type of farming, in which, as opposed to commodity, products are produced for their own. consumption (in each household unit). "In a natural economy, society consisted of a mass of homogeneous economic units... and each such unit carried out all types of economic work, starting from mining different types raw materials and ending with their final preparation for consumption" (Lenin V.I., Soch., vol. 3, pp. 15-16). Sometimes by N. x. in bourgeois literature we mean rum exchange (if it already exists) occurs without the mediation of money, through simple barter trade (the first stage of the division of the history of agriculture into the stages of natural, monetary, credit, proposed by the German economist B. Hildebrand). . a period when the social division of labor was practically completely absent or was still poorly developed. characteristic features pre-capitalist economy formations. In the most pure form it existed before class. system, although in some cases there was already an exchange of individual products at that time. From the same stage of development at which classes arise, N. x. everywhere already intertwined with more or less means. elements of commodity production and exchange as societies grow. division of labor exerting an ever-increasing modifying influence on it. In emerging cities, and sometimes in villages. In localities, pockets of predominantly commodity production were emerging. However, in the mere fact of the presence of production on the market and trade, even relatively developed ones, one cannot yet see evidence of the loss of N. x. predominant position in the economy. It remained dominant in the class. societies ancient world, and in the Middle Ages. Most of the production was produced in the still largely self-sufficient farms: partly within the framework of the cross. x-v, partly within the household. formations that developed on the basis and for the purpose of exploiting the labor of peasants or slaves (royal and temple estates of the countries of the Ancient East, ancient slaveholding estates, in particular latifundia, feudal estates). The exploitation of both slaves and feudal-dependent peasants took place in these farms on a subsistence basis. relationships, work force has not yet become a commodity. Basic the mass of the population continued to live in the village, combining occupation with. x-vom with the production of simple crafts consumed by it. products. Household life was characterized by isolation, local limitations and disunity, the dominance of traditionalism, and an extremely slow pace of development. As societies deepen. division of labor N. x. was increasingly replaced by commodity production. However, this process was not straightforward. Yes, economics early Middle Ages was to a much greater extent natural in nature than the economy of the historically developed developed antiquities that preceded it. slave owner societies, during the history. developments were observed separately. periods of “natural-economic reaction”, etc. The most persistent N. x. held in societies where it lasted. time saved villages. the community, especially in its form, which was characteristic of certain countries of the East (see article Community). With the achievement of that history. steps when the logistics are added up. prerequisites for the broad development of societies. division of labor, N. x. loses dominance. position and is replaced by simple commodity, and then capitalist. production However, even later it remains as a relic. Thus, V.I. Lenin is among the social and economic ways of life that existed in Russia in the first years after Oct. revolution, also called “...patriarchal, that is, largely natural, peasant farm"(ibid., vol. 27, p. 303). In the economically backward countries of Asia, America, Africa, where the feudal, and sometimes primitive communal system (or its elements) was maintained in the 19th and even in the 20th centuries, Accordingly, N.H. persisted longer, being ugly combined in the colonies with various forms of exploitation of the local population by monopoly capital.The views of many bourgeois scientists of the 19th century were characterized by a tendency to pursue the idea of the dominance of N.H. too straightforwardly and without the necessary reservations . in antiquity and the Middle Ages (K. Bücher’s attempt to subsume all the basic economic phenomena of the ancient world under the concept of “closed household farming”, an overly simplified idea of the supporters of the patrimonial theory about the feudal patrimonial estate as a self-sufficient economic organism, etc. .).At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, these views were criticized. Referring to the fact of the existence in antiquity and the Middle Ages of already relatively developed trade and monetary circulation, some researchers began to generally deny the legitimacy of characterizing the economy of these eras as natural economic in its basis. Rejecting the modernization views of those historians who speak of the dominance of barter in ancient times and the Middle Ages (E. Meyer, A. Dopsh, etc.), one cannot, however, go to the opposite extreme of underestimating the real importance of exchange in these historical . era, as Bucher did. Commodity production and exchange of steel important factor society life is still at that stage of development when most of the products were produced within the framework of the basic self-sufficient x-v. See Art. Commodity production. Lit.: Marx K., Capital, K. Marx and F. Engels, Works, 2nd ed., vol. 23-25 (see Subject indexes); Lenin V.I., Development of capitalism in Russia, Works, 4th ed., vol. 3; Porshnev B.F., Feudalism and the Popular Masses, M., 1964 (Part 1, Chapter 3); Bücher K., The Emergence of the National Economy, trans. (from German), M., 1923; Meyer Z., Economic. development of the ancient world, (translated from German), 3rd ed., M., 1910; Dopsch A., Naturalwirtschaft und Geldwirtschaft in der Weltgeschichte, W., 1930; Kula W., Teoria ekonomiczna ustroju feudalnego. Proba modelu, Warsz., 1962. Yu. A. Korkhov. Moscow.
