Cartographic methods of representation.
A method for a high-quality background. It is used to depict on a map the qualitative features of certain objects or phenomena that have a continuous distribution on the earth’s surface or occupy large areas. Its essence lies in the fact that on the map, areas that are homogeneous according to a certain characteristic(s) are identified (for example, natural zones) and painted over (or shaded) in colors selected for them (shading).
Method of habitats. Habitat is the area of distribution of a phenomenon on the earth’s surface (for example, the territory in which a certain animal lives, or the territory in which a particular agricultural crop is grown, etc.).
Isoline method. Isolines (from the Greek isos - equal) - lines on geographical maps, passing through points with the same value of any quantitative indicator (temperature, precipitation, depth, height, etc.) characterizing the depicted phenomenon. For example, isotherms are lines connecting places with the same temperature; isobaths - lines connecting places with the same depth; horizontal lines are lines connecting points on the earth’s surface with the same absolute height. The essence of the isoline method is that points on the map with the same values of a certain indicator are connected by thin lines, i.e., isolines are drawn.
CONTENT
From the Authors
Section I. Sources of Geographic Information
Comparison of the properties of a geographical map and a site plan. Area plan. Geographic map
Comparison of cartographic image methods. Methods of depicting objects and phenomena on maps
Cartographic methods of representation
Definition geographical coordinates
Finding distances on a map
Definition of standard time
Building a relief profile from a map
Outstanding Geographical Exploration, Discovery and Travel
Self-test tasks
Section II. Nature of the Earth
Earth as a planet solar system
Geographical envelope
Lithosphere
Hydrosphere
Atmosphere
Biosphere
Soil as a special natural formation
Natural complex (landscape), natural area, latitude and altitude zones
Continents and oceans as the largest natural complexes
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Section III. World Population
Population size and reproduction
Age and sex composition of the world population. Ethnogeography
Geography of world religions
Population migrations and their impact on population changes
Location and population density
Urban and rural population. Urbanization. Largest cities and urban agglomerations
Level and quality of life of the population largest countries and regions of the world
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Section IV. World Economy
The main stages of the formation of the world economy
International geographical division of labor
Geography of the main international economic and political organizations
Geography of the main industries of the world
Geography of main industries Agriculture peace
Geography of world transport
Geography of world trade and tourism
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Section V. Nature Management and Ecology
Main types of natural resources
Placement of natural resources
Rational and irrational environmental management
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Section VI. Regional studies
Modern political map peace
Main types of countries in the modern world
Regions and countries
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Section VII. Geography of Russia
Geographical position. Territory and borders. Federal structure Russian Federation
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Nature of Russia
Relief
Geological Structure and Minerals
Climate
Inland waters
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Population of Russia
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Economy of Russia
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Regions of Russia
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks.
Free download e-book in a convenient format, watch and read:
Download the book Geography, Complete reference book for preparing for the Unified State Exam, Barabanov V.V., Chicherina O.V., Dyukova S.E., 2010 - fileskachat.com, fast and free download.
Download doc
You can buy this book below best price at a discount with delivery throughout Russia.
Geography is one of the natural sciences that studies the structure of the Earth, the peculiarities of the formation of various objects, laws and patterns throughout history, one way or another influencing the planet. The subject of study is quite broad, so in the school course it is conventionally divided into physical and economic parts, which are closely interconnected.
The main task school course is to develop in children a comprehensive understanding of the world, taking into account the knowledge acquired in other lessons. Here the abstract and logical thinking, necessary for building cause-and-effect relationships and understanding the processes occurring in the world.
The foundations of the discipline were laid by the Hellenes, whose knowledge was generalized in the 1st century AD. e.; For centuries this science has been closely linked with cartography. This branch of knowledge developed as humanity developed other sciences that made it possible to conquer large spaces and learn about the existence of new continents and peoples living on them.
Today in schools, the subject begins to be studied in the 5th grade as a separate discipline. The basis for this subject is the lessons “The World Around Us”, which are included in the standard primary school curriculum.
5th grade
The study begins with an introduction to the formation of the Earth, which required numerous processes. Basics of astronomy, basic knowledge about space and the laws operating in it open this subject and lead schoolchildren to a more detailed study of the structure of the planet.
