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On this day, October 14, 1066, exactly 947 years ago, a battle took place that decided the fate of England. There is a paragraph in the article below that perfectly characterizes what happened:
“No battle was won with more difficulty than the Battle of Hastings, and no victory entailed more global consequences. It would seem that this was just the final battle in the war for the throne of a small island kingdom. In fact, this battle served as a turning point: it is from here that history begins to count down a whole series of events that will culminate in the creation of the British Empire, which turned out to be even more grandiose than the ancient Roman one.”
Recognizing the superiority of the Normans in organization (the Normans had solid experience of fighting with small detachments of cavalry operating from castles, which as support bases were quickly built on the captured territory in order to further control it), tactics (the use of such types of troops as cavalry and archers in addition to infantry and the perfection of interaction between them) and the weak popularity of Harold II Godwisson in 1066 (most of the earls and thanes refused to support him, and on the battle Harold brought out the housecarls and fyrd, which had thinned out after the Stamford Bridge, collected only in their native county of Wessex) and the backwardness of the Anglo-Saxons in military affairs (neglect of the castle system, cavalry and archers), nevertheless, there was a variant of events (the probability of which, however, is near-zero) , in which the Anglo-Saxons could survive. If William had died in a cavalry attack or if the rumor about his death had spread more strongly than it was in the current reality, then perhaps Harold II would not have gone down in history under the name of the Wretched, and William would not have become the Conqueror.
Norman conquest of England
After the Romans left, Britain was conquered by Anglo-Saxon tribes, who formed several barbarian kingdoms. The struggle to strengthen royal power continued for a long time. The English kings waged war against the separatist aspirations of the feudal nobility and against external enemies - Denmark and Normandy. In 1065, the childless king of England died and bequeathed his crown to William, Duke of Normandy, in gratitude for his help in fighting off the Danes.
While the Duke was preparing to go to England, the English chose Harold, the brother of the late queen, as their king. Harold was crowned according to the customs of the time. When William learned of this, he sent envoys to England to remind Harold of his oath. The fact is that during the life of the old king, Harold was captured by William, and the Duke of Normandy held the prisoners until he secured an oath that Harold would help him become king. Now Harold replied that he did not recognize the promise made against his will, and William began to prepare for war.
As soon as Harold the Unfortunate ascended the English throne, William I of Normandy immediately began to gather an army: to win back what he believed was his rightful inheritance. Since he could not rely on the usual feudal militia for such a large-scale and prolonged military operation outside Normandy, most of his army consisted of units of mercenaries or feudal lords, attracted to William's banner by promises of lands and plunder in England. Wilhelm offered everyone who was ready to fight on his side a large salary and participation in the division of the spoils.
The Duke of Normandy received a blessing from the Pope for this campaign, and Alexander II himself sent the battle flag. The exact size of William's army is unknown. In various military historical sources, estimates range from 7 to 50 thousand * . The lower limit is probably closer to the truth. Oman, for example, believes that William's army consisted of 12 thousand cavalry and 20 thousand infantry.
William's huge armada was ready to set sail for England by mid-summer, but the sailing was delayed for a long time due to unfavorable winds. Eventually, on September 27, the wind changed; from the next day the Norman army began to land near Pevensey. William, of course, knew about the invasion by Tostig and Harald III Hardrada; it is possible that some kind of secret alliance was even concluded between them. He decided not to interfere - it would be better if the armies of the Danes and Anglo-Saxons wore each other down - and took up defensive positions on the southern coast. Having built a powerful log fort on the shore near Pevensey, he sent cavalry detachments to ravage Sussex - to gather supplies and force Harold to act.
Harold covered the distance of 320 km between York and London in 5 days. For several days, from October 6 to October 11, he stayed in London to recruit militia and give the housecars, pretty battered in the Battle of Stamford Bridge, at least a little rest. Then, on the afternoon of October 13, he arrived in the vicinity of Hastings, covering 90 km in 48 hours of march. Choosing a hill 13 km northwest of the city, Harold took a defensive position, as he was confident that William would attack at the first opportunity. As with the Norman army, the exact size of Harold's army has not been established. But, judging by the descriptions of the battle that have reached us and the known width of the front of the Anglo-Saxon army, it seems that Harold had 9 thousand people at his disposal, including 3 thousand housecarls. More impressive figures have also been mentioned, but this is extremely unlikely given the limited area of the battlefield.
It has been suggested that if Harold had waited a few more days, the Northumbrian and Mercian militias would have joined him, and in addition they would have been able to attract more people from the south of England. True, there is reason to doubt that the northern militia was recruited at all or even theoretically could have been recruited. One way or another, the earls of Central and North-Eastern England did not provide military assistance to Harold. As for the southern counties, Harold clearly considered his position both politically and militarily to be quite precarious, so it was in his interests to achieve a resolution as quickly as possible.
Believing (probably correctly) that the enemy outnumbered him in manpower and that, not counting the housecarls, whose ranks had thinned out, his army was equipped and trained much worse than the Norman mercenaries, Harold decided not to attack, but to defend. He ordered his mounted housecarls to dismount, and they, together with his infantry housecarls, formed the center of his defensive line on the top of an elongated hill. The rest of the army, the fyrd, or militia, was flanked on both sides of the housecarls: 300 - 400 meters in front, in a dense formation on foot, perhaps 20 men deep. Harold's army expected a Norman attack early on the morning of 14 October. It is possible that on the evening of October 13, the Anglo-Saxons hastily built in front of their positions either a fence, or a blockage, or a palisade-palisade; There is debate among scientists on this matter.
