Alexander Ilarievich Germanovich (1896–1973) – linguist, teacher, author of works on the morphology and stylistics of the Russian language, the history of the Russian literary language, Russian literature, methods of teaching philological disciplines.
Born in the Belarusian village of Rodionovka, he studied at the Mstislav Theological School, the Mogilev Theological Academy, and the Nezhin Historical and Philological Institute. He taught in primary and secondary schools in Belarus, in the Smolensk and Moscow regions (1923–1931), at the Kazakh Pedagogical Institute and the Novgorod Teachers' Institute (1934–1938). A. I. Germanovich gave almost 40 years of his life (1938–1973) to the Crimean Pedagogical Institute, which was later transformed into Simferopol State University (now Tauride National University them. V.I. Vernadsky, the largest university in Crimea).
The scientist’s particular attention was attracted by the interjection. He devoted many works to this part of his speech, including the fundamental work “Interjections in the Russian Language.” Actually, interjections received the “official” status of a part of speech largely thanks to A. I. Germanovich: in the middle of the 20th century there were numerous disputes about these words among linguists (for example, academician L. V. Shcherba called the interjection “an unclear and foggy category”, "an unfortunate misunderstanding"). A.I. Germanovich examined interjections in detail from the content, word-formation, syntactic and formal intonation aspects.
We bring to the attention of the readers of the portal an article by Alexander Ilarievich Germanovich “Interjection as a part of speech”, published in the magazine “Russian Language at School” (№ 2, 1941) . In this article, the author proposes a classification of interjections and examines the syntactic role of interjections in a sentence.
The interjection occupies a completely special place among the parts of speech. There is the most controversy and disagreement regarding this category. There are still linguists today who do not consider interjections a part of speech1.
The uniqueness of the words included in the category of interjections is that they are not names of feelings or expressions of will (such as nouns, adjectives, verbs or adverbs). Interjections are signal words to express a person’s feelings and will. Most interjections were formed by transitioning from other parts of speech. “Transitivity” is the main way of forming the category of interjections. Relatively recently, interjections have been formed from cult words, appeals to an invisible force, to ancestors, etc. These are words and word combinations such as damn!, damn it!, to hell!, Lord!, abyss!, fathers!, mothers! etc. A similar transition of other parts of speech and phrases into interjections, always associated with a jump - a complete loss of the old meaning of the word and the formation of a new one, often expressed by intonation, can be called interjection (from the Latin interjectio - interjection).
Verbs undergo interjectification along with a change in sound form. Wed: quiet! gave « tsh! chsh! ts!"; bite!, bite! passed into wow! – interjection used to set dogs (cf. verb incite).
Go back to the names of animals (nouns) words for calling and driving away animals, known literary language and found in huge numbers in dialects. These are, for example, quite obvious kos!, tel!, kyz!(from goat), hoo!(from duck) and many more etc.
The group of interjections is also unique, going back in its history to nouns, verbs and other parts of speech of various foreign languages. This includes stop!(English imperative stop), Hello!(now a telephone shout, previously a shout from one ship to another, sea, English), guard!(Turkish Kara Kol), let's go!(Tatar), etc.
A number of foreign verbs and nouns gave rise to the interjections of calling and driving away animals. These are, for example, our pil!,Kush!, Shersh! etc. (from French verbs). In various dialects we have kick off!(cf. kutia - dog in Finnish), ketch!(the word for calling a goat, Turkish Käri - goat).
Some interjections got their meaning from various actions(often cultic) or physiological acts. These are ugh!, brrr!, ha-ha-ha! The phonetic side of such interjections is wider than the phonetic system of other parts of speech. In writing they are conveyed only conditionally. These words are closely related to the well-known everyday sounds of clicking the tongue, whistling, and smacking.
We do not yet have etymologies of interjections consisting of one vowel sound (a!, e!, and!, oh!, y!), vowel combined with a consonant x, y (ah, eh, them, uh, oh, ah, oh, hey).
Words such as run, grab, jump, look. These, as A. M. Peshkovsky rightly stated (“Russian syntax in scientific coverage,” 6th ed., pp. 199–200), are verbs of an ultra-instantaneous type, the indicator of which is the zero affix. These words, neither in their meaning, nor in their syntactic function, nor in their form, are suitable for interjections. They are names of certain actions and have a nominative meaning, which cannot be said about interjections in general. In a sentence they act only as a predicate.
Without sufficient reason, onomatopoeic words and phrases are also classified as interjections. Onomatopoeias are not signals for expressing feelings and will, but serve for an emotional and figurative representation of reality.
Classification of interjections
There is still no indisputable semantic classification of interjections. This is due to the fact that within the category of interjections we have groups that are heterogeneous in their structural properties2.
Should be considered very specially emotional(expressing feeling) interjections and interjections imperative(imperative), expressing the will of a person. Each of these groups has its own semantic and structural divisions.
So, emotional interjections are divided into a) interjections, the meaning of which is determined by intonation, and b) interjections with a stable, more or less definite meaning.
The first group includes words that are heterogeneous in form and etymologically different in stage. These are, first of all, the already mentioned interjections, consisting of one vowel sound or a vowel in combination with some consonants. The meaning of these interjections is determined not so much by the sounds, but by their characteristic features, conditioned by articulation, as well as by nuances of tone, duration and pitch of sound. The extremely rich and unique intonation gives these interjections a wide variety of meanings. It would be difficult to give a semantic classification of these interjections: it would be necessary to classify Various types intonations that determine the semantics of interjections. Facial expressions and gestures often add to their expressiveness. Punctuation marks in writing, double and triple letters, only to a small extent convey the intonational properties of these interjections. A!, for example, it expresses guesswork, surprise, horror, pain, dissatisfaction, annoyance, determination, threat, reproach, ridicule, irony, gloating, disgust and other feelings and all their various shades. Examples are well known. Other interjections of this group are distinguished by similar ambiguity.
Former cult exclamations are also ambiguous (Lord!, fathers!, damn it! and etc.). They express complaint, suffering, annoyance, surprise, surprise, delight, passionate desire for something, indignation, approval, praise and other feelings and moods.
The second group of emotional interjections consists of interjections with a stable meaning, more or less independent of intonation. Here we have several groups, separate in both form and meaning.
Already mentioned brrr!, ugh! express indignation, contempt or disgust. This also includes haha, hehe or hee hee, expressing ridicule or sarcasm.
The compact group consists of interjections expressing joy, delight, greeting, encouragement, gratitude (hurray!, bravo! thank you, folklore use And goy and etc.).
Regret, melancholy and grief are expressed by interjections Alas! And Oh!
The stable group also includes interjection phrases and idioms that are widespread in spoken language. These are: here you go!, here you go!, here you go!, here you go!, again!, well again!, that’s it!
