispassionate study of the world's religions .
IN In the course of numerous studies, quite interesting results were obtained: scientists were mouth
It has been confirmed that biblical monotheism is not the starting point of religious evolution, but is only an intermediate stage in the development of religions. English scientists J. Lebbock (1834-1913) and E. Taylor (1832-1917) proposed the following classification of religion in human civilization - polytheism, henotheism (i.e. serving one deity as supreme while other gods exist) and monotheism. True, the question remained open about the roots of monotheism, which went deep into human history and were hidden from the eyes of researchers. This created opportunities for putting forward purely speculative theories and hypotheses.
One of them was put forward by theological and church circles and entered the history of the study of religions under the name “proto-monotheism”, or primitive monotheism. It was first briefly outlined by the Scottish scientist E. Lang (1844-1912) in his book “The Formation of Religion.” This scientist drew attention to the images of heavenly gods in the religions of some backward peoples and concluded that the images of these gods are of unearthly origin. The Catholic pastor W. Schmidt (1868-1954) seized on this idea, constructing an entire concept of proto-monotheism, to which he devoted a 12-volume work, “The Origin of the Idea of God.” Schmidt declared the images of heavenly beings in the beliefs of backward peoples to be remnants of the ancient faith in a single Creator God, to whose image supposedly later mythological, magical and other elements that contaminated it were mixed. To confirm this theory, Schmidt cited many ethnographic facts, but gave them a purely theological interpretation, and ignored facts that did not fit into his scheme.
At the beginning of the 20th century. Another direction in the study of religion arose, associated with the name of the Viennese psychiatrist Z. Freud (1856-1939). He developed the so-called psychoanalytic method for recognizing and treating neuroses and psychoses and tried to transfer it to the interpretation of the phenomena of everyday life, and then religion. In his book “Totem and Taboo,” Freud attempted to prove that the same neuroses are manifested in religious beliefs, and that they are based on erotic impulses suppressed in childhood. Discussing the origin of religion, Freud reduced this problem to a narrow area
sexual attractions and to purely biological phenomena and thus could not understand all the diversity and historical variability of religious beliefs.
Modern theologians, ardent defenders of religion, strive to prove that religion is inherent in man from the very beginning of his existence. In contrast, many religious scholars defend the hypothesis of the existence of a “pre-religious period” in human history. Proponents of this hypothesis argue that people who lived in the early stages of the development of society did not there were religious beliefs, because their consciousness was directly woven into practice and could not create any abstractions, including religious ones. Since the appearance of this hypothesis, reports began to appear in the scientific world about the existence of tribes so low in their cultural development, that they allegedly completely lacked religious ideas and concepts. However, after a thorough study of the life of these tribes, their customs, languages, peculiarities of thinking, after establishing trusting contacts with them, researchers invariably discovered in them the beginnings of religious beliefs and cult practice, therefore the hypothesis about the existence of a “pre-religious period” remains a hypothesis, which at this stage of development of human sciences can neither be confirmed nor refuted.
Considering that the process of anthropogenesis (human origin) lasted for more than two million years and that most of human history is still insufficiently studied, modern religious scholars are skeptical about both the theory of “proto-monotheism” and the hypothesis of the existence of a “pre-religious period.” At present, it is logical to assert with some confidence that the simplest forms of religious beliefs already existed 40 thousand years ago. It was at this time that the appearance of the modern type of man (Homo Sapiens) dates back, who was very different from his supposed predecessors in physical structure, physiological and psychological characteristics. But his most important difference was that he was a reasonable person, capable of analyzing a specific situation and creating generalized concepts and a fairly high level of abstractions, to be aware of himself and his place in the surrounding reality.
The existence of religious beliefs in this remote period of human history is evidenced by the burial practices of primitive people. It was established that they were buried in specially prepared places, and the deceased first went through certain rites of preparation for the afterlife: their bodies were covered with a layer of ocher, weapons, household items, jewelry, etc. were placed next to them.
Obviously, at that time, religious and mystical ideas were already taking shape that the deceased continues to live, that along with the real world, there is another world where the dead live.
The religious beliefs of primitive man were also reflected in works of cave painting that were discovered in the 19th-20th centuries. in Southern France and Northern Italy. Most ancient rock paintings are scenes of hunting, images of people and animals. Analysis of these drawings allowed scientists to conclude that primitive man believed in a special kind of connection between people and animals, as well as in the ability to influence the behavior of animals using some magical techniques. Finally, it was established that among primitive people the veneration of various objects was widespread, which should bring good luck and ward off all dangers.
1.Primitive forms beliefs. Religious beliefs and cults of primitive people developed gradually. The primary form of religion was the worship of nature. The primitive peoples did not know the concept of “nature”, therefore the object of their worship was the impersonal natural force, designated by the concept of “mana”. Scientists borrowed this term from the aborigines of Polynesia and Melanesia, who so called the force that controls natural processes. A person has mana when he is happy, successful and demonstrates some unusual success, for example, as a farmer, warrior or leader. Mana is sent by the gods, which presupposes their possession of mana in the first place.
An early form of religious views should be considered totemism - the belief in the existence of a family connection between a group of people (tribe, clan) and a certain species of animals or plants. Totemism was the first
a form of awareness of the unity of the human collective and its connection with the outside world. The life of the clan was closely connected with certain types of animals, which were hunted by all its members. As scientists suggest, this circumstance served as the basis for the emergence of the totem (in the language of the North American Indians of the Ojibwe tribe, ototem - its genus) - an animal ancestor considered the patron of the gens.
In later times, elements of social, primarily consanguineous, relations were introduced into totemism. Members of the clan group (blood relatives) began to believe that they descended from ancestors who combined the characteristics of people and their totem. This leads, on the one hand, to strengthening the cult of ancestors and belief in their special capabilities, and on the other, to a change in attitude towards the totem itself, in particular, to the emergence of prohibitions on eating totems, except in cases where eating the totem was ritual in nature and reminiscent of ancient norms and rules.
Subsequently, within the framework of totemism, a whole system of prohibitions arose, which were called taboos. They represented an important mechanism for regulating social relations. Thus, the gender and age taboo excluded sexual relations between close relatives. Food taboos strictly regulated the nature of the food that was supposed to go to the leader, warriors, women, old people and children. A number of other taboos were intended to guarantee the inviolability of the home or hearth, regulate the rules of burial, and fix the social status, rights and responsibilities of members of the primitive community.
Early forms of religion include magic (literally translated from ancient Greek - witchcraft). It represents the belief that primitive people had in the ability to influence any natural phenomena. through certain symbolic actions (shutters, spells, etc.)