Soon after dawn, the Norman army launched an offensive in three lines. In front were archers (including a number of crossbowmen - the first documented use of a crossbow in the Middle Ages). The second line consisted of foot spearmen. The third housed the knightly cavalry.
The Norman archers began the battle, opening fire from less than 100 m. But since they had to shoot from the top, the arrows, for the most part, either did not reach, or flew over, or were reflected by the shields of the Anglo-Saxons. Having fired their ammunition, the archers apparently retreated behind the line of spearmen, who ran to the offensive, but were met by a rain of darts and stones (thrown both by hand and from slings) and driven back by the Anglo-Saxons armed with swords, spears and huge two-handed combat weapons. with axes.
Tom Lovell. "Battle of Hastings". The painting shows the attack of William's cavalry. In the foreground with a baton is Bishop Odo
After the infantry offensive stalled, Wilhelm led the cavalry into battle - and with the same result. The left wing of the Norman army was crushed and put to flight; Accordingly, the Anglo-Saxon militia on the right flank immediately rushed down the slope in pursuit. A rumor spread through the ranks of the Norman army that William had been killed, and panic began.
Throwing off his helmet so that everyone could see his face, William galloped along the retreating center of his army, and the cavalry rallied. William led an attack on the Anglo-Saxon right flank, breaking formation and rushing to pursue the Normans. The cavalry quickly gained the upper hand over the pursuers, who were scattered along the slope and had not expected such a turn of events.
Battle of Hastings. The moment is shown when, in order to stop the spread of false rumors about his death, Duke William revealed his face; Bishop Odo also points the soldiers to the duke: 1 - Duke William; 2 - Bishop Odo; - Breton knight; 4 - Norman archer; 5 - infantryman from Maine; 6 - Anglo-Saxon housecarl
William again led his cavalry to the center of the Anglo-Saxon army and was again repulsed. In the hope of luring some more of Harold's army out of their positions, William ordered the Normans to pretend to be fleeing. Despite Harold's strict orders not to leave their positions under any circumstances, a significant part of the militia fell into William's trap; they were surrounded and destroyed at the foot of the hill when William led a second counterattack. But the rest of the Anglo-Saxon army stood firm and repelled one Norman attack after another. For several hours the Normans alternated shelling from bows and crossbows with foot and horse attacks. William ordered the archers to shoot overhead, at large angles, so that arrows from bows and crossbows would fall on the Anglo-Saxon army from above. This resulted in significant losses, but at the beginning of the evening Harold's army still held a strong position on the hill, although, unable to rest from the constant bombardment and attack, the Anglo-Saxons were literally about to collapse from fatigue.
At that moment, a stray arrow hit Harold in the eye and mortally wounded the king. The Normans, who were given strength by this, immediately launched an attack again, and the Anglo-Saxons, having lost their command, broke the formation ** . The militia (fird) began a shameful flight, and soon only the housecarls remained on the hill, closing ranks around the body of their dead king. But now their situation has become completely hopeless; The Normans surrounded them on all sides and eventually crushed them. By nightfall the Normans had captured the hill. Having led the pursuit of the retreating troops, Wilhelm carelessly went deeper into the forest and was nearly killed when the remnants of the housecarls tried to resume the battle. But soon the Normans defeated these too. The Battle of Hastings is over.
Death of Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings. Illustrated chronology of the History of England, part 1
O. Vernet “After the Battle of Hastings: Finding the Body of King Harold”, 1828
No battle was won with greater difficulty than the Battle of Hastings, and no victory had greater consequences. It would seem that this was just the final battle in the war for the throne of a small island kingdom. In fact, this battle served as a turning point: it is from here that history begins the countdown of a whole series of events that will culminate in the creation of the British Empire, even more grandiose than the ancient Roman one.
Immediately after the battle, William captured Dover and marched on London. At first the capital rejected his demand for surrender. Then Wilhelm began to ravage the nearby countryside. His nephew, who was elected king instead of Harold, was the first to talk about surrendering the capital. He himself appeared at the Norman camp and swore an oath of allegiance to William. William's claim to the throne was recognized, and on Christmas Day 1066 he was crowned in Westminster Abbey as William I, King of England.
* - Based, not least on this consideration, most modern sources agree that the numbers of the opposing armies were approximately equal and reached 10 - 12 thousand people
** - A number of military historical studies say that when almost all the Anglo-Saxons descended from the heights, they were suddenly counterattacked by the Norman cavalry, which decided the outcome of the battle
The Battle of Hastings took place on October 14, 1066 g. It lasted more than 10 hours. Such a duration was not typical for battles that took place in the Middle Ages. The clash had historical significance for both countries involved. Let's look further at how it went Battle of Hastings 1066.
General information
Acted as a defending participant in the battle Anglo-Saxon kingdom. England at that time offered desperate resistance to the Normans. Unfortunately, the country did not have a leader who would be able to effectively repel attacks. At that time the king of the state was Harold Godwinson. The battle ended in complete defeat. Several thousand soldiers died on the field, including the king himself and his brothers. Thus, the decisive moment in the process of the Norman conquest was precisely Battle of Hastings. Winner battle became the new ruler. He turned the country into a feudal monarchy.