In the fifth grade, the foundations of cartography are laid, the concepts of maps and coordinates are introduced, and the principles and methods of terrain orientation are studied. Along with getting to know the structure of the planet, children get acquainted with a short history the emergence of humanity and the factors that influenced its evolution.
6th grade
After a general introduction to the discipline, schoolchildren become familiar with the concepts of the spheres of the Earth and study each of them in detail. The knowledge gained allows us to see the interconnection of geographical components, as well as their influence on each other.
In the sixth grade, children study in detail the processes taking place in earth's crust, the world's oceans and atmosphere. This allows you to form a comprehensive vision of the planet and teaches you to evaluate the impact of some geographical factors on others in different aspects.
7th grade
In the seventh grade, during lessons, children study in detail the features of the continents and the countries located on them. The curriculum is divided into groups of topics that allow you to study a particular continent from different angles - relief, climate, their influence on the lifestyle of the population and the economy of states.
8th grade
In that academic year Schoolchildren begin a more detailed examination of the physical geography of Russia. The eighth grade course includes familiarization with the peculiarities of the location, relief and climate of the country, conditional division into geographical zones and the study of the characteristics of each of them.
In 9th grade it is studied economical geography Russia - similar and various features different regions, the influence of climate and other factors on the regional economy. The focus here is on communication natural conditions, minerals and other resources with economic development, manufacturing and agriculture.
10–11 grades
In a programme high school The entire school course is reviewed in an overview, starting from the formation of the earth, climate, relief and processes important for their formation. The main attention is paid to the economic component of science using examples various states and ways of their development.
V. V. Barabanov, S. E. Dyukova, O. V. Chicherina
GEOGRAPHY Complete guide to prepare for the Unified State Exam
In accordance with the law on the Unified State Exam (USE), starting in 2009, the Unified State Exam became the main form of competitive selection for admission to higher education institutions.
Every year, tens of thousands of graduates successfully pass the geography exam and become students of higher educational institutions.
Unfortunately, in curriculum In the graduating classes of the vast majority of schools, the subject “Geography” is not available, which significantly complicates the task of preparing for the final certification exam for graduates.
This manual will help graduate students independently repeat and systematize the material of the school geography course, get acquainted with the structure of Unified State Examination tasks and independently solve standard practice tests.
The theoretical material of the reference book is presented in a concise and accessible form. Each section of the book corresponds to topics tested on the Unified State Exam - seven content blocks: “Sources of Geographical Information”, “Nature of the Earth”, “World Population”, “World Economy”, “Nature Management and Ecology”, “Country Studies”, “Geography of Russia”, and accompanied by examples test tasks with comments and self-tests. Self-execution Test tasks will help not only to consolidate knowledge in memory, but also to practice the basic techniques for completing Unified State Exam tasks. Answers to the tasks will allow you to test your knowledge and assess the degree of preparedness for the certification exam.
The manual is addressed to high school students, applicants and teachers.
Geographic Information Sources
Comparison of the properties of a geographical map and a site plan. Area plan. Geographic map
Map– a reduced generalized symbolic image of the surface of the Earth (its part), other planets or the celestial sphere, constructed in scale and projection (i.e. according to a mathematical law).
Maps differ in scale. Depending on the scale, maps are divided into three groups: large-scale, medium-scale, and small-scale. Large scale maps have a scale of 1:200,000 and larger. This group includes topographic maps. Medium-scale ones have a scale smaller than 1:2,000,000 and up to 1:1,000,000 inclusive. Small-scale maps include maps built on a scale smaller than 1:1,000,000.
When creating a map, a strict selection is made of what will be depicted and written on it. This selection is called cartographic generalization. As a rule, the smaller the scale of the map, the fewer objects are shown on it, i.e., the stricter its generalization. An important role in cartographic generalization is played by the purpose of the map and its subject matter.
Site plan– a drawing of the area, made in conventional symbols and on a large scale (1:5000 and larger). The construction of plans is carried out during visual, instrumental or combined surveys directly on the ground or on the basis of deciphering aerial photographs. The plans reflect a small area (several kilometers), and therefore, when constructing them, the curvature of the earth's surface is not taken into account.