Having originated in ancient times, magic was preserved and continued to develop over many millennia. If initially magical ideas and rituals were of a general nature, then over time they became differentiated. Modern experts classify magic according to methods and purposes of influence. According to the methods of influence, magic is divided into contact (by
direct contact of the bearer of magical power with the object to which the action is directed), initial (the magical act is directed at an object that is inaccessible to the subject of magical activity), paracial (indirect influence through cut hair or nails, food debris that in one way or another gets to the owner of magical power), imitative (impact on the likeness of the subject). According to the purposes of influence, magic is divided into harmful, military, commercial, healing, love, etc.
Usually, magical techniques were performed by specially trained people - sorcerers and shamans, who sincerely believed in their ability to communicate with spirits, convey to them the requests and hopes of their fellow tribesmen, and influence supernatural forces. But the main thing was not that they themselves believed in their extraordinary abilities, but that the team believed them and turned to them for help at the most critical moments. Therefore, sorcerers and shamans enjoyed special honor and respect among primitive people.
Over time, magic turned into one of the most essential components of a developed religion, including a certain system of magical actions - rituals, sacraments, prayers, etc. In everyday life, magic has been preserved to this day in the form of conspiracies, fortune telling, predictions, and belief in the “evil eye” and “damage.”
Among primitive people, the veneration of various objects, which were supposed to bring good luck and ward off all dangers, was of particular importance. This form of religious belief is called "fetishism" (from the Portuguese "fetish" - made). It was first discovered by Portuguese sailors in West Africa in the 15th century, and then analogues of fetishism were identified in the religions of almost all countries, as well as during archaeological excavations, providing material about the beliefs of primitive people.
Any object that captured a person’s imagination could become a fetish: a stone of an unusual shape, a piece of wood, a tooth of a fossil animal, a piece of jewelry. This object was attributed properties that were not inherent to it (the ability to heal, protect from danger, help in hunting...) Most often, the object that became a fairy
quietly, I chose it by trial and error. If after this choice a person managed to achieve success in practical activities, he believed that the fetish helped him in this, and kept it for himself. If a person suffered any misfortune, the fetish was thrown out or replaced by another.
The treatment of fetishes by primitive people suggests that they did not always treat the object they chose with due respect. He was thanked for his help, but punished for his helplessness. In this regard, the African custom of torturing fetishes is indicative, not only to punish them, but also to motivate them to action. For example, when asking an African fetish for something, they drove iron nails into it, believing that after this the fetish would better remember the requests addressed to it and will definitely fulfill them.
A particularly common form of fetishism was the worship of stones and pieces of wood. So, members of the American Dakota tribe found a round cobblestone, painted it, and then, calling this cobblestone grandfather, began to bring him gifts and ask for deliverance from dangers. It is also known that many Brazilian tribes stuck sticks into the ground and made sacrifices to them. The custom of worshiping stones and wooden pillars existed among many tribes in North Asia. He did not bypass the peoples of Europe either. Several centuries ago in England and France there was a ban on worshiping stones, which indicates the long-term preservation of fetishism even during the reign of the Christian religion in Europe.
Speaking about the wide spread of fetishism, it is necessary to emphasize that the content of this belief system has changed significantly. The mentioned worship of stones and pieces of wood, which was accompanied by the offering of gifts and sacrifices, as well as the custom of torturing fetishes, belong to a fairly late stage in the development of fetishism. Obviously, in ancient times, people did not endow the objects they chose with human properties, did not spiritualize them, much less deify them. The essence of primitive fetishism was that a person saw in objects that struck his imagination properties that were detected in them with the help of ordinary senses. By doing so, man
made objects “sensory-supersensible,” and supersensible properties were attributed to fetishes either on the basis of random associations or on the basis of misunderstood cause-and-effect relationships.
Speaking about the early forms of religion, one cannot fail to mention animism (from the Latin “anima” - soul) - the belief in the existence of souls and spirits. A detailed analysis of animistic beliefs was given by E. Taylor in his work “Primitive Culture”. According to his theory, these beliefs developed in two directions. The first series of animistic ideas arose in the course of ancient man's reflection on such phenomena as sleep, visions, illness, death, as well as from experiences of trance and hallucinations. Unable to correctly explain these complex phenomena, the “primitive philosopher” develops concepts about the soul located in the human body and leaving it from time to time. Subsequently, more complex ideas are formed about the existence of the soul after the death of the body, about the transmigration of souls into new bodies, about the afterlife, etc.
The second series of animistic beliefs arose from the inherent desire of primitive people to personify and spiritualize the environment. reality. Ancient man considered all objects of the objective world as something similar to himself, endowing them with desires, will, feelings, thoughts, etc. From here arises the belief in separately existing spirits of formidable forces of nature, plants, animals, which, in the course of complex evolution, was transformed into polytheism, and then into monotheism.
Animistic beliefs are an integral and very significant part of all religions of the world. Belief in spirits, evil spirits, an immortal soul - all these are modifications of the animistic ideas of the primitive era. The same can be said of other early forms of religious belief. Some of them were assimilated by the religions that replaced them, others were pushed into the sphere of everyday superstitions and prejudices. Thus, the belief in amulets, talismans, and sacred relics that has survived to this day is nothing more than a relic of primitive fetishism. Echoes of totemism can be found in food prohibitions existing in many religions, in the depiction of supernatural beings in the guise of animals, etc.
In the early stages of the development of human society, primitive forms of religious beliefs did not exist in pure form. They intertwined with each other in the most bizarre way. Therefore, raising the question of which of the These forms arose earlier, and which - later, it is hardly possible. Obviously, we are talking about a complex of religious beliefs. The composition of this complex could be very diverse. For example, among the Australian aborigines, the most preferred element of their religious complex was totemism with a carefully developed system of taboos. Among the numerous peoples of Siberia and the Far East, magic and the closely related practice of shamanism clearly dominated. As for the peoples of Africa, they were distinguished by their penchant for fetishism. However, in each specific case, highlighting any part of the religious complex does not mean that primitive people were not familiar with the rest of its elements. It was the complex of primitive beliefs considered that became the core of the so-called tribal religions, which were distinguished by great diversity, as they reflected the living conditions, social connections, and features of material culture specific to a particular tribe.
2. The evolution of religion during the transition to a class society. The concept of “tribal religion” refers to the period of pre-class development of society, which was characterized by a low level of development of the productive forces and relatively simple social relations. This period lasted for many millennia and within its framework significant changes took place, both in social life and in religious beliefs. In the early stages of the tribal system, which did not yet know social stratification, the main object of religious worship was nature. Depending on the geographical environment and economic specialization, various aspects of the reality surrounding primitive man were endowed with supernatural properties. Thus, tribes engaged in gathering and primitive agriculture worshiped plants and heavenly bodies, while hunting tribes worshiped animals.