Background
Edward the Confessor, before ascending to the English throne in 1042, lived for 28 years with Duke Richard the Second in Normandy. Having no children, he, apparently, in 1051, thanks for the refuge, promised the throne to his relative, William II. But history decreed somewhat differently. In 1066, Edward died, and the Witenagemot chose Harold Godwinson as its ruler. He was the brother of the monarch's wife. Feeling death approaching, Edward sends Harold to Normandy. There he had to swear allegiance to the presumed heir to the throne. But on the way he is captured, from where Wilhelm rescues him. The freed earl voluntarily takes an oath of allegiance in the presence of witnesses. These events are illustrated in the Bayeux Tapestry. But subsequently British researchers expressed doubts about their reliability. Historians considered it an unfortunate accident that Harold ended up with a Norman. Moreover, historians point to the dubiousness of both the terms of the agreement and the oath taken. One way or another, these events were used to justify Wilhelm's actions.
Causes
William, having learned about the election of a new monarch after the death of Edward, refused to recognize his rights. Moreover, he declared his claims to the throne. The oath given by Harold was widely publicized. In addition, it was stated that Edward recognized the Norman Duke as heir to the throne. The new Anglo-Saxon king found himself between two fires. It was not only the Norman Duke who put forward claims to the throne. At the same time, the invasion of the Norwegian monarch, who also laid claim to the throne, began. However, Harold was able to cope with the latter. His troops completely defeated the Norwegians at Stamforth Bridge. After the battle he returned to York. There, the monarch received news of the invasion of William of Normandy's troops.
Norman troops
There were a huge number of small knights in the state. The dukes could not effectively control them until he took power into his own hands. Wilgelm the conqueror. He was able to gather all these knights and recruit them to serve. His reputation contributed to this. William the Conqueror knew all aspects of military art perfectly and had a reputation as an excellent knight and military leader. This made it possible to attract people from all areas of Northern France. Having planned the invasion, William received the support of the barons in his duchy. The Normans had considerable experience in fighting battles, using small detachments of cavalry from fortress castles. The latter were built in the occupied territories and played the role of strongholds. The Normans were able to improve their tactics in the wars with the counts of Anjou and the kings of France. In these battles, they gained valuable experience in fighting large enemy formations and establishing clear interaction between their regiments.
Formation of squads
The Norman Duke was able to create a large army. There were more than 7 thousand people in it. Mostly knightly feudal troops were present in it. The core of the formations was the Norman cavalry, which, in turn, included archers and lightly armed infantry. It was decided to transport personnel through the English Channel. For this purpose, the construction of ships was organized. It is worth saying that the Normans themselves made up no more than 1/3 of the army. The rest was formed by people who arrived from various regions of France: Aquitaine, Maine, Flanders, Artois, Picardy, Brittany. Mercenaries from European countries were also present in the formations.
Enemy troops
It should be noted that forces of the parties at the Battle of Hastings were approximately equal in number. However, their qualitative composition differed significantly. The resources of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom were large, but very poorly organized. The monarch did not have a permanent fleet at his disposal, with the exception of a small number of ships that were provided by ports from the south-eastern regions. Theoretically, it was possible to collect the required number through requisition in the count's traditions. However, it was impossible to form a large fleet in a short time and ensure its combat readiness. The huskerls and earls acted as the center of the ground forces. By the middle of the 11th century, there were about 3 thousand of the former. The squad of a large earl, in turn, included 400-500 people. In addition, Harold had in his service detachments of thegns (military nobility) and a national peasant militia - the fyrd. In their full strength, all the troops could be called the largest in all of Western Europe. The army's key problems were the difficulty of concentrating people in the right place, the inability to maintain combat readiness for a long time, and the underdevelopment of castles as the main unit of the defensive system. In addition, the troops did not use modern methods of combat, and no attention was paid to archers and cavalry. The latter did not exist as a combat unit. The Anglo-Saxons rode horses, but dismounted before engaging in direct battle. Only thegns and housecarls were well armed. The militia had at its disposal clubs, axes, sticks with attached stones, and pitchforks. In addition, there were almost no archers in the troops, while such units constituted one of the key links in the Norman army.
Start of the battle
The famous Battle of Hastings described in various sources. According to information from the epic poem written by Guy of Amiens, the battle was started by the Norman warrior Taillefer. He challenged a knight from Harold's army to a battle, killed him, and cut off his head as a trophy. Later sources present a slightly different version. In particular, they say, that the battle of Hastings began with Taiefer's attack on the knights. He managed to kill several of them before he himself fell on the field. As follows from many sources, the Norman attack came as a surprise to the enemy. However, according to the testimony of later authors, Harold managed to erect a defensive palisade. The general battle began with Norman crossbowmen and archers. They shot arrows almost vertically, which made it possible to wound people in the faces, heads, and eyes. In general, the actions of crossbowmen and archers did not bring significant results.
First retreat
When the arrows ran out, the heavy infantry rushed to the attack. However, throwing weapons also turned out to be ineffective. Hastings area abounded in difficult terrain. The infantrymen were forced to climb a slope that descended to the southwest. As a result, the Bretons were the first to approach the enemy. Due to the Normans falling behind, their flank was exposed. The British hastened to take advantage of this and tried to surround the Bretons. The latter, fearing capture, began to retreat. It passed under a hail of projectiles. Soon the retreat turned into an apparent rout. Due to the opening of the flank, the Normans were forced to retreat back, followed by the Flemings and French.