This also includes various interjections like pipes! – interjection of familiar refusal, bah!, expressing surprise yeah!, expressing a guess, and some others.
Imperative interjections can be divided into a) interjections of appeal: hey!, ay!, hello!, guard! Each of them has its own specific meaning and different areas consumption. So, ow! is a word of call in the forest (figuratively used in the meaning of an emotional interjection: Aw! your time has passed!), Hello! – telephone signal: “listen” or “listening”; guard! – signal for help; b) orders to move or stop (motor interjections): let's go!, march!, stop!, fuit!; c) orders to remain silent: sss!, shhh!, chsh!, colloquial chick! And Nishkni!; d) numerous groups of professional interjections - special cries, signals, characteristic of a particular type of production. Thus, we can highlight, as an example, a group of nautical interjections: sabbath!, stop!, lane!, vira! (raise! lower!), half-baked! (watch out!) there is!(English yes!), who are informed that the order is understood and will be carried out.
We can talk about interjection shouts that help regulate work. Sometimes it's ordinary one, two, acting as a signal for the application of general force. N.A. Nekrasov, for example, spoke about such cries when describing the work of barge haulers:
You're walking under the yoke
No more beautiful than a prisoner in chains,
Repeating hateful words
The same for centuries: “one and two!”
With a painful refrain: "Ouch!"
And shaking my head to the beat...
In labor songs, such signaling words are choruses: ah, ah-da, ah-da-da, oh, uh, oh-time, eh-time, ah etc. Sometimes the entire work song is subordinated to the task of regulating the rhythm of work. The meaning of her words is insignificant.
This group of interjections also includes those that are used to calm or lull children to sleep: yeah And Bye.
Professional interjections initially included a large group of words for calling out and driving away animals. These are primarily pastoral, cab driver, hunting, and peasant interjections. Many of them have become generally known.
Interjections in syntax
Interjections are, by their specificity, signal words, and as such they are independent sentences. These are unique one-part sentences. These are all the words for calling and driving away animals, all professional interjections, the rest are imperative and most of the emotional interjections. They do not enter into any combination with other words, forming an independent and complete whole that does not need addition. Kiss-kiss!, Shoot!, Stop!, Hello!, Fathers! etc. are examples of such independent sentences.
Being a largely unchangeable word, an interjection often requires a syntactic connection with neighboring words. The grammar of M.V. Lomonosov (1775), taking into account the linguistic practice of his time, also fixes the norms of the usual connection of interjections with neighboring words. So, “interjections: that's it, ugh – composed with a nominative: Here book; something like that expensive thing; ugh, what a slow-witted one. Woe, use it, here it is, here it is before the dative the following is used: grief for us poor; use well done; on, here on your hand. The following are written with the vocative: chick, away, gay, well: chick you, don't bark;away, annoying; gay, passerby; Well, sloth! Exclamation O! The Slavs rely on the genitive order: O wonderful craft! but Russians tend to use the nominative: oh wonderful thought! 3 .
The old language provides a large number of sentence-related interjections. In the life of Archpriest Avvakum we read: « O wondrous and quick hearing; Oh righteous soul; Oh that time; Alas sinful soul; Alas I’m like a boardwalker - he didn’t get stuck in the water with me”4, etc. In Ivan Vasilyevich’s message to the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery we also find: « Alas me a sinner Oh bad for me"; we have the same thing from Simeon of Polotsk: “ ole evil enemies, what is the essence of deception; Alas us; Alas me"), etc.
In folklore, a number of interjections also have additions in the dative case. For example: « Ino is so hot I am grieving; wow I’m too young to grieve”; " wow I feel a little sick, young man”; " Oh to me"; " use to you, father"(Songs, recordings by Rich. James, Shane, etc.)5.
Some interjections from the modern Russian language are combined with nouns. For example: « Ida to the Volga!(Lyashko, “Into the Fault”), « March to hunt"; “What a fucking idiot you are! What a fool! – And, suddenly becoming angry, he spat. – Fuck you! (M. Gorky, vol. III, p. 156); Ay, ah-hey! a-tu!(Ne-krasov, “Peddler”). In similar combinations, interjections let's go, march are even closer in meaning to verbs.
The process of degeneration of the interjection, its approach to significant parts of speech, is even more clearly manifested when it appears in the meaning of a member of a sentence (most often a predicate). Let us give examples first from folklore6: My wife is everything oh yeah crap. Naked – Oh, and behind him is God himself. They turn a hole in his side, and he: ha ha ha! Someone else's fool -haha!, and your fool -Oh oh! This tea isAh ah ah! Not tea, but ah! Old age eh-ma! And youth -Oh oh!
We also find constructions with a predicate-interjection in literature, in the spoken language of the characters. For example: Such a wife -she uh-uh! (Lyashko, “Into the Fault”). The whole capital shook, andgirl -hee hee hee yes ha ha ha! Not afraid to know sin(Pushkin, “The Tale of the Golden Cockerel”). Here is Kirila Kirilych... rich, healthy, all his life hee hee hee yes ha ha ha, but his wife suddenly left: since then he hung his head(Goncharov, “Cliff”, vol. II, chapter 17). The predicate interjection does not express the speaker’s experience in these examples, but contains a statement, a thought, and contains an evaluative attitude towards this thought: in a sentence girl hee hee hee yes ha ha ha! The predicate interjection not only states the girl’s frivolous attitude towards events, but also expresses the reproach of the laughing one. In a proverb "someone else's fool -ha-ha!, and your fool - Oh oh!» We also have not only a thought, but also an assessment of a fact, a reproach to someone who laughs at someone else’s misfortune. A similar reproach to someone who cannot stand up for himself can be felt in the conversation: “They’re turning a hole in his side,a he xa- xa -xa!» By replacing the predicate-interjection with a verb, noun or adjective, we would change the meaning of the sentence, we would lose the speaker’s evaluative attitude to what is being expressed, we would make the sentence less expressive, and sometimes we would lose all the “salt” of the proverb.
An interjection can also act as subordinate clause. It is connected by ordinary conjunctions, most often by the conjunction What: It's so boring that Oh oh oh! (Ryleev, “Song”); At that time, such a beast was the head of the province, what do you have!!! (Saltykov-Shchedrin, “The Clerk’s First Story”).
In the role of a complement we encounter only a substantivized interjection. In sentences: Got it right oh yeah oh! Would say Oh God forbid(Dahl), I love your conversations and “ha-ha-ha” and “hee-hee-hee!”(Lermontov, “From the album of S. N. Karamzina”), The troops shouted “hurray” - interjections oh hee hee hurray are rather signs of interjections, they are devoid of intonation, and with it expressiveness, devoid of what is leading for most interjections. When we speak The troops shouted hooray, we ourselves may not experience feelings that are expressed in words hooray, we are simply stating facts.