The difference between a plan and a map: 1) plans depict small areas of terrain, so they are built on a large scale (for example, 1 cm - 5 m). Maps show much larger territories, their scale is smaller;
2) the plan depicts the area in detail, preserving the exact outlines of the depicted objects, but only in a reduced form. The large scale of the plan allows you to reflect on it almost all objects located on the ground. It is not possible to plot all objects on a map that has a smaller scale, so when creating maps, objects are generalized. The exact outlines of all objects on the map also cannot be shown, so they are distorted to one degree or another. Many objects on the map, unlike the plan, are depicted by non-scale symbols;
3) when constructing a plan, the curvature of the earth’s surface is not taken into account, since a small area of terrain is depicted. When constructing a map, it is always taken into account. Maps are built in certain map projections;
4) there is no degree network on the plans. Parallels and meridians must be marked on the map;
5) on the plan, the direction to the north is considered to be up, the direction to the south is down, to the west is left, to the east is to the right (sometimes on the plan the north-south direction is shown by an arrow that does not coincide with the up-down direction). On maps, the direction north - south is determined by meridians, west - east - by parallels.
Comparison of cartographic image methods. Methods of depicting objects and phenomena on maps
Conventional signs– designations used on maps to depict various objects and their qualitative and quantitative characteristics. With the help of conventional signs they designate as real objects (for example, settlements), and abstract (for example, population density). Conventional signs are intended to indicate the type and some characteristics of objects (phenomena) depicted on the map and determine their position in space.
Conventional signs are: – non-scale(used to depict objects that cannot be expressed on a map scale). Are these drawings or geometric figures, Springs whose shape usually resembles the depicted object (Fig. 1). Letter symbols also refer to non-scale symbols - linear(used to depict linear objects - rivers, roads, borders, pipelines, etc.). To scale, they convey only the length and shape of the object; their width is exaggerated, so it cannot be measured (Fig. 2);
– areal, or contour(used to depict geographical objects that occupy a certain area - a lake, a forest, etc.). The actual size of objects is transmitted (Fig. 3).
They consist of an outline (forests, swamps, etc.) and its filling (color, shading).
Explanatory conventional signs(for example, arrows showing the direction of river flow, figures of deciduous and coniferous trees etc.), signatures, letters and numbers also carry certain information on the card.
On large-scale maps, area and linear symbols are more often used; on small-scale maps, off-scale symbols are used.
Cartographic methods of representation
A method for a high-quality background. It is used to depict on a map the qualitative features of certain objects or phenomena that have a continuous distribution on the earth’s surface or occupy large areas. Its essence lies in the fact that on the map, areas that are homogeneous according to a certain characteristic(s) are identified (for example, natural zones) and painted over (or shaded) in colors selected for them (shading).
Method of habitats. Area– the area of distribution of a phenomenon on the earth’s surface (for example, the territory in which a certain animal lives, or the territory in which a particular agricultural crop is grown, etc.).
Isoline method. Isolines(from the Greek isos - equal) - lines on geographical maps passing through points with the same value of any quantitative indicator (temperature, precipitation, depth, height, etc.) characterizing the depicted phenomenon. For example, isotherms are lines connecting places with the same temperature; isobaths - lines connecting places with the same depth; horizontal lines are lines connecting points on the earth’s surface with the same absolute height. The essence of the isoline method is that points on the map with the same values of a certain indicator are connected by thin lines, i.e., isolines are drawn.
Determining directions, measuring distances on a plan and mapMovement lines. Lines (arrows) show the direction of movement of any objects - air masses, winds, ocean currents, rivers, etc. Determining directions, measuring distances on a plan and map
On the plan, north - south is shown by an arrow. If there is no arrow on the plan, then it is considered that north is at the top, south is at the bottom.
On the map, directions are determined using a degree network. The direction north - south corresponds to the direction of the meridians, west - east - to the parallels.
Azimuth measurements on maps are made using a protractor. Azimuth is the angle formed at a given point or on a map between the direction north and any object and measured clockwise.