Tribal religions reflected not only the forces of nature and the specifics of economic reality, they
social relations were also reflected. For example, the replacement of matriarchy with patriarchy and the new organization of society that arose on this basis led to significant changes in religious consciousness. Female spirits, the veneration of which was widespread during matriarchy, are gradually being replaced by male spirits. Worship is also becoming a male activity. In the era of the early tribal system, religious beliefs also reflected the real equality of fellow tribesmen. Spiritual beings were mostly impersonal in nature. Cult activities were dominated by magical rituals and performances, in which all members of the tribe participated. Sorcerers, shamans, and spirit casters were not yet separated from the mass of believers.
Significant changes in the nature of religious beliefs occurred in the context of the decomposition of tribal relations and the deepening of social differentiation within tribes. Over time, material wealth begins to accumulate in the hands of individual community members, and ordinary fellow tribesmen fall under their control. The identification of leaders and the strengthening of their role in the life of the tribe gradually leads to their sacralization; they become objects of religious veneration not only after their death, but also during their lifetime. Social stratification within tribes and the formation of a tribal aristocracy were reflected in the content of religious ideas. Impersonal spirits are given names, certain functions are assigned to them, and a hierarchy of spirits arises, which in many ways reproduces the social hierarchy.
The veneration of many spirits was replaced by polytheism, which turned the most revered spirits into deities. Above the disembodied spirits and spirits of ancestors, local geniuses of rocks, springs and trees, above the crowd of good and evil spirits, more powerful deities began to rise, whose influence was not limited by local clan or tribal interests.
A good illustration of the development of polytheism can be seen in the religious beliefs of the Kondas, tribes living in the mountainous regions of India. Studying the life of these tribes, scientists discovered that the world of the Konds is inhabited by a huge number of local spirits. They control natural phenomena and influence human life. Above the local spirits are the souls of outstanding people who
are considered the divine patrons of tribes. Above them are six great gods: the god of rain, the goddess of first fruits, the god of fertility, the god of hunting, the god of war, and the god-judge of the dead. Even higher than these gods are the sun god and his wife, the mighty earth goddess. Similar structures were found in Asia among the Samoyeds, among the indigenous inhabitants of Mexico, and among many tribes of Africa and Australia.
The highest place in such hierarchies was most often occupied by gods who were associated with the sky or celestial phenomena. However, these gods were not impersonal beings. They were endowed with the attributes of public life and had to perform certain social functions. The deities of the earth were also placed on a par with the heavenly gods. So, in the ancient Greek religion, the personification of the earth was Gaia, who gave birth to the sky, sea, and mountains.
Warrior gods occupied a high position in the polytheistic hierarchy, which was associated with wars of extermination characteristic of the period of transition from tribal relations to class society. During these wars, the unification of tribes and the formation of tribal unions took place. Accordingly, a synthesis of religious ideas took place. At the head of the polytheistic pantheon was usually the god of the hegemonic tribe. This is how henotheism appeared - one of the varieties of polytheism, which consists in the fact that, recognizing the existence of many gods, one or another community of people considered only one of the many gods as their patron and worshiped only him. From here there was only one step left to monotheism, but the step was so difficult that many peoples were unable to take it even in the conditions of a developed class society.
During the transition from a tribal system to a class society, significant changes occurred in the sphere of religious practice. It is clear that the attitude towards the gods should be different from the attitude towards the spirits of dead people. If in the early stages of the development of human society, relationships with the souls of the dead and spirits were considered as a further development of everyday communication between people, then later these relationships take on the character of communication between beings of disparate status. With the appearance of great deities, man kneels and turns into a humble supplicant. Izme
The nature of the sacrifices also changes. Numerous sacrifices, including human ones, are made not only to the souls of people high in the social hierarchy, but also, first of all, to the gods, and these sacrifices begin to be strictly regulated. The subtleties of sacrifices were known only to the priests, who gradually separated from the mass of ordinary believers and formed a special class that occupied one of the highest places in the social hierarchy. Often priesthood became a hereditary profession passed from generation to generation. At the same time, permanent sanctuaries and temples appeared, which were the center of religious life. Sacrifices, income from temple lands, as well as material support from secular authorities strengthened the economic and political position of the priesthood.
With the transition to a class society, a new page opens in the history of religion, a page telling about the development and functioning of the religious systems of state-organized peoples.
3. National religions of the Ancient World. In the conditions of the Ancient world, religions were polytheistic, i.e. polytheistic. In polytheism, each god acted as the personification of a certain phenomenon inherent in nature, society or the human psyche, and the personification of a higher order than among primitive peoples. The images of deities reflected ideas about the common features that are characteristic of a group of homogeneous objects. So, for example, from the ideas about the soul of an individual tree, the idea of the spirits of individual groves and forests gradually formed, and then the image of the god of the forest, the ruler of the spirits of groves and forests, was formed. Subsequently, the process of personification of deities took place - they began to acquire their own names and “biographies.”
The classic example of polytheism is the ancient Greek religion. The supreme deity of the ancient Greek pantheon was considered the ruler of the sky - Zeus, his brother Poseidon was the ruler of the seas, another brother - Hades - the ruler of the underworld, Zeus's wife - Hera - the patroness of marriage, Aphrodite - the goddess of love and beauty, Athena - the goddess of wisdom, Dionysus - the god of viticulture and winemaking. More than 80 temples in Ancient Greece
were dedicated to Artemis, the patroness of living beings and hunting. The economic and cultural life of people was personified by a large group of gods. The most popular among them were Hephaestus - the god of fire and blacksmithing, Hermes - the patron saint of travelers and traders. Asclepius is the healer god, Pan is the god of nature and shepherds, etc.
The worldview of the ancient Greeks was focused not only on earthly life, they were constantly worried about the problems of the other world. They believed that after death the soul of the deceased goes to the kingdom of Hades. A guide brings her here, then Charon transports the soul across the River Styx. To pay back Charon, it was customary to place a copper coin in the tomb. The three-headed dog Kerber allowed him to enter the kingdom of Hades, but only in one direction. In exceptional cases, a return from this kingdom was possible, but this required the special will of the gods. The divine services of the ancient Greeks consisted of sacrifices, both bloodless and bloody, when ritual killings of animals were committed. In numerous temples, hymns were sung, prayers were read, and solemn washings of the statues of gods were performed. Mysteries were special events in religious life. Only initiates were allowed to participate in these secret religious rites.
The religious ideas of the ancient Greeks were modeled after their own lives. The “way of life” of the gods was not much different from that of humans. The main difference between the Greek gods was their immortality and supernatural power. The destinies of people, their life and death were completely in the hands of one or another god. The power or destruction of peoples and states also depended on the will or whim of the gods. Therefore, in honor of individual gods, magnificent temples were built, decorated with their statues and gold or silver utensils. Sacrifices were made to the heavenly rulers.