Everything that applies to the object interjection can also be said about the subject interjection. A substantivized interjection is not an interjection in the usual sense of the word. This is also an interjection. In sentences: Hooray was heard in the distance Aahs and aahs so tired -hurray, ahi, ooh are not expressors of feelings. These are simple names for well-known interjections. Therefore the words ahi And Oh and and have the shape nominative case plural numbers.
Word formation from interjections is also closely related to the phenomenon of substantivization. From interjections we have verbs, nouns, adjectives, sometimes even adverbs in spoken language, for example so hot: Shalashnikov tore excellently, and not so hot received great incomes(Nekrasov, “Who Lives Well in Rus',” Chapter III). The most famous verbs are: gasp, ahk, groan, hoot, hihi-kat, tskat, auk, attack,attack(hunting), nudge, nudge, Sometimes whoa whoa etc., for example: “A wolf cannot gasp not breathe" (Krylov, "The Wolf and the Crane"), "The Peasant gasp No sooner had the bear settled on him” (Aka, “The Farmer and the Farmhand”). Sometimes an interjection is perceived as a verb even without verbal formatives. Prof. is right. L. V. Shcherba (“Parts of speech”, “Russian speech”, II series, 1928, p. 9), counting Oh in a sentence Tatiana - Oh! and he roars - verb. In that Oh no fear, it is equivalent to a verb gasped. The formation of such complex nouns as cheers-patriot, cheers-offensive, hitchhiker(a recent invention for automatically stopping a train instantly).
Emotional interjections sometimes come close in function in a sentence to intensifying particles, differing from the latter in their emotional meaning and the ability to be used independently. Ah, eh, ah, oh, oh, uh, uh, and and others add a variety of content to the sentence depending on intonation. Oh introduces a shade of regret into the meaning of the sentence to which it adjoins. In a sentence: « Oh, Vasya, I slaughtered his calf” (Krylov) - Oh expresses the wolf’s attitude towards the fact he committed. By depriving this sentence of interjection and intonation, we get a simple statement of fact. The exclamatory sentence would at the same time turn into a declarative sentence.
Sometimes wow plays the role of a kind of expressive-emotional particle. Characterizing a lady pleasant in all respects, Gogol writes: “although, of course, she sneaked through the pleasantries at X what bitter agility of female character! and although sometimes in every pleasant word she stuck out wow what a pin!” ("Dead Souls").
The interjection is always in intonational connection with the sentence to which it relates, forms the melodic pattern of the sentence, giving the expressed a certain meaning and significance. Intonationally, it is always the central word, taking on the greatest force of expression, expressed in its emphasized pronunciation, in strength or in raising the tone. Sometimes along with maximum height The interjection also has the longest duration, which also determines certain shades of meaning. For example: Ooh, but there are a lot of burrs here!(Dahl); ABOUT! what a kind king; I asked for one, and he brought seven(Zelenin, “Great Russian Tales of Vyatka Province,” p. 35); ABOUT, it would be a heavenly life!(Gogol); A! it's you! Ahh! Me and I forgot to tell you; Ooh, Which! Uh, not good etc. The punctuation is so imperfect that the possibility of discrepancies in our readings is always very wide. Interjection is the word richest in intonation nuances. It differs from the other words of the phrase in the height, strength and duration of the sound and in its unique, difficult to account for, expressiveness. As if at his expense, the remaining words of the phrase are pronounced with less stress, maintaining maximum lexical significance. The peculiar intonation of the interjection determines its maximum brevity and makes it a means of the shortest expression of feelings and will. Due to this circumstance, it is possible to replace entire phrases and phrases with interjections.
Let's add one more to the above examples. In Gogol (“Dead Souls,” Chapter V) we read: “There are faces that exist in the world not as an object, but as extraneous specks or specks on an object. They sit in the same place, hold their heads in the same way, you are almost ready to mistake them for furniture and you think that a word has never come out of such mouths; and somewhere in the girl's room or in the pantry it will simply turn out - wow!» A peculiar repetition of an interjection or its second part (wow, ehe-he, ayyy from ay-ay-ay, oh-oh from Oh oh oh) enhances its meaning.
The feeling and will of a person cannot be mechanically opposed to thought. The study of interjections in syntax makes it possible to establish that they are a means of emotionally expressive expression of our thoughts and feelings. N.V. Gogol, depicting the insignificance of the tsarist officials, their sycophancy and cowardice, the transformation of “Prometheus” under his superiors into a fly, into a grain of sand, concluded: “Yes, this is not Ivan Petrovich,” you say, looking at him. “Ivan Petrovich is taller, and this one is short and thin, he speaks loudly, has a deep bass voice and never laughs, but this one, the devil knows what: he squeaks like a bird and keeps laughing.” You come closer and look like Ivan Petrovich. Ehe, heh! you think to yourself...(“Dead Souls”, Chapter III). It's interesting that heh, heh! I think it’s not even pronounced in this heh, heh and regret, and reproach, and the thought of the insignificance of a morally crippled person. Replacing a phrase or sentence, an interjection cannot but reflect the movement of thought. If, in relation to modern language, we talk about the expression of feelings by an interjection, then this only emphasizes the leading meaning of the interjection. For the earlier period of human speech, the question cannot even be posed in this way. Thought and feeling were indivisible.
1 Compare, for example, the interpretation of the interjection by V. A. Bogoroditsky (“ General course Russian grammar", ed. 1935, pp. 106 and 198–199.
2 A. A. Shakhmatov came closest to correctly resolving the issue of classifying interjections (see “Syntax of the Russian Language,” Part II, pp. 100–101).
3 Works of M. V. Lomonosov, ed. Academy of Sciences, 1898, vol. IV, pp. 216–217.
4 We do not preserve the spelling of monuments.
5 See also Potebnya, “From Notes,” vol. I, p. 80.
6 V. I. Dal, Dictionary and Proverbs II, 93 and IV, 69.
(ideophone).
Many famous linguists have paid attention to the study of interjections. All the variety of points of view expressed at different times can be reduced to three.
- Interjection is a syntactic class of heterogeneous composition, standing outside the division of words into parts of speech.
- Interjections are part of the system of parts of speech, but stand alone in it.
- Interjections are included in the circle of parts of speech, and within the latter - in the category of “particles of speech” along with prepositions and conjunctions.
Substitute functions of interjections and their living connections with words different parts speeches are actively studied in modern linguistics.
Functions performed
Interjections perform an expressive or motivating function, expressing, for example, the speaker’s feelings (oh! wow! wow!!!), a call (hey! chick-chick!) or a command (scatter!). These also include obscene exclamations, to which the same punctuation rules apply. Many interjections originate from emotional exclamations and sounds that accompany the body’s reflexes to external irritations (Ah-ah, Ah, it hurts! Wow, it’s hard! Brr. It’s cold!), such interjections often have a specific phonetic appearance, that is, they contain rare or sounds and sound combinations unusual for a given language: in Russian, an interjection can be expressed by non-standard sounds and sound combinations, for example, labial vibrant (whoa! brrr, hmm), combination (dzin-dzin [d'z'], ts, tss). According to a number of characteristics, onomatopoeias are adjacent to interjections, which are conditional intentional reproductions of sounds accompanying actions performed by a person, animal or object.