In accordance with the law on the Unified State Exam (USE), starting in 2009, the Unified State Exam became the main form of competitive selection for admission to higher education institutions.
Every year, tens of thousands of graduates successfully pass the geography exam and become students of higher educational institutions.
Unfortunately, the curriculum of the graduating classes of the vast majority of schools does not include the subject “Geography,” which makes it much more difficult for graduates to prepare for the final certification exam.
This manual will help graduate students independently repeat and systematize the material of the school geography course, get acquainted with the structure of Unified State Examination tasks and independently solve standard practice tests.
The theoretical material of the reference book is presented in a concise and accessible form. Each section of the book corresponds to topics tested on the Unified State Exam - seven content blocks: “Sources of Geographical Information”, “Nature of the Earth”, “World Population”, “World Economy”, “Nature Management and Ecology”, “Country Studies”, “Geography of Russia”, and is accompanied by examples of test tasks with comments and self-tests. Completing test tasks on your own will help you not only consolidate your knowledge in your memory, but also practice the basic techniques for completing Unified State Exam tasks. Answers to the tasks will allow you to test your knowledge and assess the degree of preparedness for the certification exam.
The manual is addressed to high school students, applicants and teachers.
Section I
Geographic Information Sources
Comparison of the properties of a geographical map and a site plan. Area plan. Geographic map
Map– a reduced generalized symbolic image of the surface of the Earth (its part), other planets or the celestial sphere, constructed in scale and projection (i.e., according to a mathematical law).
Maps differ in scale. Depending on the scale, maps are divided into three groups: large-scale, medium-scale, and small-scale. Large scale maps have a scale of 1:200,000 and larger. This group includes topographic maps. Medium-scale ones have a scale smaller than 1:2,000,000 and up to 1:1,000,000 inclusive. Small-scale maps include maps built on a scale smaller than 1:1,000,000.
When creating a map, a strict selection is made of what will be depicted and written on it. This selection is called cartographic generalization. As a rule, the smaller the scale of the map, the fewer objects are shown on it, i.e., the stricter its generalization. An important role in cartographic generalization is played by the purpose of the map and its subject matter.
Site plan– a drawing of the area, made in conventional symbols and on a large scale (1:5000 and larger). The construction of plans is carried out during visual, instrumental or combined surveys directly on the ground or on the basis of deciphering aerial photographs.
The plans reflect a small area (several kilometers), and therefore, when constructing them, the curvature of the earth's surface is not taken into account.
The difference between a plan and a map: 1) plans depict small areas of terrain, so they are built on a large scale (for example, 1 cm - 5 m). Maps show much larger territories, their scale is smaller;
2) the plan depicts the area in detail, preserving the exact outlines of the depicted objects, but only in a reduced form. The large scale of the plan allows you to reflect on it almost all objects located on the ground. It is not possible to plot all objects on a map that has a smaller scale, so when creating maps, objects are generalized. The exact outlines of all objects on the map also cannot be shown, so they are distorted to one degree or another. Many objects on the map, unlike the plan, are depicted by non-scale symbols;
3) when constructing a plan, the curvature of the earth’s surface is not taken into account, since a small area of terrain is depicted. When constructing a map, it is always taken into account. Maps are built in certain map projections;
4) there is no degree network on the plans. Parallels and meridians must be marked on the map;
5) on the plan, the direction to the north is considered to be up, the direction to the south is down, to the west is left, to the east is to the right (sometimes on the plan the north-south direction is shown by an arrow that does not coincide with the up-down direction). On maps, the direction north - south is determined by meridians, west - east - by parallels.
Comparison of cartographic image methods. Methods of depicting objects and phenomena on maps
Conventional signs– designations used on maps to depict various objects and their qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Conventional signs are used to denote both real objects (for example, settlements) and abstract ones (for example, population density). Conventional signs are intended to indicate the type and some characteristics of objects (phenomena) depicted on the map and determine their position in space.