The supreme god of the ancient Greeks - Zeus - was first among equals. Such a hierarchy reflected the peculiarities of the historical development of Ancient Greece, where there were independent city-states (Athens, Sparta, Thebes, etc.), the unification of which did not go beyond the emergence of military alliances led by the most powerful states.
Ideas about the afterlife - the dark kingdom of the god Hades - reflected the class structure
ancient Greek society. The souls of kings and heroes occupied a leading position in the other world, slaves and the poor eked out the same miserable existence in the next world as in life. In general, the afterlife is depicted in harsh and gloomy colors.
The religion of the ancient Romans is in many ways reminiscent of the ancient Greek. At the head of their pantheon was Jupiter, the Roman equivalent of Zeus. The most revered deities included: Juno - the wife of Jupiter, Minerva - the goddess of wisdom, Mars - the god of war, etc. In the Roman cult, a large place was given to the worship of the Lares - the spirits of objects and the patrons of the hearth. After the formation of the powerful Roman Empire, the Romans often included certain gods of the peoples they conquered in their pantheon. It was in this way that the cult of the Iranian god Mithras, the Egyptian goddess Isis, the Asia Minor goddess Cybele, and others spread throughout the empire.
During the imperial period, the deification of emperors began. Already Emperor Octavian added the title Augustus to his name, i.e. sacred, and was declared a god. Augustus carried out a major religious reform, streamlining the worship of the gods, making religion the support of his own imperial power. When the powerful Roman Empire began to decline, on its outskirts, and then in Rome itself, faith in the Savior Christ began to assert itself. Humanity was entering a new era of its existence.
A characteristic feature of the religions of antiquity was their national-state character. The gods of a particular people were national gods and their power did not extend beyond the borders of a particular region. According to experts, the cult of the state and the cult of a particular nationality occupied a special place in the religion of the Ancient World. The further history of religions is connected with the emergence of world religions.
Religion is not just a social and cultural phenomenon, it is an important factor in the development of civilization. But what exactly does religion give? Not even that, more precisely: what is essential
does religion change in the lives of individuals and their associations, what does it contribute or destroy?
To begin with, let me remind you that there is no single definition of religion, no uniform criteria. Partly, this situation is caused by the lack of research on the topic, and partly by the absence of a single subject that could be designated by the word “religion.” Depending on the point of view, beliefs (superstitions) may or may not be included in religion, the same applies to rituals. And vice versa, in what everyone includes in religion (for example, moral teaching), it is not difficult to identify the non-religious.
We will assume that religion is a certain complex of social and cultural phenomena, and not an independent phenomenon. A full-fledged religion can be called a conglomerate where all components are present. Religion includes: beliefs, worship of the sacred, teaching, church (organization), rituals and the whole complex of practices.
They talk about ancient religion, but this is a misconception: there was no teaching there, that is, dogmatics, a theoretical system of a dogmatic nature. Antiquity is characterized by beliefs that can be called “paganism.” Beliefs grew and acquired their own institution of ministers (priestly corporations). But mythology remained the core of complex pagan beliefs. Religion replaces mythology with dogma, or includes it in teaching. In Christianity, mythology is used to illustrate certain points, but is not important in itself. The myth is transformed into a parable. Popular faith hardly becomes religious; simple illiterate people were inclined to mythologize religion a second time, hence the phenomenon of dual faith. Religion itself begins and ends where teaching occupies a central place in the complex. Nowadays, most religions are degenerating and we can talk about “post-religions”, because most adherents (including clergy) are not interested in teaching and do not attach much importance to it. Whatever the future of religion, religion played a big role in the development of civilization.
I would like to summarize all the influence of religion into two complementary influences: unifying and directing. Gustave Le Bon entitled one of the chapters of his book “Psychology of Nations and Masses” “The Role of Religious Beliefs in the Development of Civilization.” And although his reasoning is neither truly philosophical nor scientific in nature, but rather journalistic, it contains many interesting thoughts and unexpected findings. Only they should be taken as raw material and accepted after rethinking. Le Bon writes about the influence of religious beliefs: “Their irresistible force is that they constitute the only factor that can instantly give any people a complete community of interests, feelings and thoughts.” /Lebon G. Psychology of peoples and masses. Per. from fr. St. Petersburg, 1995. p.120./ Le Bon connects the influence of religious beliefs with the people - and in this he is mistaken. Religion can distinguish a group of the population within a people, it can unite several peoples into one cultural and even political community (for example, the Islamic world). But this is not the main thing. The point is that religion unites. And not because of state borders, but because of language and customs - from the inside. A common religion gives unity to the people who profess it. The more powerful the religion, the more powerful its unifying influence.
At the end of the pagan era, rulers made an attempt to unite the gods into a single mythology and build a hierarchy of gods. In Greece there was no single religion, or even a single mythology. The “literati” - Hesiod and Homer - began to create a unified mythology. But outside of literature, the gods did not create unity. In Rome they took the next step - they built the Pantheon. But the mythological nature of paganism did not provide an opportunity for the ideological use of these beliefs by the state and the ruler. This was the main reason for the replacement of paganism with Christianity, Islam or Buddhism in different countries of the world. These three religions must be taken into account when analyzing the influence of religion on civilization. It would be a mistake to include Judaism in this series; it is an intermediate step on the path to religion, but not a religion. Prince Vladimir first created the Slavic pantheon, then adopted Christianity. Religion unites - and therefore it has the greatest value not even in periods of the heyday of the state, but in the era of its formation and expansion (or, on the contrary, protection from external aggression). In calm, stable times, religion is less needed by the authorities.
Almost all components of religions (for example, we will further consider Christianity) and pagan beliefs coincide. In addition to the doctrine, which is a specific feature of a religion, and distinguishes one religion from another. It is through teaching that religion becomes a type of ideology. We can say that the doctrine uses the entire arsenal of beliefs for its own interests. The fact that most of the “dark” people did not understand dogma is not important. What is more important is consent, and resigned consent. Belief, as a set of ideas given by upbringing in childhood, is replaced by faith as a conscious agreement. The key moment in religious life is baptism. A person accepts faith consciously - that is why there have always been so many disputes about the baptism of children. When a child is baptized, godparents act as guarantors, it is understood that consent has been received in advance. Godparents choose for the child. It doesn’t matter whether we agree or not with the usefulness of such a decision for another - the rite of baptism itself implies the personal responsibility of the newly baptized. Subsequent education in a religious spirit and teaching the basics of faith makes up for the initial ignorance. Why is dogma so important? It unites believers and brings meaning to all actions performed in a religious organization (church). Religion could not have arisen before philosophy. Philosophy critically rethought mythology and tried to provide a reasonable explanation of the world. Religion again appeals to the unreasoning faith, but also tries to satisfy the seeking mind of educated people.