Interjections are substitutes for well-known definite expressions and entire sentences. Instead of “ugh” or “brr”, you can say “what disgusting!”, instead of “shh” - “quiet, don’t make noise”, instead of “hey” or “pss” - “come here”, “listen”, or simply make a call hand gesture, etc. The use of interjections as members of a sentence standing in connection with other members is very rare. A few examples can be cases like: “I am so wretched,” “alas, poor me” (lat. eheu me nuserum, German webe dem Armen) etc.
Interjections in English in coherent speech can act as individual sounds expressing the feelings or motivations of the speaker, as in Russian and any other: Ok! Oh! Ah! Bravo! Hush! Hurrah! etc. or individual expressions that serve as interjections, such as: For shame! Ashamed! Well done! Great! etc. Sentence options: “Well, perhaps you are right!” - Well, maybe you're right.", "Oh! what a pleasure! “Ah, how nice!”
Interjections in Russian: oh, oh, pli, uh, fu, fi, aha, ah, apchhi, fathers, bravo, Lord, my God, oh damn, who cares! oh well done!, well done!, well done!, come on, come on, how did it happen like that! ... These words have no lexical or grammatical meanings, do not change and are not members of a sentence. The exception is when interjections act as a significant part of speech, for example, a noun: “A menacing hey was heard in the darkness.”
Most often, figurative words (sound-depictive, onomatopoeic), words in which the sound is partially predetermined by the meaning of the word, act as interjections. There are onomatopoeic words that use sounds that are acoustically reminiscent of the designated phenomenon (Russian “bul-bul”, “ku-ku”, Ossetian tæpp - “clap, bam, bang”, German “puffi! hopsa!”; Kanuri ndim-dim - o dull, booming knock, etc.), sound-like (ideophonic) words in which sound creates a figurative impression of the shape of objects, their movement, location in space, qualities, etc. based on associations between sounds and non-sound phenomena (movement, shape etc.), for example, in the Nilotic language Lango bim-bim - “fat-fat”, Chuvash yalt-yalt - about the flickering of distant lightning, Japanese buru-buru - about trembling, Ewe (Africa) bafo-bafo - about the gait of a living, mobile a person of short stature, boho-boho - about the gait of a plump, heavily walking person, wudo-wudo - about a careless gait.
Interjections do not change by gender or number, and are neither a significant nor an auxiliary part of speech, and unlike them, interjections do not have a connecting function. Sometimes interjections are used to mean other parts of speech. In this case, the interjection takes on a specific lexical meaning and becomes a member of the sentence: “Oh honey!”, “Here an “ay” was heard in the distance.”
Classification
Interjections can be classified according to various criteria, for example by origin, structure and meaning:
- by origin: non-derivatives, derivatives.
- by structure: simple, complex, compound.
- by value: emotional, motivational, etiquette.
Classification of interjections into genetically related groups with significant words; this group of interjections is more extensive:
- nouns: Fathers, Lord, God, etc.
- verbs: look, see, pli, etc.
- pronouns, adverbs, particles and conjunctions: something, eka, shh, just about, etc.
Interjections also include:
- adhesions: on you, well, yes, yes, oh, that’s how it is, those times, etc.;
- stable phrases and phraseological units: fathers of light, thank God, etc.;
- words denoting instant actions: bang, clap, slap, boom, woof, etc.;
- words imitating various sounds and voices of animals and birds: tra-ta-ta, bang-bang, meow-meow, ding-ding, etc.
When used in the plural, interjections become nouns. The main source of replenishment of interjections are evaluative and characterizing nouns (fear, horror, trouble) and expressive verbs (wait, wait, come on, go ahead, muddy, muddy).
Interjections in Russian
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Punctuation
Gesticulation
Gestures and facial expressions are often inseparable from interjections. So, sighing heavily, people say “wow, well... what have I done?”, thereby adding more meaning when expressing a certain feeling. And sometimes, without the support of gestures or facial expressions, it is very difficult to understand what was said from the intonation of the voice alone: whether it was a “message” (offense or anger) or just a humorous saying (a friendly greeting).
In linguistics, interjections, unlike spontaneous shouts, are conventional means, that is, ones that a person must know in advance if he wants to use them. Nevertheless, interjections are still on the periphery of linguistic signs themselves. For example, like no other linguistic signs, interjections are associated with gestures. Thus, the Russian interjection “Na!” makes sense only when accompanied by a gesture, and some West African languages have an interjection that is said at the same time as the greeting hug.
see also
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Notes
Links
- Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
- I. A. Sharonov.
- E. V. Sereda.
- E. V. Sereda.
- E. V. Sereda.
- E. V. Sereda.
- I. A. Sharonov.
Passage characterizing Interjection
The next day the prince did not say a word to his daughter; but she noticed that at dinner he ordered the food to be served, starting with m lle Bourienne. At the end of dinner, when the barman, according to his previous habit, again served coffee, starting with the princess, the prince suddenly flew into a rage, threw his crutch at Philip and immediately made an order to hand him over as a soldier. “They don’t hear... I said it twice!... they don’t hear!”“She is the first person in this house; she is mine best friend- shouted the prince. “And if you allow yourself,” he shouted in anger, turning to Princess Marya for the first time, “once again, like yesterday you dared... to forget yourself in front of her, then I will show you who is the boss in the house.” Out! so that I don’t see you; ask her for forgiveness!”
Princess Marya asked forgiveness from Amalya Evgenievna and her father for herself and for Philip the barman, who asked for spades.
At such moments, a feeling similar to the pride of a victim gathered in Princess Marya’s soul. And suddenly, at such moments, in her presence, this father, whom she condemned, either looked for his glasses, feeling near them and not seeing, or forgot what was just happening, or took an unsteady step with weak legs and looked around to see if anyone had seen him weakness, or, worst of all, at dinner, when there were no guests to excite him, he would suddenly doze off, letting go of his napkin, and bend over the plate, his head shaking. “He is old and weak, and I dare to condemn him!” she thought with disgust for herself at such moments.
In 1811, in Moscow there lived a French doctor who quickly became fashionable, huge in stature, handsome, as amiable as a Frenchman and, as everyone in Moscow said, a doctor of extraordinary skill - Metivier. He was accepted into the houses of high society not as a doctor, but as an equal.
Prince Nikolai Andreich, who laughed at medicine, recently, on the advice of m lle Bourienne, allowed this doctor to visit him and got used to him. Metivier visited the prince twice a week.