Answer
Economic science highlights:
Subsistence form of farming (production);
The commodity form of the economy (production).
Historically, the first of the general economic forms was subsistence farming.
Natural economy- this is a type of economy in which the products of labor are intended to satisfy the producer’s own needs, that is, for consumption within a separate economic unit.
The origin of natural economy dates back to ancient times, when there was no social division of labor and the product of labor did not take a commodity form. In a subsistence economy, production, as a rule, coincides with consumption, which creates a certain stability of the economy. The basis of subsistence farming is agriculture combined with domestic industry. In its pure form, natural economy existed under the primitive communal system, but was most developed under feudalism. Subsistence farming predominates on the basis of any system of personal dependence, both slave and serfdom. It performed in various forms: primitive community, Asian community, German community, Slavic zadruga, etc. In pre-reform Russia, subsistence farming was the basis of the corvee-serf system. Under feudalism, the surplus product took the form of natural duties and payments in favor of the feudal lord. Subsistence farming is characterized by routine technology, which makes it possible to ensure only production at the same level, i.e. simple reproduction.
Subsistence farming existed in all pre-capitalist socio-economic formations. It also exists in the modern Russian economy. Small farmers, as well as peasants on their own personal plots and city dwellers in their dachas predominantly conduct subsistence farming, consuming most of the produced labor products in their family. Subsistence farming is preserved in economically less developed countries, in which tribal and feudal relations still exist.
Question 24 Commercial farming
Answer
Commodity farming- this is a type of social production in which the products of labor are not produced for own consumption, but for exchange through purchase and sale on the market, i.e., to satisfy the needs of other people.
For the existence of commodity production, two conditions are necessary:
Social division of labor;
Economically isolated commodity producers.
It is important to note that the presence of a social division of labor does not mean the presence of a commodity economy. Thus, within a separate community there was already a division of labor: some members of the community fished, others hunted, others made tools, etc. However, there was no commodity economy, because the products of the labor of individual members belonged to the entire community and were consumed without being exchanged. The exchange of labor products occurs between independent, isolated producers. Therefore, for the existence of a commodity economy, a second condition is necessary - the presence of economically isolated commodity producers.
Three major social divisions of labor are known in history: the separation of pastoral tribes, the separation of crafts from agriculture, and the separation of trade. The social division of labor is an important factor in saving labor and increasing its productivity.
Commodity farming is the opposite of natural farming; it is an indirect form of recognition social labor through purchase and sale. It arose during the period of decomposition of the primitive communal system, developed under slavery and feudalism, and assumed a universal character under capitalism, when human labor power as a combination of physical and mental abilities to work. With a developed commodity economy, not only the products of labor, but also factors of production (means of production and labor) are transformed into goods. In a commodity economy, the labor of the producer becomes not only isolated, but also hidden social, since goods are produced to satisfy the needs of other people.
The history of the evolution of society indicates that at various stages of development of production relations and productive forces, the social economy repeatedly took on different economic forms, the first and initial of which was natural economy (subsistence production).
According to historical data, at different times there was a significant diversity of its models: Asian, Slavic, primitive, Germanic community and others. Despite the commonality of the main characteristics, a single model had individual characteristics due to its specific habitat.
Natural production and its main features
They look like this:
- Subsistence farming is represented by a closed system, that is, it has an autarkic character. A single economic unit carries out the entire list of work and thereby provides itself with all the benefits necessary for life.
- Subsistence production is not associated with the division of labor, which is therefore unproductive. This leads to a minimum amount of surplus product.
- This economic form exchange is unusual in the social economy.