The doctrine combines mythology and philosophy in a single metaphysics. It's "like a modernized fairy tale." But besides this, religious teaching creates (or sanctifies) a system of norms of human behavior. In this capacity, religion is especially useful to the state.
The unity of believers is not an appearance. But it is artificial, it is not love or friendship, where unification occurs on a natural basis. Religion creates an artificial skeleton for artificial social formations. What else can hold an empire together if not religion? Religion unites due to 1) similarity of worldview and norms, 2) common action. Cultural similarity creates the preconditions for common action. A people can be united by religion, a state can be united by religion. A megacommunity needs an ideology. Both Hitler and Stalin used this. Despite all their differences, fascism and communism contain a lot of religious content. Only the worship of the sacred has been replaced by a cult of personality. Germany and the USSR were empires dominated by pseudo-religious ideologies. In Soviet communism, religion is a hundred times more important than science. Yes, ideology cannot be “scientific”.
Religious teaching contains a dogmatic explanation of the world and a system of instructions regarding behavior. The rest of the teaching is of a secondary nature.
Why does religion unite? Thanks to regulations, a single standard accepted everywhere. Accordingly, religion unites and divides in equal measure. Representatives of two peoples never feel such antagonism among themselves as representatives of two even close religions. The marking of “ours or not ours” in religion reaches its limit.
The doctrine unites not in itself, but through a complex system of rituals. Without rituals and dogma, religion evaporates very quickly. I hope that now you will understand the Old Believers better - they were not ritual believers at all, on the contrary, faith itself was important to them. They simply felt and saw how closely rituals, church norms and faith are closely connected. The unification of the entire religious complex is the support of the power of religion, the source of the transformative role of religion. Christianity developed not in the 1st or 3rd century, but in the 4th-7th centuries, during the era of the Ecumenical Councils.
The Protestant pathos of turning to early Christianity, bypassing the Christianity of the “holy fathers,” inevitably undermined and eroded religion. As an ideology, Protestantism is immeasurably weaker than Catholicism and Orthodoxy. Unification and control of human behavior are unique means of influencing a person both physically and psychologically. There could not have been better tools for the System. Without religion, civilization would not have developed. How could national differences be overcome? In Christ there is no Greek or Jew. This means that Christianization turns into globalization. The foundations of the modern world are laid by religions.
But religion not only unites, it guides and motivates. The power of faith moves a person even contrary to instincts and common sense, leading him to death. Martyrdom, asceticism, self-torture are typically religious attributes. A person turns not even into a zombie - but into a blindly acting mind. Much stronger than simple submission - to direct a person, target him and give him strong motivation. Christianity is clearly anthropocentric. Man stands right after God, and God himself is so anthropomorphic that it is difficult to draw a line between God and man. Jesus is God incarnate. Heresy from the point of view of Judaism, this belief becomes the center of the new religion. The subtext (which was first clearly stated in the 19th century by Feuerbach and Stirner) is simple: man is god. Man is not a product of the development of the world, but the world was created by man (God), created by Reason. The world exists for man, and this provides a justification for civilization, since civilization is built on the robbery of nature. The natural gods of pagan beliefs give way to an anthropomorphic god. In addition, the state, government, laws, and morality also receive sanction. Only religion is capable of legitimizing coercion and providing a basis for self-coercion.
The idea of progress is also religious. Faith in science also has its roots in religion.
The civilization of the 19th-20th centuries, although not of a religious nature, is based on religious provisions that have already become dominant stereotypes. Secular humanism, democracy, any dominant idea is tacitly based on a religious basis. Religion was a powerful force in the formation of civilization, and later became the foundation of modern civilization. Our civilization is built on the bones of religion. Many religious phenomena have been secularized, but are still present in culture. If you start asking questions “why?”, “why?” and the like, we will be surprised how much irrationality is around us. Why should a person wear clothes? I emphasize: not why do people wear clothes, but why is everyone obliged to dress? It is impossible to answer outside of religion. The era of religious morality has passed, but the norms remain, unsupported by anything. Even after religions lose their influence, they remain a factor in the development of civilization.
Confessional differentiation of the world space allows both increasing and decreasing conflict in international relations. It is characteristic that, despite the popularity of the ideas of dialogue of civilizations and cooperation between representatives of religious communities, belonging to a particular religion remains a dividing factor. This is especially noticeable against the background of the current rise in fundamentalist sentiments among Muslims and Christians and numerous examples of the politicization of religious affiliation. To assess the influence of religion on international relations, the following points must be taken into account:
Confessional dynamics in the context of globalization
The current stage of world development refutes the widespread idea that the role of ideological prerequisites for human behavior is declining. Against the backdrop of the erosion of the ideological component of politics, the role of religious attitudes has increased significantly. The contradictions of globalization have everywhere slowed down the process of religion moving into the realm of “personal spirituality.” As international experience shows, religion increasingly determines the way of life of adherents of Islam, and a religious renaissance in various forms is felt among Christian and other religious communities. Religious figures actively speak out on issues of international politics. Their meetings, preceding the start of the official G-20 conferences, became an important public element of this format.
Modern denominational dynamics are characterized not only by the intensification of religious life. The number of major religious groups in the world's population has changed significantly. Now they are dominated by Muslims, mainly of the Sunni persuasion. The significance of quantitative changes in leading religious communities is increasing in light of the intensification of migration processes. The main migration flows come from the zone of spread of Islam to the zone of countries whose culture has developed under the influence of Christian values. In fact, this means an extensive increase in the number of Muslims and the need to qualitatively change the activities of all branches of Christianity.
The asymmetry of the global dynamics of confessional structures also affects the internal processes of the organization of confessions. Thus, the active growth and expansion of the boundaries of Islamic society leads to changes in the system of spiritual leadership of the Islamic world and an increase in the role of mid-level religious figures in the formation of mass religious attitudes. As for Christian movements, they are more characterized by the consolidation of historically established mechanisms of centralized church governance.
Along with the change in the number of religious groups, a characteristic feature of confessional dynamics is the effect of “mixing” of the world confessional space. It is especially noticeable in developed industrial countries and, paradoxically, in Africa. In the current decade, this effect has increasingly influenced the activities of the Russian Orthodox Church, which seeks to strengthen ties with foreign Orthodox communities.
Thus, the world's religions are now experiencing a period of transformation. In this regard, the public demand for cooperation between religious and administrative elites in the field of social government is increasing. For government participants, such interaction makes it possible to maintain or even strengthen the potential of “soft power” in the international arena, and for religious circles, it allows them to strengthen the status of their leaders in the course of adapting to the conditions of globalization.