On Nikola’s day, the prince’s name day, all of Moscow was at the entrance of his house, but he did not order to receive anyone; and only a few, a list of which he gave to Princess Marya, he ordered to be called to dinner.
Metivier, who arrived in the morning with congratulations, as a doctor, found it proper to de forcer la consigne [to violate the prohibition], as he told Princess Marya, and went in to see the prince. It so happened that on this birthday morning the old prince was in one of his worst moods. He walked around the house all morning, finding fault with everyone and pretending that he did not understand what they were saying to him and that they did not understand him. Princess Marya firmly knew this state of mind of quiet and preoccupied grumbling, which was usually resolved by an explosion of rage, and as if in front of a loaded, cocked gun, she walked all that morning, waiting for the inevitable shot. The morning before the doctor arrived went well. Having let the doctor pass, Princess Marya sat down with a book in the living room by the door, from which she could hear everything that was happening in the office.
At first she heard one voice of Metivier, then the voice of her father, then both voices spoke together, the door swung open and on the threshold appeared the frightened, beautiful figure of Metivier with his black crest, and the figure of a prince in a cap and robe with a face disfigured by rage and drooping pupils of his eyes.
- Do not understand? - the prince shouted, - but I understand! French spy, Bonaparte's slave, spy, get out of my house - get out, I say - and he slammed the door.
Metivier shrugged his shoulders and approached Mademoiselle Bourienne, who had come running in response to the scream from the next room.
“The prince is not entirely healthy,” la bile et le transport au cerveau. Tranquillisez vous, je repasserai demain, [bile and rush to the brain. Calm down, I’ll come by tomorrow,” said Metivier and, putting his finger to his lips, he hurriedly left.
Outside the door one could hear footsteps in shoes and shouts: “Spies, traitors, traitors everywhere! There is no moment of peace in your home!”
After Metivier left, the old prince called his daughter to him and the full force of his anger fell on her. It was her fault that a spy was allowed in to see him. .After all, he said, he told her to make a list, and those who were not on the list should not be allowed in. Why did they let this scoundrel in! She was the reason for everything. With her he could not have a moment of peace, he could not die in peace, he said.
- No, mother, disperse, disperse, you know that, you know! “I can’t do it anymore,” he said and left the room. And as if afraid that she would not be able to console herself somehow, he returned to her and, trying to assume a calm appearance, added: “And don’t think that I told you this in a moment of my heart, but I am calm, and I have thought it over; and it will be - disperse, look for a place for yourself!... - But he could not stand it and with that embitterment that can only be found in a person who loves, he, apparently suffering himself, shook his fists and shouted to her:
- And at least some fool would marry her! “He slammed the door, called m lle Bourienne to him and fell silent in the office.
At two o'clock the chosen six persons arrived for dinner. The guests—the famous Count Rostopchin, Prince Lopukhin and his nephew, General Chatrov, the prince’s old comrade in arms, and young Pierre and Boris Drubetskoy—were waiting for him in the living room.
The other day, Boris, who came to Moscow on vacation, wished to be introduced to Prince Nikolai Andreevich and managed to gain his favor to such an extent that the prince made an exception for him from all the single young people whom he did not accept.
The prince’s house was not what is called “light,” but it was such a small circle that, although it was unheard of in the city, it was most flattering to be accepted into it. Boris understood this a week ago, when in his presence Rostopchin told the commander-in-chief, who called the count to dinner on St. Nicholas Day, that he could not be:
“On this day I always go to venerate the relics of Prince Nikolai Andreich.
“Oh yes, yes,” answered the commander-in-chief. - What he?..
The small company gathered in the old-fashioned, tall, old-furnished living room before dinner looked like a solemn council of a court of justice. Everyone was silent and if they spoke, they spoke quietly. Prince Nikolai Andreich came out serious and silent. Princess Marya seemed even more quiet and timid than usual. The guests were reluctant to address her because they saw that she had no time for their conversations. Count Rostopchin alone held the thread of the conversation, talking about the latest city and political news.
Lopukhin and the old general occasionally took part in the conversation. Prince Nikolai Andreich listened as the chief judge listened to the report that was being made to him, only occasionally declaring in silence or a short word that he was taking note of what was being reported to him. The tone of the conversation was such that it was clear that no one approved of what was being done in the political world. They talked about events that obviously confirmed that everything was going from bad to worse; but in every story and judgment it was striking how the narrator stopped or was stopped every time at the border where the judgment could relate to the person of the sovereign emperor.
During dinner, the conversation turned to the latest political news, about Napoleon's seizure of the possessions of the Duke of Oldenburg and about the Russian note hostile to Napoleon, sent to all European courts.
“Bonaparte treats Europe like a pirate on a conquered ship,” said Count Rostopchin, repeating a phrase he had already spoken several times. - You are only surprised at the long-suffering or blindness of sovereigns. Now it comes to the Pope, and Bonaparte no longer hesitates to overthrow the head of the Catholic religion, and everyone is silent! One of our sovereigns protested against the seizure of the possessions of the Duke of Oldenburg. And then...” Count Rostopchin fell silent, feeling that he was standing at the point where it was no longer possible to judge.
“They offered other possessions instead of the Duchy of Oldenburg,” said Prince Nikolai Andreich. “Just as I resettled men from Bald Mountains to Bogucharovo and Ryazan, so he did the dukes.”
“Le duc d"Oldenbourg supporte son malheur avec une force de caractere et une resignation admirable, [The Duke of Oldenburg bears his misfortune with remarkable willpower and submission to fate," said Boris, respectfully entering into the conversation. He said this because he was passing through from St. Petersburg had the honor of introducing himself to the Duke. Prince Nikolai Andreich looked at young man as if he wanted to say something to him about this, but decided against it, considering him too young for that.
“I read our protest about the Oldenburg case and was surprised at the poor wording of this note,” said Count Rostopchin, in the careless tone of a man judging a case well known to him.
Pierre looked at Rostopchin with naive surprise, not understanding why he was bothered by the poor edition of the note.
– Doesn’t it matter how the note is written, Count? - he said, - if its content is strong.
“Mon cher, avec nos 500 mille hommes de troupes, il serait facile d"avoir un beau style, [My dear, with our 500 thousand troops it seems easy to express ourselves in a good style,] said Count Rostopchin. Pierre understood why Count Rostopchin was worried about the edition of the note.
“It seems that the scribblers are pretty busy,” said the old prince: “they write everything there in St. Petersburg, not just notes, but they write new laws all the time.” My Andryusha wrote a whole lot of laws for Russia there. Nowadays they write everything! - And he laughed unnaturally.
The conversation fell silent for a minute; The old general drew attention to himself by clearing his throat.
– Did you deign to hear about the latest event at the show in St. Petersburg? How the new French envoy showed himself!
- What? Yes, I heard something; he said something awkwardly in front of His Majesty.