- It is historically based on land ownership. This form of management appeared as a consequence of stagnation in the social division of labor and the primitive nature of its material conditions.
- Subsistence production is a form of economy that is based on the creation of material goods and services exclusively for consumption within a single economic unit. Thus, there is no development of any external relationships.
- Production relations here are expressed by the relationship between people, and not through the products of their labor, for example, a slave owner and his slave. Subsistence production strictly confines the economic processes existing at that time within local units, thereby preventing the opening of channels for establishing external relations.
So, natural production (its main features, more precisely) had, so to speak, a primitive color, both in terms of the development of production relationships within a separate economic unit, and in terms of the most basic connections between communities.
The labor force was strictly assigned to the corresponding economic community and was deprived of mobility. This justifies the conservatism of subsistence farming. It is primarily the specific features of the natural form of farming that reveal the reason for the vitality and sustainability of agricultural communities for many millennia.
The natural form corresponds both to a certain level of productive forces and to certain industrial relations, which predetermine a very narrow goal of all production: satisfying needs that are insignificant both in quantitative and nomenclature aspects, and of a primitive nature.
Subsistence farming and commodity production
The prerequisites for the emergence and further development of the following form of management were the following facts:
- The commodity form initially emerged as the exact opposite of subsistence farming.
- It represents ordered social production, in which economic relations are manifested through the market (through the purchase and sale of products of labor activity).
So, natural and commodity production acted as a kind of counterweight to each other. The transition to the latter became evidence of the emergence and further evolution of economic thinking and subsequent commercially civilized relations in the economic sphere.
Two conditions for the development of commodity production
- The presence of a social division of labor, according to which each producer is engaged in the production of a certain type of product. Specialization was the main condition ensuring an increase in labor productivity, and subsequently technological revolutions. This was precisely the prerequisite for the production of additional volumes of products necessary to meet all the needs of the community.
- Economic isolation of production, that is, producers began to be considered owners. In view of this, the need arose to exchange the results of labor.
So, the first condition is a prerequisite for the emergence of commodity production itself, and the second – commodity producers.
Different understanding of the usefulness of a product from the point of view of producers and consumers
The production of natural products is associated with the concept of utility, that is, any product of such production has this property. In other words, it is able to provide certain human needs, even those that are detrimental to health (drugs, alcohol, cigarettes, etc.), since this can satisfy the corresponding either biological needs or spiritual needs.
Manufacturers of products regard them as a set of material properties that allow them to obtain the required utility. An example is iron ore, which is assessed based on the quantitative content of iron in it, or milk, which has a certain amount of vitamins, proteins, fats, milk sugar, etc. That is, there is a direct relationship between the amount of nutrients in a product and its quality.
Consumers are quite often guided by their subjective assessments of the benefits of a good, while neglecting their important objective qualities. Natural products are perceived by them from the perspective of personal needs, preferences and tastes.
Characteristic natural production V this aspect boils down to the fact that the range of useful manufactured products that are created for consumption within an economic unit is very limited. In contrast to the second form of production, based on the principle of social division of labor, in which not only the quantity and range of manufactured products increases, but also the properties of the goods change.
Nuances of accounting for products in physical terms within certain types of economic activity
The corresponding lists relating to the production of a certain range of goods include products that are manufactured by the organization both from its own reserves of materials and raw materials, and from unpaid semi-finished products attracted from outside (raw materials supplied by customers). It is intended for transmission to other individuals and legal entities, its divisions and its own capital construction, and then for inclusion as an element of current assets or fixed assets. For example, special equipment, special clothing, which is issued to our own personnel on account wages or spent on personal production needs.
For each range of products that are accounted for in monetary terms (for example, furniture, medicines etc.), as well as information regarding production and product balances, accounting is carried out at actual cost or at corresponding discount prices. And if the goods are manufactured using raw materials supplied by customer, then accounting is carried out at the total cost, including prices for these raw materials.
Production of products in kind can also include in their reports information regarding the production of prototypes, if, according to the production technology, they are recognized as fully completed, are accepted by the relevant service for technical control and own necessary document, acting as confirmation of their quality and compliance with mandatory standards.