Tactical move
To restore order in the ranks of the Normans, William and several of his comrades entered the battle. As chronicler Guy of Almen testifies, a horse was killed under him. The soldiers who saw this began to shout that William was dead. However, the Duke got up and took another horse. The Bayeux Tapestry illustrates this point. Wilhelm took off his helmet, denying the news of his death. At the same time, Eustachius of Boulogne points to the duke’s face. Wilhelm's actions prevented the stampede of the infantry.
New attack
Battle of Hastings continued with the advance of the Norman knightly cavalry. However, under a hail of arrows and darts from the enemy, she failed to reach the Huskerl formation. Contemporaries also pointed out that the British used “Danish axes” to cut through both the knight and his horse with one blow. The Normans made several unsuccessful attacks and were forced to retreat.
Turning point of the battle
The Anglo-Saxons rushed after the retreating knights, leaving their fortifications. Until this moment, their positions were unassailable. Researchers are debating whether these actions were a manifestation of indiscipline among the troops or whether the pursuit began on the orders of Harold, who hoped for victory. Nevertheless, the counterattack proved fatal. Having left their positions, the soldiers found themselves under direct attack from the enemy. Some historians believe that the retreat was false. They express the opinion that William's army, thus, lured the enemy out of his fortifications. But modern researchers do not agree with this version. One way or another, Wilhelm managed to take advantage of the enemy’s mistake. He turned his knights around and killed most of his pursuers. Subsequently, such tactics were already consciously used by Wilhelm. Norman detachments pulled out small units from the enemy's ranks, then turned around and destroyed them. Soon Harold's army lost his two brothers Leofwin and Girt. Successive attacks weakened the formation, but despite this, the warriors continued to defend.
End of the battle
The final outcome of the struggle was decided by the death of Harold. The sources describe two versions of death. The most plausible, according to modern sources, is contained in the epic of Guy of Amiens. According to this version, the Normans were able to reach Harold's headquarters by the end of the day. Her protection was carried out at that time by the Huskerls. Seeing a fierce fight at the headquarters, Wilhelm galloped to the rescue. He was accompanied by Eustachius of Boulogne, one of the sons of Gautier Giffard and Guy de Potier. One of the knights pierced Harold's shield with a spear and plunged it into his chest, the second cut off his head, the third hit his stomach with a spear, the fourth cut his thigh. According to the second version, set out in the poem by Baudry de Bourgueil, the leader was killed with an arrow in the eye. It is worth saying that this source appeared 30 years after the battle. Historians speculate that the plot stems from a scene illustrated in a tapestry in which a foot warrior tries to pull an arrow from his eye. There is a Norman knight nearby, killing an Anglo-Saxon with a great axe. The chronicle of Roman de Rou combines both versions. It says that Harold was wounded by an arrow in the eye, but was able to pull it out and continue to fight until he died from blows from the Normans. The news of his death spread quite quickly. The Anglo-Saxons, left without their leader, began to flee. Only the monarch's squad continued to fight until they were all killed. Subsequently, as William of Malmesbury reports, he gave the hacked body of the monarch to his mother.
The meaning of the battle
Battle of Hastings- one of the few that changed the course of history. Despite the fact that the battle was won by a small margin, it opened the way for the Duke to a new state. Harold and both his brothers died, leaving several thousand warriors left on the field. Chroniclers do not report the exact losses of the Normans. As a result of the battle, there was no longer a leader left in England capable of organizing resistance to the enemy. This battle became a turning point in the history of this country. After a short resistance, London submitted to Harold. The aristocracy was forced to recognize the Duke's rights to the throne.
Conclusion
On December 25, 1066, the coronation of the new monarch took place in Westminster Abbey. The Norman invasion destroyed the former state. It was replaced by a feudal centralized monarchy. The royal power now had power and was based on the vassal-fief system and knightly traditions. The country received a new impetus in its development. In a short time, England became one of the strongest states in Europe. The conquered lands were confiscated and given to the knights.