“His Majesty drew his attention to the grenadier division and the ceremonial march,” continued the general, “and it was as if the envoy did not pay any attention and seemed to allow himself to say that in France we do not pay attention to such trifles.” The Emperor did not deign to say anything. At the next review, they say, the sovereign never deigned to address him.
Everyone fell silent: no judgment could be expressed on this fact, which related personally to the sovereign.
- Daring! - said the prince. – Do you know Metivier? I drove him away from me today. He was here, they let me in, no matter how much I asked not to let anyone in,” said the prince, looking angrily at his daughter. And he told his whole conversation with the French doctor and the reasons why he was convinced that Metivier was a spy. Although these reasons were very insufficient and unclear, no one objected.
Champagne was served along with the roast. The guests rose from their seats, congratulating the old prince. Princess Marya also approached him.
He looked at her with a cold, angry gaze and offered her his wrinkled, shaved cheek. The whole expression of his face told her that he had not forgotten the morning conversation, that his decision remained in the same force, and that only thanks to the presence of guests he was not telling her this now.
When they went out into the living room for coffee, the old men sat down together.
Prince Nikolai Andreich became more animated and expressed his thoughts about the upcoming war.
He said that our wars with Bonaparte would be unhappy as long as we sought alliances with the Germans and meddled in European affairs into which the Peace of Tilsit dragged us. We did not have to fight either for Austria or against Austria. Our policy is all in the east, but in relation to Bonaparte there is one thing - weapons on the border and firmness in politics, and he will never dare to cross the Russian border, as in the seventh year.
- And where, prince, are we supposed to fight the French! - said Count Rostopchin. – Can we take up arms against our teachers and gods? Look at our youth, look at our ladies. Our gods are the French, our kingdom of heaven is Paris.
He began to speak louder, obviously so that everyone could hear him. – The costumes are French, the thoughts are French, the feelings are French! You kicked out Metivier, because he is a Frenchman and a scoundrel, and our ladies are crawling after him. Yesterday I was at a party, so out of five ladies, three are Catholics and, with the permission of the pope, on Sunday they sew on canvas. And they themselves sit almost naked, like signs of commercial baths, if I may say so. Eh, look at our youth, Prince, he would take the old club of Peter the Great from the Kunstkamera, and in Russian style he would break off the sides, all the nonsense would fall off!
Everyone fell silent. The old prince looked at Rostopchin with a smile on his face and shook his head approvingly.
“Well, goodbye, your Excellency, don’t get sick,” said Rostopchin, getting up with his characteristic quick movements and extending his hand to the prince.
- Goodbye, my dear, - the harp, I will always listen to it! - said the old prince, holding his hand and offering him a cheek for a kiss. Others also rose with Rostopchin.
Princess Marya, sitting in the living room and listening to these talk and gossip of the old people, did not understand anything of what she heard; she only thought about whether all the guests noticed her father’s hostile attitude towards her. She did not even notice the special attention and courtesies that Drubetskoy, who had been in their house for the third time, showed her throughout this dinner.
Princess Marya, with an absent-minded, questioning look, turned to Pierre, who, the last of the guests, with a hat in his hand and a smile on his face, approached her after the prince had left, and they alone remained in the living room.
-Can we sit still? - he said, throwing his fat body into a chair next to Princess Marya.
“Oh yes,” she said. “Didn’t you notice anything?” said her look.
Pierre was in a pleasant, post-dinner state of mind. He looked ahead and smiled quietly.
“How long have you known this young man, princess?” - he said.
- Which one?
- Drubetsky?
- No, recently...
- What do you like about him?
- Yes, he is a nice young man... Why are you asking me this? - said Princess Marya, continuing to think about her morning conversation with her father.
“Because I made an observation, a young man usually comes from St. Petersburg to Moscow on vacation only for the purpose of marrying a rich bride.
– You made this observation! - said Princess Marya.
“Yes,” Pierre continued with a smile, “and this young man now behaves in such a way that where there are rich brides, there he is.” It’s like I’m reading it from a book. He is now undecided who to attack: you or mademoiselle Julie Karagin. Il est tres assidu aupres d'elle. [He is very attentive to her.]
– Does he go to them?
- Very often. And do you know a new style of grooming? - Pierre said with a cheerful smile, apparently in that cheerful spirit of good-natured ridicule, for which he so often reproached himself in his diary.
“No,” said Princess Marya.
- Now, in order to please Moscow girls - il faut etre melancolique. Et il est tres melancolique aupres de m lle Karagin, [one must be melancholic. And he is very melancholy with m elle Karagin,” said Pierre.
- Vraiment? [Really?] - said Princess Marya, looking into Pierre’s kind face and never ceasing to think about her grief. “It would be easier for me,” she thought, if I decided to trust someone with everything I feel. And I would like to tell Pierre everything. He is so kind and noble. It would make me feel better. He would give me advice!”
– Would you marry him? asked Pierre.
“Oh, my God, Count, there are moments when I would marry anyone,” Princess Marya suddenly said to herself, with tears in her voice. “Oh, how hard it can be to love a loved one and feel that... nothing (she continued in a trembling voice) you can’t do for him except grief, when you know that you can’t change it.” Then one thing is to leave, but where should I go?...
- What are you, what’s wrong with you, princess?
But the princess, without finishing, began to cry.
– I don’t know what’s wrong with me today. Don't listen to me, forget what I told you.
All Pierre's gaiety disappeared. He anxiously questioned the princess, asked her to express everything, to confide in him her grief; but she only repeated that she asked him to forget what she said, that she did not remember what she said, and that she had no grief other than the one he knew - the grief that Prince Andrei’s marriage threatens to quarrel with his father son.
INTERJECTION, an unchangeable word used to express emotions and other reactions to speech or non-speech stimuli.
When turning to interjections, a linguist often experiences doubts, including those of the most fundamental nature. Thus, disputes still sometimes arise about whether interjections are even within the jurisdiction of linguistics. Maybe an interjection is a spontaneous cry, an instinctive reaction to external stimulus, which is characteristic not only of humans, but also of animals?
However, today, perhaps, few people hold this opinion. Interjections belong to a specific language and a specific culture; they require translation when moving from one language to another and special study when mastering a foreign language. In the same situation the Frenchman will say Helas, And russian - Alas, although they will probably sigh the same way. In linguistics, it is customary to say that interjections, unlike spontaneous shouts, are conventional means, i.e. those that a person must know in advance if he wants to use them. Nevertheless, interjections are still on the periphery of linguistic signs themselves. For example, like no other linguistic signs, interjections are associated with gestures. So, Russian interjection On! makes sense only when accompanied by a gesture, and some West African languages have an interjection that is said at the same time as the greeting hug.
Having recognized interjections as their object, linguists, however, propose to distinguish among them those that are “closer to nature,” i.e. those that are “closer to the language” are relatively close to the natural exclamation.