Production and sales plan
It acts as a central section of both strategic and current plans. Its goal is to ensure growth in product output, significantly improve the quality of goods, better satisfy consumer demand and use production capacity and raw materials to the maximum.
What indicators are calculated in this plan?
It allows you to determine the required quantity and range of products intended for production according to the following indicators:
1. Production volume in physical terms:
- finished products (processed and in compliance with state and international standards and technical specifications);
- semi-finished product (not all stages of processing have been completed, it is considered the final product of the corresponding stage and the starting material for the next one);
- work in progress (at the processing stage, all stages within the workshop or enterprise have not been completed);
- products of auxiliary workshops (steam, electricity, water supplied for own needs or to third parties).
The use of appropriate natural meters is based on the use of certain physical and technical properties processes and objects. So, for example, bread products can be measured in basic units of mass - kilograms or tons.
The volume of production in physical terms of each division is taken into account by summing up its components: finished products, semi-finished products and work in progress.
2. Volume of production in conditionally physical terms.
3. Production volume in value terms.
4. Indicators of the existing production capacity of the enterprise.
5. Indicators characterizing the quality of products.
The main advantage and main disadvantage of natural meters
The positive aspect is expressed in the fact that these meters make it possible to visualize the physical volume of the object being taken into account.
Their main disadvantage is the limited ability to generalize various accounting objects.
Natural indicators are summarized only for homogeneous operations. Heterogeneous objects cannot be summed up. As a result, it is impossible to get a general idea about them.
Analysis of the production plan in physical terms
Its implementation is assessed in the following areas:
- established nomenclature;
- number of orders;
- the number of certain contracts;
- the range of products of individual types of production.
Two directions for assessing the output of a certain range of products
Firstly, it is necessary to analyze the annual plan and growth rates in comparison with the previous period.
Secondly, production in physical terms is studied in dynamics over a certain number of years.
Assessment of plan implementation by nomenclature
It is based on a comparison of the established plan target with the actual quantity of products produced in the corresponding physical terms, as well as the volume of products produced in the previous reporting period.
For each assortment, the degree of plan fulfillment is established in percentage terms, and the deviation from it and from the production output of the previous period is determined in absolute terms.
You can also install:
- the number of product groups in which the plan was met or exceeded;
- the number of types of products produced outside the plan;
- the number of types of products established by the plan, but not produced in a given reporting period.
natural economy
a type of economy in which the products of labor are produced to satisfy the producers themselves, and not for sale. With the emergence and deepening of the social division of labor, it is replaced by commodity production.
Natural economy
type of economy in which production is aimed at satisfying the producer’s own needs. “Under a natural economy, society consisted of a mass of homogeneous economic units... and each such unit carried out all types of economic work, starting from the extraction of various types of raw materials and ending with their final preparation for consumption” (V.I. Lenin, Complete collection cit., 5th ed., vol. 3, p. 21≈22). N. x. arose in ancient times and dominated at a stage when there was no social division of labor, exchange and private property. In a slave-owning society and under feudalism, N. x. remained dominant, despite the development of exchange and commodity-money relations. K. Marx pointed out that N. x. prevails on the basis of any system of personal dependence, both slave and serf (see Marx and F. Engels, Works, 2nd ed., vol. 24, p. 544). For N. x. characterized by isolation, limited, traditional and fragmented production, routine technology and slow pace of development. With the deepening of the social division of labor N. x. gradually being replaced by commodity production. Under capitalism, peasant farms retain the features and remnants of modern agriculture. During the transition period from capitalism to socialism in some countries, N. x. is preserved as one of the economic structures. Among those that existed in Russia immediately after October revolution V. I. Lenin called 1917 socio-economic structures “... patriarchal, that is, largely natural, peasant economy” (Complete collection of works, 5th ed., vol. 36, p. 296).
N. x. persisted for a long time in economically backward areas globe(Asia, Africa, Latin America), where, before colonization by Europeans, tribal or feudal relations dominated. In countries that freed themselves from colonial dependence (especially in countries with a “capitalist orientation”), in the mid-20th century. 50≈60% of the population is employed in subsistence or semi-subsistence farming.
Lit.: Marx K., Capital, Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 23≈25; Lenin V.I., Development of capitalism in Russia, Complete. collection cit., 5th ed., vol. 3; Problems of industrialization of developing countries, M., 1971.