“Rule Britain over the seas,” proclaims the refrain of the famous English patriotic song written back in 1740, which is already perceived as the second, unofficial anthem of this country, and the title “Mistress of the Seas” seems to have forever become synonymous with the second name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain. Nelson’s contemporary, the English admiral St. Vincent, stated: “I am not saying that the enemy cannot come here. I’m just saying that he can’t come by sea.” The narrow strip of sea water separating the British Isles from the continent became an insurmountable barrier for the Catholic kings of Spain, Napoleon and Hitler. But this was not always the case. In 43 AD. The Romans came to Britain and remained there until 409. They were replaced by Germanic tribes, which, having displaced the indigenous population, settled entire provinces: the Angles settled in the northern and eastern territories of modern England, the Saxons - in the south (the kingdoms of Wessex, Sussex and Essex), The Jutes occupied the lands around Kent. In the north, two mixed kingdoms appeared - Mercia and Northumbria. The Britons retreated west into the mountainous region that the Saxons called Wales (Wales - land of strangers) or went to Scotland. Since the end of the 8th century, these small and constant kingdoms at war with each other became easy prey for new, even more terrible enemies - the Norwegian and Danish Vikings, who divided Britain into spheres of influence. The Norwegians got northern Scotland, Ireland and northwestern England, the Danes got Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, East Anglia, Northumbria and Mercia. The successes of the Danes were so great that the vast region in the east of England began to be called Denlo or “the area of Danish law.” Wessex survived only thanks to the treaty that King Alfred the Great concluded with the Danes, but the price of independence was very high: for a very long time, military taxes in England were called “Danish money.” Alfred's wise policy, however, yielded results, and his successors eventually managed to subjugate Denlo and even the Scots (it is from this precedent that England's claims to Scotland originate). Everything changed under King Ethelred the Unreasonable (978-1016), who was forced to give up the throne to the Danish king Sven Forkbeard. In 1042, the Danish dynasty was interrupted, and the last representative of the Wessex dynasty, who entered under the name Edward the Confessor, was elected to the English throne. The desire for legitimacy played a cruel joke on the British: it seems impossible to imagine a more unsuitable candidate for the post of king. In terms of his personal qualities, Edward was similar to our Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich; his reign was marked by the weakening of royal power in the country and the omnipotence of the magnates, the disintegration of Anglo-Saxon society and the weakening of the state's defense capability. The founding and urgent needs of Westminster Abbey interested Edward much more than the problems of the country he unexpectedly inherited. He was the eldest son of King Ethelred II of England and Emma of Normandy, sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. As a child, his mother took him to Normandy, where he lived for 25 years. Edward practically did not know the country of his ancestors and at first relied on immigrants from Normandy, to whom he granted lands and church positions (including the Archbishop of Canterbury), which, naturally, caused sharp discontent among the Anglo-Saxon nobility. In 1050, Edward made the fateful decision to disband the English fleet and abolish the defense tax - “Danish money”. It was this circumstance that became one of the reasons for the collapse of the Anglo-Saxon monarchy in 1066. But let’s not get ahead of ourselves.
Wilgelm the conqueror
In the meantime, the military service nobility of Anglo-Danish origin gradually united around Earl of Wessex Godwin, who at the beginning of Edward's reign was expelled from England, but returned to his homeland in triumph in 1052. The rulers of other provinces refused to give Edward troops, the “council of the wise” (witenagemot) completely acquitted Godwin, the king’s Norman associates were expelled from England, and Robert of Jumièges, Archbishop of Canterbury, was removed from his post. From that time on, King Edward completely withdrew from participation in politics, devoting himself to the church. After the death of Godwin (1053), power in the country actually belonged to his son Harold, who managed to annex East Anglia and Northumberland (transferred to his brother Tostig) to his possessions. Meanwhile, another dynastic crisis was brewing in England: Edward had no children, but there were more than enough contenders for his throne. The official heir, according to the will, was considered the Norman Duke William, whose candidacy, however, was absolutely unacceptable for the overwhelming majority of the English. Harold and his brother Tostig claimed the throne as the queen's siblings, their rivalry ending in Tostig's exile from the country. It was Harold Godwinson, who proved himself to be a wise and fair ruler and was very popular among the people, who was unanimously elected as the new king of the country. On January 7, 1066, he was anointed, receiving from the hands of the Archbishop of Canterbury a golden crown, a scepter and a heavy battle ax. The offended Tostig went to another contender - the Danish king Sven Estridsson, the nephew of the last English king of the Danish dynasty, but he did not show any interest in English affairs. After the failure in Denmark, Tostig turned for help to King Harald the Harsh of Norway, son-in-law of Yaroslav the Wise, renowned commander and famous skald. Harald quickly figured out the situation: taking with him his wife, son Olaf and two daughters, he set off to the shores of England on 300 ships. It seemed he had no intention of returning home. And ceding the conquered country to Tostig was hardly part of his plans. Meanwhile, in Normandy, Duke William, offended by the “treachery” of Harold Godwinson, was gathering troops. The fact is that Harold was once captured by William, who held him until he forced him to swear allegiance to himself as the rightful heir to the English crown. The chronicles say that William ordered the relics and relics from all the monasteries and churches of Normandy to be collected together and placed them under the breviary, on which his prisoner had to swear. At the end of the procedure, William tore the veil off the box with the holy relics and only then did Harold realize what oath he had just made: “and many saw how gloomy he became after that.” Now Harold said that he did not recognize his forced promise, and that he could not give up power against the will of the country. Wilhelm began to prepare for war. Wanting to give legitimacy to his claims, he secured a verdict from the Pope that England should belong to him. Thus, the campaign of conquest acquired the character of a crusade, and many knights of France and surrounding countries joined William’s army, hoping to save their souls, glorify themselves with exploits and gain unheard-of riches, generously promised to them by the Duke of Normandy. It is interesting that, despite the verdict of the Pope, in the surrounding countries, it seems, Harold was still considered the legitimate ruler: on the famous tapestry from Bayeux (Southern England, 1066-1082), which reflected the official version of events, Harold's title is rex, that is, king.