On the one hand, there are interjections that are so unlike ordinary words of the language that they even contain sounds that are not found in any other words. For example, in the Russian language there is an interjection, which in its meaning approximately corresponds to the verb snort, Wed: – Do you want to marry her?- Pshshch. Do I look crazy? The pronunciation of this word begins with a voiceless labial stop, followed by a fricative sound, for which there is no unambiguous recording method, since such a sound does not occur in “ordinary” Russian words. You will not find such interjections in any dictionary, textbook or reference book, since they are practically absent in writing, and oral speech has not yet been sufficiently described. However, those interjections that are included in dictionaries often have a phonetic appearance that is non-standard for a given language. For example, interjections such as ugh And Ugh, are the only native Russian words that contain f. Open start sound uh in native Russian words exists only in pronouns ( this) and in interjections ( Eh,Hey). In English interjection Pst, serving to attract attention, the consonant is syllabic, which is not at all typical for in English, and in the word Tsk-tsk(“It’s a shame...”) uses a sound that is not found in any other words. It is precisely such interjections that often spark debate about whether they can be considered full-fledged linguistic units.
Another kind of doubt is raised among linguists by interjections derived from ordinary, significant words of the language - My God! They can come from nouns ( Fathers!), from verbs (French Tiens! "Listen!" from the verb tenir"hold" , English Bother! "Yearning!" from the verb to bother“to bother”), from a combination of a noun with a verb ( Damn it! or an interjection in one of the languages of Ethiopia, which literally translates as “eat dirt”, and means “Shame!”, from particles ( Oh well!). They are called secondary or derivative, and sometimes they are not classified as interjections at all. Many languages have words that serve the area of etiquette; as a rule, these are derivative words - Thank you(from the phrase God bless),Goodbye. Such words and expressions are called communicative formulas and are also sometimes not included in the class of interjections.
In general, interjections are not always easy to distinguish from words of other classes. Usually there are several characteristic properties, according to which the word can be classified as an interjection.
Firstly, interjections are sentence words: in their usual, original use, they are always independent statements. Therefore, interjections, being words, at the same time have properties that are characteristic of sentences. They are unable to have syntactic connections with other words: they do not depend on anyone and do not subordinate anyone to themselves. They are self-sufficient: our reaction to some event or response to an entire remark from an interlocutor can be expressed with just one interjection.
Some particles can also form a separate sentence: – It really turned out to be her. - That's it. I told you so. However, particles that can form a separate statement are still primarily used as part of another sentence: – That's why she was so worried.
In Russian and some other languages, interjections can be part of another sentence as a predicate: Geese are here wow. However, such use cannot in any way be considered basic for the interjection or even characteristic. Not just any interjection can play this role: it is impossible, for example, to say My mood today is eh. On the other hand, those interjections that can be predicates are still much more often used in the usual interjection function - as independent statements.
Since interjections are sentence words, for them, like no other words in the language, prosody is important - the length of a vowel or consonant, and especially the intonation with which they are pronounced. Often interjections that have absolutely different meanings, differ only in intonation. For example: - What should we do with a broken TV??- Ahh!To hell with it. We'll buy a new one. Or: - What's broken??- TV. - Ahh. I thought so.
Secondly, the interjection, as a rule, does not have any grammatical indicators, i.e. cannot change in gender, number, time, etc. True, in languages there are interjections that may have something like grammatical indicators. For example, in the Albanian language there are interjections derived from nouns that can attach the second person plural: Forca! – Forcani! "Have taken!" (forca- "force"). In Russian the word On There is a variant that has something like a 2nd person plural ending: Nate(similar to take - take). Such words may raise fair doubts as to whether they are interjections; however, they also cannot be attributed to any other part of speech.
Some linguists consider the distinctive feature of interjections to be their non-derivability. They classify as interjections only such words as Oh,ah,oooh, – which are not derived from any other part of speech and which cannot be divided into morphemes. In principle, in the field of interjections there may be their own word-formation processes, but they have a certain originality. For example, in many languages, including Russian, interjections can be formed by reduplication: Oh oh oh,wow.
Finally, many linguists classify as interjections only those words that serve to express internal state person, i.e. his sensations, feelings, thoughts, intentions, motives. For example, saying Wow, a person expresses his feeling about an event that in some respect greatly exceeds his expectations.
It is the presence of meaning that distinguishes interjections from another class of words - onomatopoeia. An interjection is a sound that is a sign of some internal state of the person pronouncing it, i.e. interjections convey some conceptual content. Meanwhile, the signified of onomatopoeia is simply another sound - produced by an object, person or animal
Based on the type of meaning, interjections are usually divided into three groups.
The first category includes emotive interjections; they convey the speaker’s feelings. For example, interjection eh expresses something like regret, i.e. negative emotion, which is caused by the fact that some situation seems worse to a person than it could be. Interjection Oh usually said when a person feels powerless in the face of a situation and therefore experiences a negative emotion. Russian ugh expresses disgust - an unpleasant feeling, usually caused by physiological reasons: smell, taste, sight. Women of one South American Indian people, surprised, say Hije!, and men - Howa! In another language South America interjection Abo! conveys the impression made on a person by something big (similar to Russian Wow), A Abi is a reaction to something, on the contrary, very small.
A large group of interjections expresses the state of knowledge and thoughts of the speaker; Such interjections are called cognitive. For example, in the Russian language there are a number of words, the pronunciation of which indicates that the speaker has received some new information and relates it to his knowledge and ideas. So, when a person learns something new, he says Ahh, and if this new somehow contradicts his previous ideas, he says Uh-uh.
– How freely she feels in someone else’s apartment.
- And she already came to us.
- Ahh,she's already come!// – Uh,Yes, this is not her first time here.
Many languages have interjections with which the speaker expresses his doubt. In one of the languages of Mexico there is a special interjection, which is usually pronounced by those who listen to a story. With its help, listeners express their attention and approval and encourage the narrator to continue his story.
Almost all linguists distinguish a group of volitive or imperative interjections, i.e. those that express the speaker’s wishes addressed to the interlocutor. So, in many, if not all languages, there are interjections that serve to invite another person to you. In Russian, this function can use the interjection-call Hey. If the addressee is at a great distance and invisible, then we will call him using an interjection aw. There are also words that call the interlocutor to silence. Interjection shh usually pronounced in a low voice and means “speak without being heard,” and the word tuts You can say it out loud, because it means “be silent!” In the Albanian language there are imperative interjections with which only men are called, and those that are used only in relation to women. In many languages, a large group consists of imperative interjections, with the help of which commands are given to animals. In Russian, chickens are called by saying chick-chick-chick, in Georgian – yichi-yichi-yichi, and, for example, French cats do not know the word Kitty Kitty.