T.K. Pajitnova.
Wikipedia
Natural economy
legumes in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (North Kivu province) The main features of the subsistence economy are the insignificance of its participation in the interregional division of labor, up to economic isolation from the outside world (autarky) with self-sufficiency in the means of production and labor force, allowing it to satisfy all needs at the expense of its own resources.
The development of the productive forces of society and the deepening of the interregional division of labor objectively prepare the conditions for the replacement of a subsistence economy with a commodity economy, where the specialization of producers in the production of one particular product develops, covering ever larger territories.
In slave society and feudalism, subsistence farming remained dominant, despite the development of exchange and commodity-money relations. In feudal society, the dominance of subsistence farming serves as one of the prerequisites for maintaining feudal fragmentation.
Subsistence farming has survived to this day in economically backward areas of the globe (Asia, Africa, Latin America), where tribal or feudal relations dominated before colonization by Europeans. In countries that freed themselves from colonial dependence, in the middle of the 20th century, 50-60% of the population was employed in subsistence or semi-subsistence farming.
IN modern Russia subsistence farming is represented by the personal subsidiary plots of peasants and the garden plots of urban residents.
Natural
Natural economy. - This name refers to an economy that, within its own limits, produces all the economic goods that its members need. In this sense, the national economy is opposed to the exchange economy, in particular, the money economy, which arises with the development of the division of labor; then each farm is limited only to the production of a certain category of products sold on the market, and the proceeds from the sale are used to purchase necessary consumer goods. N. economy in its pure form eliminates the need for exchange, because the needs of its members are satisfied within the economy itself; There is also no social division of occupations here, because in each farm all labor processes necessary to satisfy the various needs of the members of the farm are carried out; As for the technical division of labor, it is also found in the national economy, at least, for example, in the form of distribution of labor between members of a family or clan, according to the strengths of each. The main attention in the national economy is drawn to the use value of products and the degree of difficulty in obtaining them; the concept of exchange value has not yet been developed. In such a pure form, the N. economy is found only at the most primitive stages of culture, when people have the simplest needs, satisfied in a meager and crude way (hunting life). With the growth of culture and, in particular, the increase in labor productivity, elemental farming is introduced into Nizhny Novgorod. On the one hand, some surpluses of own production are created, willingly exchanged for items of convenience, luxury and whims that cannot be produced within the economy (for example, in ancient times, Indian aromatic herbs, spices, gems and metals). Nevertheless, we have the right to continue to call these farms N., as long as their production is primarily aimed at meeting the needs of the members of these farms. The N. economy, with some elements of men, existed throughout classical antiquity (Odyssey paints a picture of it in a more or less primitive form), when, within the “oikos” (household) economy of the ancient citizen, slaves and women produced all household items; It dominated during the Middle Ages both in feudal estates that relied on serf labor and in villages inhabited by dependent peasants. The development of trade and industry since the discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries. for the first time gave a strong impetus to the spread of the barter economy; nevertheless, in the landowners' estates and peasant households, the N. economy continued to dominate until early XIX V. Only from this time does it begin to give way to the money economy under the influence of the rapid progress of industry and the reduction in cost of factory products, due to an increase in population and differentiation of occupations. In Russia, farming dominated the estates of landowners and peasant households until the era of the liberation of the peasants. We can find typical features of such farms in Aksakov ("The Childhood Years of Bagrov's Grandson" and others), in Goncharov ("Oblomov"), Saltykov ("Poshekhon Antiquity"), etc. With the liberation of the peasants, we begin to notice the displacement of the N. economy by money; The peasants gradually stopped weaving their own fabrics, tanning leather, felting felt boots, etc., preferring to buy factory-made products. In N.'s landowners' estates, farming has almost receded into the realm of legend. Until the end of the 19th century, there were writers who considered the dominance of the N. economy desirable (for example, Count L. Tolstoy); They were attracted by the self-satisfaction that prevails in such farms, independence from outside influences, and versatility of activity. However, since the transition from a cash economy to an exchange economy is associated with the development of the division of labor and the progress of productivity, it constitutes a huge step forward, giving man the opportunity to satisfy his needs incomparably more fully and comprehensively. Dark Sides The existing monetary economy is determined by completely different reasons and could be eliminated without returning to the cash economy.