The first blow to England was struck by Harald the Severe: the northeast wind, which drove his ships to the British Isles, prevented the Norman fleet from going to sea. Having visited the Orkney Islands along the way, where many local residents stood under the banner of the successful king, in mid-September 1066 the longships dropped anchor on the small river Ouse, north of York, and the ferocious Norwegian berserkers set foot on English soil for the last time. After the Battle of Fulford (September 20, 1066), where the militia of the northern English counties were defeated by the Norwegians, Northumbria recognized the power of Harald, and some of the local thegns joined his army. Harold and his army, meanwhile, were in the south of the country, where they were awaiting the landing of the Normans. The Norwegian invasion confused all his plans and forced him, leaving his positions on the coast, to move against the Scandinavians. Harald by that time had moved too far from his ships, and his army was divided into two parts. Raising the "danger on land" flag and quickly forming his troops, Harald entered the battle. The battle at Stamford Bridge lasted all day. The set of sagas “The Circle of the Earth” says that in that battle Harald fought like a berserker: “coming forward from the ranks, he cut with a sword, holding it with both hands. Neither helmets nor chain mail were protection from him. Everyone who stood in his way jumped back. The British were close to fleeing." But “the arrow hit King Harald, son of Sigurd, in the throat. The wound was fatal. He fell, and with him all who went ahead with him.” After this, the British invited the Norwegians to sail to their homeland, but they declared that “they would all rather die one by one.” The battle was renewed two more times. Following Harald, Tostig and Eystein Grouse, who came with help, died. “Eystein and his men hurried from the ships so quickly that they were exhausted to the limit and hardly capable of fighting; but soon they were seized with such rage that they stopped covering themselves with shields while they were able to stand on their feet... Thus, almost all the main people among the Norwegians died,” Snorri Sturlson wrote about these events. The Norwegians were defeated, the Anglo-Saxons pursued them along a path of 20 km. In manuscript "C" of the 12th century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. describes the feat of the last hero of the Viking Age: “The Norwegians fled from the English, but a certain Norwegian stood alone against the entire English army, so the English could not cross the bridge and win. One of the English shot an arrow at him, but missed. Then another climbed under the bridge and hit the Norwegian from below, where the chain mail did not cover him.” Of the nearly 300 Norwegian ships, 24 returned to their homeland, one of which carried Elizabeth and her children.
The British victory was brilliant, but it came with the death of many soldiers and commanders. Moreover, it was at this time that the wind changed and on September 28 (just three days after the bloody battle at Stamford Bridge), William was able to freely land his army in Pevensey Bay, Sussex County, between Pevensey Castle and Hastings. It is said that the Duke slipped while disembarking the ship and fell forward on both hands. Quickly standing up, he exclaimed: “Look! By the grace of God I grabbed England with both hands. Now she is mine, and therefore also yours.”
William ascended the throne at the age of 7 or 8 and by the time of the invasion of England had a reputation as a very skillful and experienced ruler and commander. In preparation for the main campaign of his life, he created a magnificent army of about 12,000 people (which, by the scale of that time, was a very formidable force), which, admittedly, under his leadership acted very harmoniously and highly organized. The landing on the shore took place in an exemplary manner: Norman archers dressed in light armor carried out reconnaissance of the area and subsequently covered the unloading of horses, equipment and cargo. In one day, carpenters in William's army assembled a wooden castle delivered by ship (the first Norman castle in England!), which became the support base for the invasion. Two more castles were soon collected from Hastings. The mounted knights moved deep into enemy territory, destroying everything in their path. Having learned about the Norman landing, Harold hastily moved his troops towards the new enemy. In London, he decided to replenish his troops with soldiers from the southern and central counties, but six days later, having learned about the atrocities committed by the invaders on the coast of his country, in a rage, without waiting for the arrival of all the units loyal to him, he set out to meet William. Many considered this a mistake, but the victory over the Norwegians gave Harold confidence. Hopes to take the Normans by surprise were not justified: his army stumbled upon one of the enemy’s cavalry detachments, which warned William about the English troops approaching him. Therefore, Harold changed tactics, and stopped at a hill about 12 km from the Norman army. He was advised to retreat to London, devastating the lands on his way, and a number of historians consider this tactic to be the only correct one. The Normans' prepared supplies would very soon run out, and near London, the invaders, suffering from hunger and having lost some of their horses, would have been faced with a meeting with the English army, which had rested and been replenished with new troops. However, Harold "decided not to burn the houses and villages and not to withdraw his troops."
Together with Harold, his brothers came to Hastings, one of whom (Girth) on the eve of the battle addressed him with the words: “My brother! You cannot deny that, albeit by force and not by free will, you took the oath to Duke William on the holy relics. Why risk the outcome of the battle by breaking this oath? For us, who did not take any oaths, this is a holy and just war for our country. Let us fight the enemy alone, and may the one on whose side is the truth win the battle.” However, Harold stated that he “does not intend to watch others risk their lives for him. The soldiers will consider him a coward and accuse him of sending his best friends where he did not dare to go himself.”
Modern historians believe that the Norman and English armies were approximately equal in size, but had very serious differences in composition and combat characteristics. William's troops were a typical feudal army, which was recruited on the basis of the fief military system and included a fairly large number of well-armed knights, both Norman and warriors from other countries who joined them. Another important difference between the Norman army was the large number of archers, who were almost absent from the ranks of the British. Most of the Anglo-Saxon army consisted of militia units of free peasants (fyrd), who were armed mainly with axes, pitchforks, and even clubs and “stones tied to sticks.” The king's squad (the famous housecarls) and the detachments of the serving nobility (thegns) were armed in the Scandinavian style: heavy two-handed swords, traditional Viking battle axes, spears and chain mail. It was the “Danish axes,” which easily cut through Norman helmets and armor, that turned out to be the most terrible and effective of the British. In his memoirs, one of the chaplains of William's army called them "deadly axes." However, these elite troops had suffered heavy losses in the previous battle and were weary from the long marches from the south coast of England to York and back. Cavalry as a branch of the army did not exist in the English army: while traveling on horseback, housecarls and thegns fought on foot. Given these circumstances, Harold chose defensive tactics: he positioned his troops on the top of a hill; in the rear of his troops there was a dense forest, which, in case of retreat, could serve as an obstacle to the enemy army pursuing him. The housecarls and thegns stood in the first ranks, followed by lightly armed infantry. In front of the formation, the British built barricades from wooden shields and logs and dug a ditch. Participants in the battle later recalled that “in no other area did so many foreign warriors die as at the bottom of this ditch.” The natives of Kent volunteered to be the first to meet the enemy and stood in the most dangerous direction. The people of London asked for the right to defend the king and his standard, and lined up around Harold. Subsequently, on the site where Harold's army stood, Battle Abbey was built, the ruins of which can be seen near the small town of the same name. The main altar was located where the royal standard was located during the battle. Now this place is marked with a memorial stone slab.