Interjections, like other words in a language, can become outdated. For example, here is a dialogue from The captain's daughter“And listen, Vasilisa Egorovna,” answered Ivan Kuzmich, “I was busy with service: teaching little soldiers.” - “And, that’s enough! - the captain objected. “Only glory that you teach soldiers: neither they are given service, nor do you see the point in it.” Interjection AND not used in modern speech, just as interjections are uncommon You see!,Chu! And Ba!
On the other hand, new interjections also arise. As a rule, new words are added to the class of derived interjections. In colloquial speech, a new “fashionable” exclamation often appears and is just as quickly forgotten. New interjections, like words, can be borrowed from other languages - for example, now among teenagers you can often hear English exclamations Wow! And Yeah!
Nina Dobrushina
Which are not nearby grammatical features, so that they can be considered independent: they do not have the categories of number, gender, do not decline and do not change according to cases and numbers. And their role in the proposals is not the most important. And yet it is impossible to completely do without them, especially in oral speech.
The fact is that an interjection is one that expresses a certain emotion without naming it, and in different contexts the meaning can be different, even if the word is the same. In addition, they can express an impulse to action. Most researchers are inclined to believe that the so-called “polite” or “etiquette” words can also be classified in this class.
Interjection is a not very well studied linguistic phenomenon. They are divided into three fairly clearly distinguishable categories: emotional, imperative and etiquette. The first category includes such interjections, examples of which immediately come to everyone’s mind: “ah”, “oh”, “hurray” and so on. The second category includes a variety of “hey”, “tsyts”, “shoo” and words similar to them. Etiquette includes politeness formulas - “hello”, “goodbye”, “sorry” and others.
Obviously, some words have become interjections, which is why they are called derivatives. There are also non-derivatives that seem simpler. Usually, nouns and verbs go into the auxiliary category, but in theory, almost any word can, in one situation or another, go into the “Interjection” category.
This phenomenon is more common in oral speech than in written speech, but for fiction The use of similar words is also typical. They are especially often used in combination with jargon and calques with foreign words. This is especially evident among teenagers. Globalization has introduced words such as “wow”, “okay” and a number of others into the Russian language. By the way, it is curious that an interjection is not a combination of sounds that is universal for all languages. They are usually similar, but quite often they are different. For example, an imperative interjection calling for silence sounds like “ts-s-s” in Russian, “hush” in English, and “pst” in German. There is something similar in their sound, probably in this case originally it was onomatopoeia.
By the way, it is with this that interjections are confused. In fact, it is quite easy to distinguish them - onomatopoeia usually does not carry any meaning other than the image of a certain sound. That is, the “replicas” of any animals, as well as words designed to show that a certain sound was heard (for example, “pop”, “bang”), will belong specifically to this category.
Another interesting point: when studying foreign language Almost no attention is paid to interjections. Due to this circumstance (or a number of other reasons), even after long stay in the country of the language being studied, a person still continues to use emotional interjections in his native language. Another probable reason may be the nature of the occurrence of these sounds - they break out unconsciously, reflexively.
Interjections are extremely important in our lives. They are not always noticeable, but they help make speech more lively and emotional.
§1. general characteristics interjections
Interjections are the most amazing class of words. It does not refer to either independent or auxiliary parts of speech.
Interjections are most often an expression of the speaker's spontaneous emotional reaction to a situation. Linguists believe that interjections are emotional signals, "primary human words." They are associated with the speaker’s facial expressions and gestures, which also express physical state or a person's reaction.
Cut my finger: -
Oh!
I found out the result of the Unified State Exam: - Thank God!
I heard bad smell: - Ugh...
Feelings and emotions can be very different: positive and negative, strong and weak.
§2. Formation of interjections
Based on their formation, interjections are divided into non-derivative and derivative.
Non-derivatives: ah, oh, uh, eh, ugh, ugh and etc.
Derivatives: Fathers!, Fathers of light!, Damn it!, Lord!, My God! Here you go!, Wasn’t there!, That’s it!, Of course!
The class of interjections continues to expand, in particular, due to stable combinations. The most common way of formation is to switch to another part of speech.
The meanings of interjections are varied, which makes it possible to distinguish categories by meaning.
§3. Places by value
Many interjections are ambiguous. Only one sound can be pronounced. It matters how you pronounce it. Vowel duration, intensity, volume, register and timbre of the voice, intonation (tone movement) - all this helps to express different feelings. For example: Ah! (annoyance), Ah-ah! (guess), Ah-ah! (threat, scream when attacked). Nevertheless, we can talk about groups of interjections with different meanings.
- Emotional: Ay, oh, ah, oh, uh, eh, oooh, oh-oh-oh, ugh, ugh, chu, god, oh my god, thank God, hurray, alas, Oh! , oh-oh-oh, Ah! , a-a-a, etc.
- Volitional: get out, away, down, stop, scat, tsits, ts-s, sh-sh, ch-ch-ch, kitty-kiss, chick-chick, but, whoa, let's go (from Tatar), guard (from Turkish ), allo (from French), bis (from Latin), etc.
- Verbal (onomatopoeic*, approaching the transfer of the meaning of an action): bam, knock, bang, cheburakh, clap, push, fuck, zhik, etc.
- Labels: thank you, merci, hello, hello, bye, please, excuse me, etc.
- Swear words: damn, damn, damn, etc. This also includes the word damn , used as an abusive interjection when expressing annoyance, grief, dissatisfaction and other negative emotions.
Do not confuse:
Verbal onomatopoeic interjections must be distinguished from onomatopoeias such as: ding-ding, moo, woof-woof, chik-chirik, kar-r, ha-ha-ga, which are sound imitation of real sounds and are not part of speech.
§4. Syntactic role of interjections
Interjections can act as independent exclamatory statements. The peculiarity of such statements is the absence of a special syntactic design, a special structure.
Interjections are also possible within a sentence.
It spread through the forest ow!
(interjection as subject)
Suddenly I heard ow! ( interjection as an object)
He fucking hit me on the head!(interjection in the role of a predicate, the role of the interjection approaches the verb)
Mousetrap clap, slammed shut.
(interjection in the role of the predicate, the role approaches the verb)
Test of strength
Check your understanding of this chapter.
Final test
Is an interjection part of speech?
Is the interjection different from all other parts of speech: independent and auxiliary?
Is it true to believe that interjections express the speaker’s spontaneous emotional reactions?
Is it true to think that interjections express only positive reactions?
Are interjections a homogeneous class of words in terms of their formation?
Are interjections a homogeneous class of words in terms of their meaning?
Which method of word formation is most actively used to form interjection words in modern language?
- Abbreviation
- Transition to another part of speech
- Laying down the basics
Are interjections ambiguous?
Do interjections have homonyms in other parts of speech?
Which part of the sentence is the interjection in the example: And he suddenly jumped out of his chair!?
- Subject
- Predicate
- Definition
- Circumstance
- Addition
