Spain did not take part in First World War 1914 - 1918, but, like many European countries, at its end it suffered from a leapfrog of weak government cabinets. In 1923 General Miguel Primo de Rivera overthrew another government and declared himself a dictator. He was in power for seven years, and his reign came to an end when the great economic crisis at the turn of the 1920s and 30s affected Spain. The sharp decline in the living standards of the Spaniards led to their final loss of authority among the people. Democracy was restored in Spain, and a left-wing government came to power. The monarchy was abolished, King Alfonso XIII of Spain emigrated, and the country became a republic. Left and right-wing cabinets began to take turns replacing each other, and the country experienced a polarization of political forces. At the general election in February 1936, the left - from moderate socialists to anarchists and communists - created a coalition: Popular Front. They managed to defeat the right bloc, which consisted of parties of Catholic orientation and radical Phalanx, founded by the son of Miguel Primo de Rivera, Jose Antonio. The advantage of the Popular Front in the elections was very small, but when it came to power, it almost immediately banned the Phalangists. This led to street clashes between left and right. The outbreak of strikes and land seizures alerted the right, fearing the establishment of a communist dictatorship.
The activities of the left caused particular concern among the Spanish military. It seemed to them that only an armed uprising could prevent the emergence of Red Spain. Therefore, on July 17, 1936, the Spanish units located in Morocco, under the command of General Francisco Franco seized power in the Spanish-owned part of this colony and declared non-recognition of the Madrid government. Within a week, the rebellious garrisons in Spain itself captured Oviedo, Seville, Zaragoza and a number of other cities. However, the uprisings in Madrid and Barcelona were quickly suppressed. As a result, the north-west of the country remained under nationalist control, with the exception of part of the coast near Bilbao and the area around Seville. The Republicans controlled the eastern half of Spain, including the capital, Madrid. The country found itself in the midst of a civil war, replete with horrors and atrocities.
To get his troops across Gibraltar, Franco turned to Hitler for help. Even before the end of July, Junkers 52 transport aircraft began arriving in Morocco, creating an air bridge. Mussolini, who ruled Italy, also sent his planes. Germany and Italy began to intensively supply the nationalists with weapons. The Moscow Comintern, for its part, decided to send volunteers to Spain and provide financial assistance to the Republicans.
Great Britain and France were very afraid that a new European war could break out from this internal conflict. They proclaimed a policy of non-intervention, although the then left-wing French government was extremely reluctant to do so. They made contact with Italy, Germany and Portugal and obtained a promise from them not to interfere in the conflict. An international Committee on Non-Intervention was founded and its first meeting took place in London in early September. However, Hitler and Mussolini, despite their assurances of non-participation, continued to supply the nationalists with weapons and people, and in ever increasing quantities. The Soviet Union then stated that it would implement non-intervention agreements only to the extent that Germany and Italy did.
The Spanish right opened two fronts. General Mola began to clear the north of the country of Republicans, and General Franco moved towards Madrid from the south. By the end of the year, with the help of Mola, he managed to surround Madrid on three sides. The Republican government left the besieged capital, moving to Valencia, and Italy officially recognized Franco's government.
The motives of the powers that provided active support to the warring parties in Spain were very different. Hitler saw the conflict as something of a testing ground where he could test new weapons, primarily tanks and airplanes. Germany sent no more than 15,000 people to Spain during the entire conflict, but its main contribution was associated with the participation of aviation - the Condor Legion. It was in the skies of Spain that the Messerschmitt-109 fighter and the Junkers-87 dive bomber received their baptism of fire. German bombers inflicted the greatest damage on the enemy. The world remembered their raids on Madrid, and most importantly, on a small town Guernica near Bilbao on April 26, 1937, when 6,000 civilians died.
Gradually, the position of the Republicans began to deteriorate. One of the reasons for the failures was internal squabbles in their camp - between socialists, pro-Stalinist communists, Trotskyists and anarcho-syndicalists. Although incendiary speeches Dolores Ibarruri, nicknamed Passionaria (“Fiery”) excited the defenders of Madrid, the contradictions between members of the coalition became so great that in May 1937, clashes took place in Barcelona between communists and anarchists.
The second reason for the Nationalists' advantage was that they were better armed than the Republicans. The Non-Intervention Committee decided to blockade the coast of Spain. Germany and Italy were assigned to control the eastern coast, Great Britain - the southern, and together with France - the northern. The blockade, however, had little effect. The nationalists managed to get everything they needed through friendly Portugal, and no one controlled the airspace. By November 1937, Franco had strengthened his position so much that he could organize the blockade himself. Therefore, by the end of 1938, the Republicans held only one small enclave in the extreme northeast and a second on the east coast opposite Madrid. By that time, foreign volunteers, including members of the International Brigade, were forced to leave Spain according to the plan put forward by the Committee on Non-Intervention. More and more states recognized the Franco regime, and finally in February 1939 the republican government emigrated through the Pyrenees to France. At the end of March, Madrid also fell, and a month later Franco announced a cessation of hostilities.