Religious organizations in the context of international cooperation
The inclusion of religious organizations in international cooperation is characteristic not only of the post-bipolar period. However, this practice was particularly developed under the influence of such major initiatives as the Dialogue of Civilizations (Iranian project) and the Partnership of Civilizations (Russian project), as well as the Vatican’s efforts to establish interaction with Muslims and Jews. The policy of the Russian Orthodox Church on the development of interchurch relations also plays a significant role.
However, clear ideas about the coordination of efforts undertaken by church and civil organizations have not yet emerged. Partial formalization of the idea of the role of religion in the context of the “Dialogue of Civilizations” is reflected in the text of the “Rhodes Declaration of 2009”. It points out that the world's religions can play a particularly important role in strengthening spiritual and humanistic values by reminding people of their responsibility for the common good of humanity. In other words, religions and religious structures are seen as mediators of strategic civic initiatives.
The practical participation of religious organizations in the development of international cooperation is especially noticeable in such areas as the eradication of poverty and the fight against HIV/AIDS in Africa, where, largely thanks to the programs of the Catholic and Protestant churches, it was possible to slow down the spread of this disease. Mobilizing efforts and increasing the moral authority of religious organizations is also considered as the most important element of the anti-terrorist fight. We are talking about uniting representatives of all religious traditions in joint condemnation of the actions of terrorists, which is consistently carried out so far only by Christian and Buddhist religious structures.
Religious organizations are just beginning to coordinate their international initiatives. The transition to joint large-scale projects will take a lot of time and effort. In this regard, the most important goal of interfaith cooperation is to overcome the mutual alienation of religious elites, who play a prominent role in public and political life.
The role of the religious factor in international relations continues to be controversial. Nevertheless, from all of the above, several practical conclusions can be drawn:
1. Fundamentalist movements in leading faiths create serious obstacles to overcoming the fragmentation of the global humanitarian space, and in some cases, the international security space. The political role of fundamentalism is not limited to the ideological feeding of radicalism. Thus, in Muslim countries, modern Islamic fundamentalism has transformed deep-seated protest charges into potentially full-scale political programs. The scale of this process makes Islamic fundamentalism an influential subject in world politics. This influence, in particular, is clearly manifested in the regions of the post-Soviet space.
2. The idea of international interfaith cooperation acts not only as an alternative to global apocalyptic forecasts, but also as an important basis for resolving local conflicts. However, it remains rather an optional factor, the significance of which depends on political conditions.
3. Foreign policy planning taking into account interfaith cooperation allows us to talk about the inclusion of new elements in the regulation of international relations. In a practical sense, this means that religious structures will be able to play a more significant role in identifying problems, analyzing them and directly implementing adopted and agreed upon decisions.
“And you, who strive to understand justice, how will you understand it without looking at everything in the full light of day? Only then will you understand that the one who stands and the one who has fallen are just one person, standing in the twilight between the night of the pygmy and the light of what is divine in his soul, because the most important of the foundation stones of the temple is no higher the lowest stone in its foundation."
Gibran Kahlil Gibran
Both religion and politics have played a major role in human history from the earliest times, providing explanations for man's relationship to the entire world around him and providing methods and institutions for governing society through which people achieved security and emotional satisfaction. To understand how religion and politics relate to each other, it is necessary to find their common cultural denominator. This common principle is a system of human values.
The process of interaction between religion and politics takes place in every society, but differs in the degree of their influence on each other. The modern system of international relations is mainly secular in nature. Nevertheless, the religious views of a particular people play a certain (and sometimes very significant) role both in the internal political life of individual countries and in the development of interstate relations.
In our dynamic era, all former geopolitical constants are subject to change - geographic location, distance and geospace, the territorial alignment of political and military-strategic forces in the world. Until recently, geopolitical concepts practically did not take into account the mass religious consciousness of people, the state of the spiritual environment in which a certain religious worldview is formed and exists, the dominance of confessions and religious traditions in a particular region and border countries.
In the last decades of the 20th century, in various countries of the world there was a tendency towards increasing the religiosity of the population. There are more and more international religious organizations and foundations, religious parties and movements whose activities are international in nature. Some interethnic and interstate conflicts have religious overtones.
The religious factor becomes an important component of international life and carries with it enormous political consequences, because a society that finds meaning in religion tries to give this religious meaning to the state or resist the state in the name of the sacred. The existence of religious groups that cross state boundaries - even if that religious group is located on the other side of the globe - can be a significant factor in the outbreak of conflict.
Harvard University professor Samuel Huntington drew attention to the special role of religion in modern world order processes. In his work "The Clash of Civilizations" he suggested that in the 21st century the driving force of international relations will be conflicts between civilizations. It should be noted that the very definition of civilizations is ambiguous. Huntington classifies them according to people's religion. Religion, of course, is one of the features that models the appearance of a particular civilization, and, consequently, the geopolitical map of the world.
Modern geopolitics can be defined not only as the subordination of state policy to its geographical location, but also as the ability of a nation to exercise control over the space of its vital interests, which most often does not coincide with the borders of a given national state. This definition of geopolitics outlines the general framework within which geopolitics and missionary activity interact.
Missionary activity as a factor in geopolitics
The religious factor has invariably found its application in international politics, and the activities of missionaries in different historical periods have been used to solve geopolitical problems. Missionary work has been around for the last two thousand years of human history and remains today a tool that allows for vital changes in society.
Foreign policy is the object of direct and monopolistic government regulation. The most successful use of missionaries to solve their political problems is by geopolitically significant countries of the world, states with developed economies and great-power ambitions that are able to invest in this activity. There are indirect forms of influence on programs carried out by religious organizations abroad, relying on which the state implements its political line outside the country.
Geopolitics also includes an element of the internal policy of the state, primarily its regional aspects. In modern conditions, states, based on the interests of national security, need to learn, using the categories of geopolitics, to analyze the strategy and methods of work of religious associations and missions, and the long-term consequences of their impact on society.
State interests, which are enshrined in international law, should be considered basic and absolutely legitimate. This is the physical and political independence of the country, the prevention of interference in its internal affairs from the outside, the integrity of the territory and the inviolability of borders, the growth of security and well-being of citizens, the comprehensive progress of society and culture. In addition, each country has a set of its own unique interests, determined by the specifics of its geographical location, internal socio-economic and political situation, national, cultural and civilizational characteristics.
The power of the state was previously defined primarily as military power. Currently, the main struggle for spheres of influence is primarily through economic penetration, which has the same effect as territorial occupation. As a result, a set of supporting conditions is the most important indicator of the geopolitical power of a state. Here, in addition to military strength, access to sources of raw materials and energy, etc., cultural and religious penetration, which favors economic penetration, plays an important role.