Conventional signs are:
– non-scale(used to depict objects that cannot be expressed on a map scale). These are drawings or geometric figures, the shape of which usually resembles the depicted object (Fig. 1). Letter symbols also refer to non-scale symbols
– linear(used to depict linear objects - rivers, roads, borders, pipelines, etc.). To scale, they convey only the length and shape of the object; their width is exaggerated, so it cannot be measured (Fig. 2);
Rice. 1
Rice. 2
– areal, or contour(used to depict geographical objects that occupy a certain area - a lake, a forest, etc.). The actual size of objects is transmitted (Fig. 3). They consist of an outline (forests, swamps, etc.) and its filling (color, shading).
Rice. 3
Explanatory symbols (for example, arrows showing the direction of river flow, figures of deciduous and coniferous trees, etc.), signatures, alphabetic and numerical symbols also carry certain information on the map.
On large-scale maps, area and linear symbols are more often used; on small-scale maps, off-scale symbols are used.
Cartographic methods of representation
A method for a high-quality background. It is used to depict on a map the qualitative features of certain objects or phenomena that have a continuous distribution on the earth’s surface or occupy large areas. Its essence lies in the fact that on the map, areas that are homogeneous according to a certain characteristic(s) are identified (for example, natural zones) and painted over (or shaded) in colors selected for them (shading).
Method of habitats. Area– the area of distribution of a phenomenon on the earth’s surface (for example, the territory in which a certain animal lives, or the territory in which a particular agricultural crop is grown, etc.).
Isoline method. Isolines(from the Greek isos - equal) - lines on geographical maps passing through points with the same value of any quantitative indicator (temperature, precipitation, depth, height, etc.) characterizing the depicted phenomenon. For example, isotherms are lines connecting places with the same temperature; isobaths - lines connecting places with the same depth; horizontal lines are lines connecting points on the earth’s surface with the same absolute height. The essence of the isoline method is that points on the map with the same values of a certain indicator are connected by thin lines, i.e., isolines are drawn.
Determining directions, measuring distances on a plan and map
Movement lines. Lines (arrows) show the direction of movement of any objects - air masses, winds, ocean currents, rivers, etc.
On the plan, north - south is shown by an arrow. If there is no arrow on the plan, then it is considered that north is at the top, south is at the bottom.
On the map, directions are determined using a degree network. The direction north - south corresponds to the direction of the meridians, west - east - to the parallels.
Azimuth measurements on maps are made using a protractor. Azimuth is the angle formed at a given point or on a map between the direction north and any object and measured clockwise.
So, if an object is located strictly north of the point where the observer is located, then the azimuth to it will be 0°, to the east - 90°, to the south - 180°, to the west - 270°. Azimuths can range from 0° to 360°. In order to measure azimuth on a map, you need to draw a line parallel to the north-south direction through the starting point of the determined direction. Then, also through the point, draw a line connecting the point and the object to which you want to determine the azimuth. And then, using a protractor, measure the resulting angle (azimuth), taking into account that azimuth is always measured clockwise.
Determination of geographical coordinates
Degree network and its elements. The Earth's degree network is a system of meridians and parallels on geographic maps and globes, which serves to count the geographic coordinates of points on the earth's surface - longitudes and latitudes - or to plot objects on a map according to their coordinates.
To create a degree network, certain reference points are required. The spherical shape of the Earth determines the existence of two fixed points on the earth's surface - poles. An imaginary axis around which the Earth rotates passes through the poles.
Geographic poles– mathematically calculated points of intersection of the imaginary axis of rotation of the Earth with the earth’s surface.
Equator- an imaginary line on the earth’s surface, obtained by mentally dissecting the ellipsoid into two equal parts (Northern and Southern Hemisphere). All points of the equator are equidistant from the poles. The plane of the equator is perpendicular to the Earth's axis of rotation and passes through its center. The hemispheres are mentally separated by many more planes parallel to the plane of the equator. The lines of their intersection with the surface of the ellipsoid are called parallels. All of them, like the equatorial plane, are perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the planet. You can draw as many parallels on a map and globe as you like, but usually on educational maps they are drawn with an interval of 10–20°. The parallels are always oriented from west to east. The circumference of the parallels decreases from the equator to the poles. At the equator it is greatest, and at the poles it is zero.