The Spanish Civil War is one of the most tragic pages in the history of this state. And the prerequisites for it took shape at the beginning of the 20th century. The Spanish monarchy was experiencing a serious crisis. Traditionally, the strict division of the population into classes gave rise to mutual enmity and hatred in society. The clergy, called upon to play a reconciling role, aroused mistrust of the lower strata. The peasants suffered from a lack of land, the situation with the workers was no better - lack of rights, oppression, miserable wages.
The semi-feudal state was torn apart by national contradictions - the Basques, Catalans, Galicians - demanded autonomy. The army was virtually independent of the authorities - its officers constituted a special “caste”, and although it suffered a crushing defeat in military operations with Morocco due to its leadership’s commitment to conservatism in strategy and outdated weapons, the generals dreamed of taking power in the country into their own hands .
All this required urgent reform, but King Alfonso III of Bourbon, who reigned from May 17, 1886 to April 14, 1931, decisively rejected attempts at social reform, resorting to the army and the National Guard when necessary.
Military coup
In 1923, despite measures taken to strengthen law and order, a military coup occurred. General Miguel Primo de Rivera took power into his own hands, dismissing the government and parliament, abolishing the existing political parties, as well as introducing a dictatorship. The king's direct participation in this was not proven, but, most likely, de Rivera acted with his full consent.
Beginnings in economic sphere the general were very successful - he relied on the practical experience of the Italian fascists, starting modernization in all areas. The economy grew, and so did the welfare of society. But insurmountable circumstances stood in his way - a global crisis began, which brought to naught all the good undertakings of de Rivera. On January 28, 1930, the nobility and the king forced the general to leave the political life of the country. He emigrated to France, where he soon died. And a year and a half later, in the spring of 1931, the monarchy in Spain fell.
In the municipal elections held in April 1931, the opposition won. This was mainly in large populated areas, V rural areas the population still remained loyal to the king. But they got the majority. Demonstrations and unrest began throughout the country, which literally “demolished” the monarchy. The fate of Alphonse after the overthrow turned out relatively well. Unlike other monarchs who lost their power in coups, and with it their lives, he went into exile without even abdicating the throne. However, he signed a manifesto in which he admitted his shortcomings and mistakes and refused to restore the monarchy by military means.
Parliamentary elections in Spain
Meanwhile, Spain was preparing to change its socio-political system. In the summer of the same year took place parliamentary elections, in which socialists and left-leaning liberals won. And already in December 1931, a constitution was adopted, which was in force until April 1, 1939. According to it, the head of state, as well as the head of government, came to office as a result of elections, and were not appointed.
Spain became a parliamentary republic, in which from now on everyone was equal before the law. Titles and class privileges were abolished, all citizens received equal access to education, medicine, and participation in the political life of the country.
The issue with the peoples claiming autonomy was partially resolved. Catalonia became autonomous; the issue with other applicants remained under consideration.
Social issues were also resolved - surplus lands were confiscated from landowners. The church was separated from the state, but this did not quell the discontent of the people - in particular, a rumor was spread among the workers that the clergy poisoned the children of workers and peasants with poison added to cookies. This provoked a series of murders of priests and monks, pogroms and fires throughout the country.
These events played a dual role in the history of the state - on the one hand, they were insufficient to satisfy the demands and aspirations of the lower social strata, on the other, they provoked close attention of countries to the situation in Spain, which considered that the country that had chosen the “left” path, will become a conductor of Stalin’s ideas in Europe.
A series of government crises begins in the country - about 20 of them take place between 1931 and 1936. All this leads to unrest and unrest. Spanish society, torn apart by contradictions, is closely watched by outside countries, ready to provide support to one side or the other, depending on the ideology they supported.
The parliamentary elections of 1936 brought victory to the Popular Front, the parties of the left, and General Franco entered the political scene of the country. “A cloudless sky above Spain” was the call sign for the start of the uprisings in Spanish Morocco, the Canary Islands and other areas of Spain, organized by him.
Beginning of the Civil War
The riots were suppressed, but Italy and Germany intervened in the situation. And, thanks to them, as well as twenty-seven other countries that supported the “right” forces, Spain began Civil War. The “left” forces were secretly supported by the Soviet Union; it, as well as fifty-three other countries, supplied weapons and volunteers to the warring country. And the internal conflict gradually grew into an international one. The goal of Germany and Italy was to establish themselves in Spain. The USSR helped the “left” forces stay in power.