Natural production
Natural production- this is the kind of it in which people create products to satisfy their own needs. This historically first form of production is the simplest.
Natural production is characterized by the following features that express the essence of its inherent economic relations.
- Subsistence farming is a closed system of organizational and economic relations. The society in which it dominates consists of a mass of economic units (families, communities, estates). Each unit relies on its own production resources and provides itself with everything necessary for life. She carries out all types of economic work, starting from the extraction of various types of raw materials and ending with their final preparation for consumption.
- Natural production is characterized by manual universal labor, which excludes its division into types: each person performs all the basic work. It applies simplest technique(hoe, shovels, rakes, etc.) and handicraft tools. Naturally, under such conditions work activity is low-productivity, production output cannot increase significantly.
- Subsistence farming is characterized by direct economic connections between production and consumption. It develops according to the formula “production - distribution - consumption”. That is, the created products are distributed among all participants in production and - bypassing their exchange - go into personal and industrial consumption. This direct connection ensures sustainability of subsistence farming.
IN modern conditions Subsistence farming has largely survived in many countries where pre-industrial economies predominate. In underdeveloped countries, back in the middle of the 20th century. 50-60% of the population was employed in natural and semi-natural production. Currently, the backward structure of the national economy is being dismantled in these states.
In our country, natural production is especially developed in personal farming agriculture peasants and in the garden plots of urban residents.
One of the paradoxes of today's Russia is that after the “movement towards the market” was announced in 1992, in a number of cases a movement began in the opposite direction. Thus, the number of garden plots with natural production has increased significantly (this is a means of providing oneself with the urgently needed benefits of life). We find confirmation of this in the statistical data given in table. 4.1.
Table 4.1 Specific gravity food products received by the population of Russia from personal plots, in total consumption (in%)
Another paradox is that instead of moving towards the market, many regions of the country have increased economic autarky (closedness). They introduced a ban on the export of food to other regions (as they sought to improve the supply of food to the local population). However, the naturalization of economic ties also has negative consequences - it undermines normal economic ties.
Subsistence farming is characterized by stagnation, because manual and unspecialized labor has a very low output. As a result, the amount of goods per capita of the country almost does not increase, and people’s needs for a long time remain traditional.
Subsistence farming prevailed during the longest pre-industrial stage of production. In the conditions of machine industry, it was finally replaced by the second type of economy, which became dominant.
The form of social economy is a certain method, type of organization economic activity people, the real functioning of the social economy. TO general forms The economic organization of production includes natural and commodity production.
Subsistence farming is a type of farming in which production is aimed directly at satisfying the producer's own needs. Natural production is characterized by the following features that express the essence of its inherent economic relations.
Subsistence farming is a closed system of organizational and economic relations. The society in which it dominates consists of a mass of economic units (families, communities, estates). Each unit relies on its own production resources and provides itself with everything necessary for life. She carries out all types of economic work, starting from the extraction of various types of raw materials and ending with their final preparation for consumption. Natural production is characterized by manual universal labor, which excludes its division into types: each person performs all the basic work. It uses the simplest equipment (hoe, shovels, rakes, etc.) and handicraft tools. Naturally, under such conditions, labor activity is unproductive, and production output cannot increase to any significant extent. Subsistence farming is characterized by direct economic connections between production and consumption. It develops according to the abbreviated formula “production - distribution - consumption”. That is, the created products are distributed among all participants in production and - bypassing their exchange - go into personal and industrial consumption. This direct connection ensures sustainability of subsistence farming.
Subsistence farming is historically the first type of economic activity of people. It arose in ancient times, during the period of formation of the primitive communal system, when human production activity began and the first branches of the economy appeared - agriculture, cattle breeding. Subsistence farming existed among primitive peoples who did not know exchange and private property. It was a system of closed, economically independent communities. Subsistence farming also prevailed in ancient slave states, although quite developed commodity production already took place here. It was one of the main features of the feudal economy. Here the landowner economy and the surplus product appropriated by the feudal lord had a natural form. The latter acted in the form of various natural duties and payments. Feudal farming had a subsistence character dependent peasant. The peasant family was engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding and processing of their products into finished consumer goods.