When crossing globe Great circles are formed by imaginary planes passing through the Earth’s axis perpendicular to the equatorial plane - meridians. Meridians can also be drawn through any points of the ellipsoid. They all intersect at the pole points (Fig. 4). The meridians are oriented from north to south. Average arc length of 1° meridian: 40,008.5 km: 360° = 111 km. The length of all meridians is the same. The direction of the local meridian at any point can be determined at noon by the shadow of any object. In the Northern Hemisphere, the end of the shadow always points north, in the Southern Hemisphere it always points south.
A degree network is necessary to measure the geographic coordinates of points on the earth's surface - latitude and longitude.
Geographic latitude– the distance along the meridian in degrees from the equator to any point on the Earth’s surface. The origin is the equator. The latitude of all points on it is 0. At the poles the latitude is 90°. North latitude is measured north of the equator, and southern latitude is measured to the south.
Rice. 4
Geographic longitude– the distance along the parallel in degrees from the prime meridian to any point on the earth’s surface. All meridians are equal in length, so it was necessary to choose one of them for counting. It became the Greenwich meridian, passing near London (where the Greenwich Observatory is located). Longitude is measured from 0° to 180°. To the east of the prime meridian up to 180° eastern longitude is measured, to the west - western longitude. Thus, using a degree network, it is possible to accurately determine geographic coordinates - quantities that determine the position of a point on the earth’s surface relative to the equator and the prime meridian. For example, the geographic coordinates of Cape Chelyuskin (the northernmost point of Eurasia) are 78° N. w. and 104° E. d.
Finding distances on a map
Scale is the ratio of the length of a line on a drawing, plan or map to the length of the corresponding line in reality. The scale shows how many times the distance on the map is reduced relative to the actual distance on the ground. If, for example, the scale of a geographic map is 1: 1,000,000, this means that 1 cm on the map corresponds to 1,000,000 cm on the ground, or 10 km. There are numerical, linear and named scales.
Numerical scale is depicted as a fraction in which the numerator is equal to one, and the denominator is a number showing how many times the lines on the map (plan) are reduced relative to the lines on the ground. For example, a scale of 1:100,000 shows that all linear dimensions on the map are reduced by 100,000 times. Obviously, the larger the denominator of the scale, the smaller the scale; with a smaller denominator, the scale is larger. The numerical scale is a fraction, so the numerator and denominator are given in the same measurements (centimeters). Linear scale is a straight line divided into equal segments. These segments correspond to a certain distance on the depicted terrain; divisions are indicated by numbers. The measure of length along which the divisions are marked on a scale ruler is called the scale base. In our country, the base of the scale is taken to be 1 cm. The number of meters or kilometers corresponding to the base of the scale is called the scale value. When constructing a linear scale, the number 0, from which the divisions begin, is usually placed not at the very end of the scale line, but retreated one division (base) to the right; on the first segment to the left of 0, the smallest divisions of the linear scale are applied - millimeters. The distance on the ground corresponding to one smallest division of the linear scale corresponds to the scale accuracy, and 0.1 mm corresponds to the maximum scale accuracy. A linear scale, compared to a numerical scale, has the advantage that it makes it possible to determine the actual distance on a plan and map without additional calculations.
Named scale– scale expressed in words, for example, 1 cm 75 km. (Fig. 5).
Rice. 5. Scale
Measuring distances on a map and plan. Measuring distances using a scale... You need to draw a straight line (if you need to find out the distance in a straight line) between two points and use a ruler to measure this distance in centimeters, and then multiply the resulting number by the scale value. For example, on a map of scale 1: 100,000 (1 cm is 1 km) the distance is 5 cm, i.e. on the ground this distance is 1 / 5 = 5 (km). You can also measure distance on a map using a measuring compass. In this case, it is convenient to use a linear scale.
Measuring distances using a degree network. To calculate distances on a map or globe, you can use the following values: the arc length of 1° meridian and 1° equator is approximately 111 km. For meridians this is always true, and the length of an arc of 1° along the parallels decreases towards the poles. At the equator it can also be taken equal to 111 km. And at the poles - 0 (since a pole is a point). Therefore, it is necessary to know the number of kilometers corresponding to the length of 1° arc of each specific parallel. To determine the distance in kilometers between two points lying on the same meridian, calculate the distance between them in degrees, and then multiply the number of degrees by 111 km. To determine the distance between two points on the equator, you also need to determine the distance between them in degrees, and then multiply by 111 km.