The war lasted three years - from 1936 to 1939 and ended with the fall of the Second Spanish Republic, and then the establishment of the fascist dictatorship of General Franco. It claimed more than 400 thousand lives, which is approximately 5% of the country’s total population. Such huge human losses were not only due to military operations. In the territories conquered by one side or another, real terror was established with the destruction of the population. 60 thousand Spaniards were forced to emigrate from the country. The war was not only fought on the ground - German aircraft controlled the skies over Spain. Thanks to her, among other things, by the end of the confrontation there were almost no roads, bridges, or infrastructure left in the state. Almost all major cities lay in ruins.
The regime of General Franco, whose victory was proclaimed on April 1, 1939, inherited a destroyed country - more than 170 cities and villages had to be restored. But the general showed himself not only as a talented commander, but also as a fairly strong politician. Despite the obvious pro-fascist ideology, he managed to maintain neutrality throughout. The Spanish “Blue Division” fought in the USSR, but was officially listed as volunteer.
After the defeat of fascism, Franco not only remained in power, but also ruled until his voluntary resignation in 1973. And only after his death, his successor, the Spanish king Juan Carlos I of Bourbon, was able to proclaim a course towards democratization of society.
Causes of the Civil War
In the spring of 1936, the country witnessed a dangerous radicalization of both left and right forces. The leaders of the largest trade union organizations UGT (General Union of Workers) and CNT (National Confederation of Labor) called on workers to launch a vigorous strike struggle against the “bourgeois government.” The working class gathered at mass rallies, where demagogic speeches and radical slogans about the need for a social revolution were heard. At the opposite political pole, right-wing parties became more active, primarily the National Bloc 1, formed by the famous conservative politician Jose Calvo-Sotelo 2, as well as extremist forces, among which the fascist party “Spanish Phalanx” 3, created by J. A. Primo, began to play a leading role de Rivera 4.Not only the parliamentary stands, but also the streets of Spanish cities have turned into a place of confrontational confrontation between right and left forces. Bloody battles between demonstrators, killings from behind corners, arson and intimidation have become a daily occurrence. The government of S. Casares Quiroga demonstrated its inability to stabilize the situation. Various segments of the population experienced panic, and demands to restore order in the country grew. In army circles, which were sensitive to public sentiment, there was also a division into supporters and opponents of the Republic. The latter were led by the influential generals E. Mola and F. Franco 5 .
In the ranks of the high army command, which almost unanimously shared the opinion that the republican system endangered their corporate interests and the traditions of Spain as a whole, an anti-government conspiracy was brewing. Despite the alarming information received, the governments of M. Azaña and S. Casares Quiroga clearly underestimated the degree of danger threatening the Republic. Measures to prevent the rebellion were sporadic: only a small group of the most conservative officers were placed under police surveillance, potential conspirators were transferred to peripheral areas: E. Mola to Pamplona, and F. Franco to the Canary Islands. Their places were taken by generals more loyal to the Republic. The conspirators, despite the measures taken by the authorities, continued their underground activities. However, the leaders of the conspiracy, who had a fairly clear plan for joint actions in the event of a rebellion, did not have a clear idea of the priority tasks after their eventual rise to power.
The violent death on July 12, 1936 of the Republican lieutenant X. Castillo, who died at the hands of fascist thugs, and the retaliatory murder the next day of one of the leaders of the right forces X. Calvo Sotelo, committed by a group of young socialists led by the captain of the Civil Guard F. Condes, “worked” as detonators of a military coup. The military played a leading role in the rebellion. Fascists, traditionalists and right-wing monarchists who sympathized with them remained on the sidelines.
On July 17, 1936, an anti-government putsch broke out in Spanish Morocco and the Canary Islands. According to a pre-developed plan, the next day the generals who commanded military units in various points of Spain joined the rebellion. In his address to the Spanish people via the radio station Radio Las Palmas (on the morning of July 18, 1936), General F. Franco, justifying the rebellion, said in particular: “The situation in Spain is becoming more and more critical. There is anarchy in the cities and countryside. Various kinds of revolutionary strikes paralyze the life of the population.... On top of the unconscious revolutionary ideas of the masses, deceived and exploited by Soviet agents, are layered the evil intent and carelessness of authorities at all levels.... In return for this, we offer justice and equality of all before the law, reconciliation and solidarity between all Spaniards, work for everyone, social justice in an atmosphere of brotherhood and harmony.... There should be no place in our breasts for feelings of hatred and revenge.... In our Motherland, for the first time and really, three ideals will be established in the following order: freedom, brotherhood and equality" 6.
On July 19, 1936, General F. Franco arrived from the Canary Islands in the city of Tetouan in northern Morocco and took command of the Spanish expeditionary force in Africa, numbering 45 thousand people. These were the most combat-ready troops, consisting mainly of experienced soldiers and officers.