Space is the most important political-geographical factor. This is not just the territory occupied by the state and is one of the attributes of its strength, it is itself a political force and represents something more than a physical-geographical concept. Each state and people have their own “spatial concept,” that is, an idea about the possible limits of their territorial possessions.
Space determines not only the physical evolution of a people, but also its mental attitude to the surrounding world. The decline of the state is the result of a weakening spatial concept and a weakening spatial sense. The space of states increases along with the development of their culture, the development of ideas, trade, production, missionary work, and increased activity in various fields.
The developer of the geopolitical theory of “large space” Carl Schmitt, considering the process of state development as a desire to acquire the largest territorial volume, said that we are not necessarily talking about colonization, annexation or military invasion. The formation of a “large space” can also occur according to other laws - on the basis of the adoption by several states or peoples of a single religious or cultural form.
Religious fundamentalism
Fundamentalism is a general name for extremely conservative religious movements. Its main ideological position is the need to strictly follow the instructions established in religious holy books, the inadmissibility of criticism or liberal interpretation of religious texts. Fundamentalists typically demand a return to original beliefs and practices by eliminating later changes.
Fundamentalism is a reaction to the processes of globalization and secularization occurring in modern society and considers the return of dominant positions in society to religious structures as one of its main tasks. The fundamentalist movement is most active in Islam and Christianity, but movements that have fundamentalist characteristics also occur in Judaism and other religions.
Islamic factor in world politics
A clear confirmation of the thesis about the growing role of religion as a factor in political life at the present stage is Islam. Both the West and the East underestimated the degree of influence of Islam on the broad masses in Muslim countries and the potential capabilities of this religion as a mobilizing and integrating social force.
Islam is the second largest world religion (after Christianity), which is professed, according to various estimates, by 1 to 1.5 billion people in 127 countries around the world. Islam is the state religion of a number of CIS countries (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan) and a huge array of countries in Asia and North Africa.
The rapid revival of the Islamic religion and its transformation into an independent political force was associated with the victory of the Islamic Revolution of 1978-1979. in Iran. However, the strengthening of Islam began much earlier, in the 60s of the twentieth century, long before the Iranian revolution. It was determined by a number of factors, including:
Signs of a crisis in both Western and Soviet development models, which were the focus of the political elite in most Muslim states.
The defeat of the Arab countries in the war with Israel in June 1967, which undermined the influence of secular ideologies among the broad masses of the population of Muslim countries.
The failure of interstate unification projects in the Muslim world on a national basis (Arab unity, Maghreb integration, etc.) in the face of growing integration processes in the West.
The financial power and political influence that Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Libya and some other Muslim states acquired in the area of the spread of Islam.
In the Muslim world and beyond, the activity of fundamentalist movements has recently increased sharply. Islamic fundamentalism is an ideology that declares the need for Muslims to return to strict adherence to the requirements of the Koran.
Fundamentalism is characteristic of both Sunni and Shiite Islam.
Islamic fundamentalist movements, most notably Hezbollah in Lebanon, the Islamic Salvation Front in Algeria, Al-Gamaa al-Islamiya in Egypt and others, are usually classified as “political Islam”, and their participants are called “Islamists”. At the end of the 80s of the twentieth century, there were no longer any Muslim countries where one or another manifestation of political Islam of a radical nature was not noted.
"Islamism" is just one of many terms that define political activity under the auspices of religion. There is also “integraism”, “Wahhabism” (“neo-Wahhabism”), “traditionalism” (“neo-traditionalism”), “nativism”, “jihadism” (“jihadist Islamism”), “revivalism”, “salafiyya”. Since the early 1990s, the phrase “Islamic extremism” has come into circulation. These definitions characterize the same movements, parties, groups.
Islamism affirms the restoration of original Islamic values and ideas.
Islamism presupposes a strict focus on the unity of secular and religious principles and does not accept even a hint of secularity.
Islamism offers an ideal version of the structure of society and the state, based on Sharia law, social justice, with a strong ruler. Power is inseparable from God, and the principles of governing the world are simple and understandable.
Islamism cultivates rejection of foreign values and limited use of non-Islamic experience.
Religious interpretation becomes the main tool for communicating political and social guidelines to ordinary Muslims, as well as a means of mobilization to fight for the goals proposed by Islamists. Ayatollah Khomeini said that “Islam as a whole is politics... Political science originates in Islam.” “Islam deals with politics, with running a country. Islamic laws make it possible to govern large countries.”
In some states, fundamentalists managed to achieve the adoption of their ideology as dominant, in particular, in the Islamic Republic of Iran. In a number of other countries, fundamentalist movements act as opposition to existing secular or traditional state institutions, and individual fundamentalist groups use terrorism as a method of combating them.
Islamists are not cynical pragmatists for whom religion is only a tool to achieve specific goals or a means to satisfy their pride. They actually serve their ideals, in the name of which they are ready to make considerable sacrifices, including consciously risking their well-being and lives.
The extreme anti-Western orientation of Islamists leads them to deny equality of the sexes, freedom of conscience, and the inadmissibility of the existence of secular states for Muslims. They criticize the modern education system, advocating for increasing the share of religious subjects in the curriculum, as well as for separate education for students of different sexes. Islamists are prone to radical methods of political struggle.
Many terrorist organizations are fighting to “establish an Islamic world order.”
For historical reasons, Muslim states did not take part in the process of forming the main contours of the modern system of international relations, the formation of which began after the First World War. The establishment of Islam in the modern political life of Muslim societies marks the beginning of a new, more conscious phase in the development of the people, solving the problems of modernization.
Islamic revival is a broad religious and social movement. Islamists work in various spheres of Muslim society: kindergartens, schools, universities, youth camps, in the media, in the economy (Islamic banks, investment and insurance companies, industrial and agricultural enterprises), in the field of social services (hospitals, clinics, in charitable organizations).
Islamist-oriented people can be found in the middle and lower strata of the population, among the educated and the illiterate, professionals and workers, young and old people, men, women and children. As a result, Islamist ideology and movements have become an important part of socio-political life in Muslim countries, and are by no means a marginal phenomenon limited to small radical groups or organizations.
Islamism is the basis of the Islamic tradition, Islamic political culture. It is constantly regenerated, and there is no replacement for it. When interacting with any Muslim society, it is necessary to take into account the presence of an Islamist component in it, the corresponding actions in the political sphere, and based on this, form a dialogue with its carriers.
Since the 1980s, leaders of a number of fundamentalist Islamic organizations have found refuge in the United States and Western Europe. Such organizations include the Islamic Salvation Front in Algeria, the Tunisian Islamic Liberation Party, the Committee for the Defense of Legal Rights in Saudi Arabia, the Bahrain Freedom Movement, and others. The “highest density of settlements” of headquarters and coordination centers of radical Islamist organizations is observed in London, Munich, Bonn, Paris, Vienna, as well as in cities in the eastern states of the United States.