Definition of standard time
Time Zones. Local and standard time. Sunny time at points located on the same meridian are called local. Due to the fact that at every moment of the day it is different on all meridians, it is inconvenient to use. Therefore, by international agreement, standard time was introduced. The entire surface of the Earth was divided along the meridians into 24 zones of 15° longitude. Belt(same within each zone) time– this is the local time of the median meridian of a given zone. Zero belt is a belt whose median meridian is the Greenwich (prime) meridian. From there, the belts are counted to the east.
Russia is located in 11 time zones: from the second (in which Moscow is located, and whose time is called Moscow) to the twelfth (islands in the Bering Strait), but the 11th and 12th zones are combined into one, so the difference in standard time in Russia is not 10, and 9 o'clock.
In 1930, the so-called “maternity” time was introduced in the USSR (it received this name because it was introduced by a special decree - a decree). The clocks were moved an hour earlier than standard time to ensure that most of the working day was spent in natural light. Since that time, the time difference between Moscow and London is not 2 hours (as it would be according to differences in standard time), but 3 hours.
Since the 1990s Every year in our country, as in many countries, in the spring the clock hands are moved forward one more hour, and in the fall – back. This is also done in order to use more efficiently daylight and save energy.
Conventionally, it is believed that a new day begins in the 12th time zone (through which the 180° meridian, the international date line, passes). West of the international date line, a new day begins (according to the calendar). Therefore, in the logbook of a ship sailing from west to east, one day must be counted twice, and a ship moving from east to west, as it were, “skips” one day, after December 31 it immediately ends up on January 2.
Building a relief profile from a map
Relief image on maps. Relief on maps is depicted by contour lines, special symbols and elevation marks.
Horizontals– lines on the map along which all points on the earth’s surface have the same absolute height. The difference between two heights of adjacent horizontal lines is called cross section relief. The smaller the cross-section of the relief, the more detailed it is depicted. The size of the relief section depends on the scale of the map and on the nature of the relief itself. The relief is depicted in most detail on topographic maps. For example, on a map of scale 1:25,000 (250 m in 1 cm), solid horizontal lines are drawn through 5 m, and on a map of scale 1:100,000 (1 cm in 1 km), a relief section of 20 m is used for flat areas and 40 m for mountain On small-scale maps, an uneven cross-section of the relief is usually used: more frequent in flat areas and larger in mountainous areas. Yes, on physical map In Russia on a scale of 1:25,000,000, horizontal lines are drawn at heights of 0, 200, 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 m. Isobaths (depth contours) are also shown. Using horizontal lines, you can easily determine the absolute height of any point on the earth's surface and the relative height of two points (the excess of one over the other). Contour lines also help determine the steepness of slopes. The closer the horizontal lines are to one another, the steeper the slope. Additional information about the relief on topographic maps give berg strokes– small strokes drawn perpendicular to the horizontal lines, indicating in which direction the relief is decreasing (Fig. 6).
Rice. 6. Image of a hill with horizontal lines
Horizontal lines are drawn every 5 meters
To depict relief forms that are not expressed by horizontal lines (for example, sharp ledges, cliffs, ravines, etc.), special symbols are used. Absolute altitudes Peaks or depressions on maps are labeled with numbers. For example, the number 8848 near the point representing Mount Everest means that its absolute height is 8848 m. Absolute heights are indicated in meters.
Outstanding Geographical Exploration, Discovery and Travel
From the history of the discovery and development of continents. Africa is part of the Old World, known several millennia BC. In the IV–III millennia BC. e. civilization arose in Africa Ancient Egypt, which had a great influence on the development of the peoples of North Africa, the Sahara and South-West Asia. At the beginning of our era state entities developed in many areas of the mainland.
In the 15th century Portuguese and Spanish sailors sailed along the coast of Africa in search of sea route to India. For a long time The interior of Africa was inaccessible to researchers. In the 19th century The English scientist David Livingston made a great contribution to the study of the mainland. He explored the sources of the Nile and discovered Lake Victoria. The Russian scientist V.V. Junker studied the nature of East and Central Africa in 1876–1886.