Wilhelm, apparently, was still not entirely confident in the success of the upcoming battle. One way or another, it was he who on October 13 sent the monk Hugo Maigro to the English camp, who first demanded Harold’s abdication of the throne, and then, in exchange for a vassal oath, offered him the entire country above the Humber River, and to his brother Girth all the lands that belonged to Godwin. In case of refusal, Maigro had to threaten Harold and his army with excommunication, which is allegedly stated in the papal bull. The Norman chronicles claim that this threat caused confusion among the English commanders. However, after a moment of silence, one of them said: “We must fight, no matter what it threatens us with... The Norman has already divided our lands between his barons, knights and other people... he will make them the masters of our property, our wives and daughters. Everything has already been divided in advance. They came not just to defeat us, but to deprive us of everything and our descendants and take away from us the lands of our ancestors. And what will we do, where should we go, if we no longer have our country?” After this, the British unanimously decided to fight the foreign invaders. The night before the battle, the Anglo-Saxons sang national songs, the Normans prayed in chorus.
The battle that decided the fate of England began on the morning of October 14, 1066. The chronicles of that time brought to us the words addressed by the leaders of the opposing sides to their armies. Duke William urged his soldiers not to be distracted by collecting trophies, assuring that the booty would be shared and there would be enough for everyone. “We will not find salvation if we stop or run from the battlefield,” he said, “The English will never agree to live in peace and share power with the Normans... Do not have mercy on them, because they will not have mercy on you. They will not differentiate between those who cowardly fled from the battlefield and those who fought bravely. Everyone will be treated the same. You can try to retreat to the sea, but there will be nowhere else to run, there will be no ships there, no crossing to your homeland. The sailors won't wait for you. The British will capture you on the shore and put you to a shameful death. More people die in flight than in battle. And since running will not save your life, fight and you will win.” Dressed in armor, he put on his chain mail backwards and, noticing how the faces of his comrades darkened, said: “I have never believed and do not believe in omens. I believe in God, who determines the course of events by his will. And everything that happens will be His will. I have never believed in soothsayers and fortune tellers. I entrust myself to the will of the Mother of God. And don’t let this oversight of mine bother you. My change of clothes means that we are all on the verge of change. You yourself will witness how I will turn from a duke into a king.” Harold, in turn, urged the soldiers to stand in battle, defending their land, and urged them to stick together, protecting each other in the ranks. “The Normans,” he said, “are loyal vassals and brave warriors, both on foot and on horseback. Their mounted knights have already participated in battles more than once. If they manage to break into our ranks, then everything will be lost for us. They fight with a long spear and sword. But we also have spears and axes. And I don't think their weapons can stand up to ours. Strike where you can strike, do not spare your strength and weapons.”
Tapestry from Bayeux. Attack of the Norman Knights
The battle began with Norman archers, who showered the ranks of the British with their arrows, but they were unable to inflict heavy losses on the enemy soldiers hiding behind wide shields. Having shot the ammunition, the riflemen retreated behind the line of spearmen, who went on the offensive, but were driven back by the British. The cavalry attack also floundered, and the Bretons on the left flank fled. Forgetting about Harold's order to hold formation, the Anglo-Saxons, leaving the hill, rushed in pursuit of the retreating enemy and came under attack from the knight's cavalry. Historians disagree about the deliberateness of the Breton retreat: some consider this maneuver a military stratagem, others, citing the testimony of one of the chroniclers, explain it by the panic that gripped some of the Normans at the news of William’s death. Other participants in the events report that at that moment the squires, who were in the rear of the fighting army, guarding the property of the knights, almost ran away and were stopped by Duke William's brother, Bishop Odo of Bayeux. Wilhelm had to take off his helmet and gallop along the ranks of his army. One way or another, part of the English army that recklessly abandoned the hill was surrounded and destroyed at its foot, but others continued to stand, holding back the enemy. For several more hours, the Normans alternated shelling from bows and crossbows with foot and horse attacks. The archers changed their tactics: now they shot along a suspended trajectory so that the arrows fell on their opponents from above, hitting them in the face. This resulted in significant losses, but at the beginning of the evening Harold's army still held its position on the hill, although the fatigue of the British from constant shelling and continuous attacks was such that many of them were already struggling to stand. It was at this moment that a stray arrow hit Harold in the eye. He pulled it out and broke it, but now, due to severe pain and blood pouring into his face, the king could not control the course of the battle. The Anglo-Saxons, deprived of their command, broke formation, and the Norman cavalry crashed into their ranks. William personally took part in the battle, and all contemporaries note the courage and extraordinary military skill of the duke, under whom two horses were killed. The Norman chronicles report that the warriors of Kent and Essex fought especially staunchly and bravely in the ranks of the English. The decisive attack on them was led by Duke William: about a thousand horsemen in close formation attacked the British and scattered them. In that attack, many noble warriors on both sides died, but the Normans broke through to the royal banner, where King