This indicates that the USA, Germany, France and Great Britain are building their structures of influence in the Islamic world; they are inclined to “negotiate” with Islam. The United States seeks to exercise direct and indirect (through European allies) patronage of Islam, while simultaneously countering the allies' attempts to seize the Islamic initiative in various regions and blocking the possibility of creating large-scale Islamic alliances.
Islamic concept of world order.
Islamism exists at four levels: local, national, regional, global. In a sense, such stratification is conditional, since at each level the same task is set - the establishment of an Islamic state (or Islamic space, if it is impossible to create a state) and the formation of an Islamic society.
The Islamic concept of world order is based on the divisibility of the world population into two groups: the Muslim community - the “ummah” and all other people. "Dar al-Islam" (world of Islam) - countries in which the Islamic form of government operates. Protecting the world of Islam is the sacred duty of every Muslim. “Dar al-Harb” (world of war) - states that have declared war on Muslims, as well as states from which any threat to the world of Islam may come. "Dar al-Sulh" (peace treaty peace) - states in which power is in the hands of non-hostile, reconciled rulers.
A precondition for peaceful relations between the Muslim and non-Muslim worlds is the latter's recognition of monotheism. In general, Islam recognizes the existence of an international community, but the attitude of Islam towards this community is active, since the spread of Islam is a religious duty. Everyone in the zone of spread of Islam - from the Muslim to the state - must fight to expand this zone. Armed violence has entered the history of the spread of Islam.
Islamism does not recognize geopolitical or cultural subordination. Its ideologists do not doubt the civilizational superiority of Islam. “True Muslims” do not need to catch up with anyone or imitate anyone. They are called upon to create their own, original, appealing to God-given, and therefore a priori, highest values.
Islamism is simultaneously a political action, a component of mass consciousness, and an ideology. The main internal task of this ideology is to formulate an Islamic alternative to Western development. The external task is to determine the position of Islam, Islamic civilization in its relations with the non-Muslim world - the Christian West and Russia, with India and China. Islamists are concerned that the United States' exploitation of the UN, IBRD, IMF and other international organizations for its own purposes conflicts with new directions of geopolitical development, with the vital interests of many countries of the world.
The growing role of Islam in public life and the increased activity of Islamist movements have a great influence on the priorities of not only domestic, but also foreign policy of governments, even those Muslim states that have been secular for quite a long time, and where religion was separated from politics. The result of Islamists’ actions at the global level was ideological brotherhood, a confederation, and a cross-border space of interacting like-minded people.
Muslim states are integrated into the existing system of interstate relations, their economies into the world economy. This is one of the reasons that Muslim states, although they are trying to create new contours of international relations and influence the process of forming a new world order, do not refuse to work in existing international organizations.
All Muslim states are members of the UN. More and more attention is being paid to the issues of coordinating the positions of Muslim states in the UN, initiatives aimed at implementing the ideas of Islamic solidarity are being perceived more positively, already existing international intergovernmental organizations of Muslim states, primarily the Organization of the Islamic Conference, are beginning to work more actively, and new ones are emerging.
The Organization of the Islamic Conference has initiated work on the formation of the “Islamic Economic Order”, is developing ideas and models of the “Muslim Common Market”, the constituent elements of which are intended to be such institutions as the Islamic Development Bank, the Islamic Agency for International Information, the Organization of Islamic Broadcasting States, the Islamic Chamber of Commerce , industry and trade, Organization of Islamic Capital, Islamic Association of Shipowners, Islamic Cement Association, Union of Islamic States for Telecommunications and others.
The Islamic Development Bank (IDB), created within the framework of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), increased its authorized capital to $8 billion, overtaking the World Bank for Reconstruction and Development (WBRD) in this indicator. On June 15, 1997, the “Great Islamic G8” was created in Istanbul, consisting of Turkey, Egypt, Iran, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Nigeria. The agenda of Islamic countries includes the formation of a common market and the implementation of programs for the transition to a single Islamic currency. Islamic countries have solid financial assets. The total dollar reserves of these countries are estimated at 10-11 trillion dollars.
The most famous subregional integration associations of Arab countries include the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) consisting of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Qatar and Oman, as well as the Arab Cooperation Council (ACC), formed by Egypt, Jordan, Iraq and the Yemen Arab Republic in February 1983.
Speaking about the role of Islam in the foreign policy of Muslim countries, it is necessary to note the missionary activities carried out by government agencies and various non-governmental Islamic organizations and foundations, since they have a certain impact on international relations.
Almost all Muslim states finance missionary organizations. Major suppliers of financial resources for Muslim missionaries are Saudi Arabia, Libya, Kuwait, UAE, and Iran. Missionary activity is especially active in Africa, and after the collapse of the USSR - in the post-Soviet space. The Islamic World League, the World Islamic Council of Call and Salvation (headquarters in Cairo), the World Islamic Charitable Organization (headquarters in Kuwait), the Saudi Arabian Ibrahim Aal-Ibrahim Foundation - this is far from a complete list of organizations that are actively involved in missionary work in various parts of the world.
In Western countries, especially in the United States, the revival of Islam was regarded as a factor fraught with a threat to political stability in the Near and Middle East. Americans view Islamic fundamentalism in the same light as the contradictions between West and East after 1945. For them, the threat of Islamic fundamentalism serves the same role as the communist threat. In Western, especially American, consciousness, Islamic fundamentalism is associated with terrorism.
The Islamic factor in world politics is the process of formation of the Islamic pole of the world system, the increased role of Eastern culture in intercivilizational dialogue. It is already clear that the revival of the East is inevitable. The rise can be stopped through the destruction of the traditions and religion of the East, but history has shown that this is unrealistic. Several centuries ago, when the question of life and death depended on the choice between progress and religion, the East chose to preserve faith and tradition. Now that economics not only no longer contradicts traditions, but, on the contrary, gives them strength, it is a fantasy to hope that the West will be able to shake the East.
Peaceful resolution of interfaith issues is possible only through open and friendly dialogue. Indeed, in the modern world, it is precisely religious and spiritual problems that are often the catalyst for many negative political processes. Unfortunately, religious principles serve as an ideological tool that allows extremists to manipulate the minds of their followers. Such activities not only have nothing in common with the canons of Islam or any other religion, but contradict all canons. After all, religious extremism and terrorism have neither religion nor nationality.
The use of the religious factor in world politics acquires particular relevance during critical periods of historical development. All major religions have always had a common moral denominator, including mutual respect and consideration of each other's customs and religious traditions. World religions can and should provide international relations with the necessary moral basis.