IN early XIX V. European colonization of the mainland began. By the 20th century Almost the entire territory of Africa came under colonial rule. In the history of the struggle of the colonial peoples of the Earth, 1960 was called the “year of Africa”: 17 African countries gained political independence. The following republics were formed: Senegal, Mali, Niger, Chad, Congo, Gabon, etc. In the 1970s, political freedom was granted to the large colonies of Portugal - Angola and Mozambique. Today there are practically no colonies left in Africa.
South America. Right of discovery of the West Indies Islands and South America belongs to the Genoese Christopher Columbus, who in October 1492 led a squadron of Spanish ships to the shores of Central America. However, Columbus considered these lands to be Asia and called the local inhabitants Indians. His mistake was corrected by Amerigo Vespucci, who was also from Italy. On trade matters, he made several trips to the shores of America (1499–1502). And he was the first to conclude that the land discovered by Columbus was not Asia at all, but a previously unknown vast landmass - the New World. Amerigo Vespucci described the nature and population of the new territories. In 1506, in a geographical atlas published in France, this territory was called “Land of Amerigo.”
From authors 6
Section I. SOURCES OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
Comparison of the properties of a geographical map and a site plan.
Area plan. Geographic map 7
Comparison of cartographic image methods. Methods of depicting objects and phenomena on geographical maps 8
Cartographic image methods 9
Determination of directions,
measuring distances on plans and maps 10
Determining geographic coordinates 11
Determining distances on a map 13
Definition of zone and zone time 15
Use of statistical materials to determine trends in the development of geographical processes and phenomena 16
Constructing a relief profile from a map 16
Examples of typical Unified State Examination tasks with comments 18
Self-test tasks 25
Section II. NATURE OF THE EARTH
Earth as a planet in the solar system 28
Geographical envelope 34
Lithosphere 36
Hydrosphere 46
Atmosphere 57
Biosphere 76
Soil as a special natural formation 76
Natural complex (landscape), natural zone, latitudinal and altitudinal zones 77
Continents as the largest natural complexes 82
Examples of typical Unified State Exam tasks with comments 106
Self-test tasks 120
Section III. WORLD POPULATION
Population size and reproduction 124
Age composition of the world population 127
Level and quality of life of the population 127
Location and population density 129
Migrations. Main directions and types of migrations 130
Urban and rural population. Urbanization 130
Examples of typical Unified State Examination tasks with comments 132
Self-test tasks 137
Section IV. WORLD ECONOMY
Structure of the world economy.
International geographical division of labor 140
Geography of the main international
economic organizations 144
Geography of the world's main industries 144
Geography of agriculture 152
Examples of typical Unified State Exam tasks with comments 159
Self-test tasks 163
Section V. NATURE MANAGEMENT AND ECOLOGY
Main types of natural resources.
Resource availability 166
Influence economic activity people on the environment.
Security measures environment. Rational and irrational environmental management 169
Examples of typical Unified State Exam tasks with comments 175
Self-test tasks 181
Section VI. A POLITICAL MAP OF THE WORLD. DIVERSITY OF THE WORLD'S COUNTRIES
A political map of the World.
Diversity of countries of the world.
Developed and developing countries 184
Examples of typical Unified State Exam tasks with comments 196
Self-test tasks 200
Section VII. GEOGRAPHY OF RUSSIA
Geographical position. Territory and borders. Federal structure of the Russian Federation 204
Examples of typical Unified State Examination tasks with comments 205
Self-test tasks 207
Nature of Russia 209
Natural areas. Forest and soil and land resources 215
Examples of typical Unified State Examination tasks with comments 218
Self-test tasks 222
Population of Russia 224
Examples of typical Unified State Examination tasks with comments 228
Self-test tasks 232
Russian economy 234
Examples of typical Unified State Exam tasks with comments 249
Self-test tasks 253
Regions of Russia 256
Examples of typical Unified State Examination tasks with comments 272
Self-test tasks 274
Answers to self-test tasks 278
Appendix 284