Harold stood, fighting to the end. During the last battle, he received so many wounds that his body could only be identified by his wife Edith Lebyazhya Neck by some signs known only to her. Along with Harold, his brothers also died. After this, the militia units (fird) fled, but the housecarls still continued to stand around the body of the deceased king. By nightfall the Normans had captured the hill, but it was not the war that was lost, but only the battle. The tragedy of the British was that there was no one to gather the retreating troops and lead further resistance. But it was quite possible: the Normans lost at least a quarter of the army in battle, while the British, despite the losses they suffered, could hope to replenish their ranks with soldiers who did not have time to approach the start of the battle. On the evening of the same day, Duke William himself almost died in the forest while pursuing the retreating housecarls. The surviving English earl Valtiov that same night, having lured about a hundred Normans into an oak grove, ordered it to be set on fire; not one of the invaders managed to get out of the burning forest. However, after Harold's heroic death, the British were unable to choose a worthy leader and, when William's troops approached London, Harold's nephew, elected king, was the first to talk about surrendering the capital. He himself came to the Norman camp and swore allegiance to William. Meanwhile, Harold's three sons and two daughters fled to the western family domains. Only in 1068, the city of Exeter, where they took refuge, was taken by William’s army after a three-month siege, but on the eve of the decisive assault, Harold’s mother (who was 70 years old!), Edith and her children climbed down the fortress wall by rope and left England. Harold's sons went to Ireland and harassed the Normans with raids for another 10 years. And one of Harold’s daughters, Gita, ended up in Denmark, and later she married Vladimir Monomakh (1074).
As the British feared, in addition to his inheritance, William divided England into 700 large and 60 small plots, which he gave to the Norman barons and ordinary soldiers, obliging them to perform military service and pay taxes for this. The inhabitants of the conquered country were treated by the Normans as slaves. No one, neither a noble earl nor a simple farmer, could feel safe on his land and in his home. Resistance was suppressed extremely brutally: entire villages were burned, families were destroyed. To keep the country's population in obedience, 78 castles were built during William's reign, including the famous Tower. Only a few generations later, the differences between the Normans and the Anglo-Saxons were erased, and modern English was formed on the basis of the French language of the conquerors and the “northern” language of the indigenous population. Gradually, the conquerors and the conquered population mixed closely with each other, subsequently creating one of the greatest empires in the history of world civilizations. “The English combine Anglo-Saxon practicality, Celtic dreaminess, the pirate courage of the Vikings and the discipline of the Normans,” said the Austrian writer Paul Cohen-Portheim about the modern English national character.
On October 14, 1066, near the town of Hastings (East Sussex, Great Britain), a battle took place between the Anglo-Saxon army of King Harold and the troops of the Norman Duke William. After winning this battle, William (the Conqueror) became the English king.
The autumn of 1066 became a real test for the Anglo-Saxon dynasty. Earl of Wessex Harold Godwinson, who became the English king (after the death of Edward the Confessor), was not recognized by his main competitors - the Norwegian king Harald the Severe and Duke William of Normandy.
Both rivals gathered armies, boarded ships and moved to the shores of England. The Norwegians were the first to land on the English coast. Harold gathered an army and at the end of September, with an unexpected throw, intercepted the enemy forces. At the Battle of Stamford Bridge, the Norwegian army was defeated and their king was killed. This defeat marked the end of the era of Viking raids on England.
Without having time to catch their breath after a difficult victory, the British learned that William of Normandy and his army had already landed on the coast near the city of Pevensey. On October 3, Harold from York and his army hastily moved towards the new enemy and by October 13 reached Hastings, where the enemy army was already located.
Harold managed to lead the army under the cover of the forest or at night and take a very advantageous position - on a hill that is now called Battle Hill, the top of which is located at an altitude of about 85 meters above sea level. There was a swamp to the north and south of the hill.
William's camp was located in the vicinity of Hastings - north of it. Having learned from scouts about the approach of the enemy, Wilhelm at about 6 o'clock on October 14 gave the order to march. Soon the battle began.
At first, nothing foreshadowed victory for the Normans. Their archers and crossbowmen shot their entire supply of arrows without causing noticeable damage to Harold's infantrymen. The attacks of the infantry and knightly cavalry were repulsed with losses. The Normans advanced up the hillside and were unable to make a hole in the dense defense of the British, who stood on top in an advantageous position. In one of the attacks, the Duke himself almost died - a horse was killed under him.
Having already believed in victory, the Saxons broke ranks and rushed in pursuit of the retreating enemy. However, unexpectedly, William deployed his troops - the British, who had lost formation, found themselves defenseless against the heavy cavalry and were killed.
After this, the Normans surrounded the hill and attacked the remnants of Harold's army from all sides. In a brutal battle, almost all the Saxon warriors were killed, including the king himself and his two brothers.
This victory opened up England for William. Since King Harold and his two brothers were killed, there was no leader left in the country capable of organizing resistance to the conquerors. After a short resistance, London submitted, and the surviving Anglo-Saxon aristocracy recognized William's rights to the English throne.