The Republican government and the Popular Front parties called on the citizens of the country to defend the republic. The Civil War began, which took the form of a fratricidal armed clash between conservative-monarchist and fascist groups, on the one hand, and a bloc of republican and anti-fascist parties, on the other. Objective and subjective factors contributed to the irreconcilability of the conflict: the protracted socio-economic and institutional crisis, the polarization of socio-political forces on the eve of the war, the radicalism of the ideological postulates of both left-wing parties and right-wing forces, the confrontation between communist and fascist ideologies, and the involvement of other countries in the internal conflict. In addition, many Spaniards perceived the war as a struggle between Catholic believers and “atheist” atheists.
14 thousand officers and about 150 thousand privates took the side of the rebels. In the first days of the war, after the death of General X. Sanjurjo in a plane crash on July 20 (it was assumed that he would lead the rebellion), the conspiracy was “decapitated.” However, soon in the north of the country in the city of Burgos, the Junta of National Defense was established, headed by General M. Cabanellas (1862-1938). By decision of the Junta, General F. Franco was vested with full military and political power. The territory controlled by the rebels was home to about 10 million people and produced 70% of the country's total agricultural output, but only 20% of its industrial output. Initially, success accompanied the putschists in the south of the country in the areas of Seville, Cordoba, Granada and Cadiz, in Old Castile and Navarre, as well as in Galicia, Aragon, the Canary and Balearic Islands (with the exception of Menorca).
In many regions of the country, the coup, lacking popular support, failed. Military protests in Madrid and Barcelona were quickly suppressed. The sailors of the navy and most of the air force remained loyal to the Republic. The territory controlled by the Republicans was home to 14 million people, and the main industrial centers and military factories were also located there. 8.5 thousand officers and more than 160 thousand ordinary soldiers remained on the side of the legitimate government.
The fundamental difference in ideological views and vision of the country's development paths led to significant differences between the political and socio-economic transformations carried out on the republican territory and in the zones controlled by the Francoists. The emergency conditions of the Civil War left their mark on the essence and methods of the reforms being carried out. The military coup became a catalyst for many social processes. For Republicans, the fight against fascism was combined with attempts to implement deep, often hasty and ill-considered reforms.
Internationalization of the conflict
After the putsch, the Republican government of Spain turned to the government of Leon Blum of democratic France with a request for assistance. However, France, and on its initiative other powers, proclaimed a “policy of non-intervention,” which actually meant recognizing the fascist rebels as a belligerent. On September 9, 1936, the Committee on Non-Intervention began work in London, the purpose of which was to prevent the Spanish conflict from escalating into a general European war. By preventing the supply of weapons and ammunition to the Republican government, the Committee on Non-Intervention at the same time actually condoned the participation of military contingents in hostilities in Spain fascist Germany and Italy. The USA, Great Britain and France imposed an embargo on the import of weapons to Spain, which, in the context of the intervention of the fascist Axis countries on the side of the rebels, led to the disarmament of the legitimate republican government. In turn, General F. Franco sent urgent requests to the fascist regimes of A. Hitler in Germany and B. Mussolini in Italy. Berlin and Rome responded to the call of the Spanish putschists: 20 were redeployed to Morocco (where F. Franco was at that moment). transport aircraft Junkers 52, 12 Italian Savoy 81 bombers and the German transport ship Usamo. Subsequently, Germany and Italy sent F. Franco a large contingent of military instructors, the German Condor Legion and a 125,000-strong Italian expeditionary force.In September 1936, in response to a request from the new head of the republican government, F. Largo Caballero, the USSR decided to provide assistance to Spain, although the first military advisers arrived in Spain in August along with the Soviet embassy 7 . Total in 1936-1939. There were about 600 Soviet military specialists in Spain. The total number of USSR citizens who took part in the Spanish events did not exceed 3.5 thousand people.
Republican Spain was supported by democratic forces in other countries. From among the anti-fascist volunteers who arrived in Spain, the International Brigades were formed (October 1936). At the head of the forces that especially assisted the republican government effective assistance, stood the USSR. Managers Soviet Union They believed that on the fields of Spain the issue of starting the fight against fascism in Europe and the world was being decided. In a telegram addressed to the General Secretary of the CPI X. Diaz, the text of which was transmitted by all news agencies in Europe and America, J.V. Stalin wrote: “The workers of the Soviet Union are fulfilling only their duty, providing all possible assistance to the revolutionary masses of Spain. They realize that the liberation of Spain from the oppression of fascist reactionaries is not a private matter of the Spaniards, but a common cause of all advanced and progressive humanity” 8.
Social and political processes in the country during the Civil War
The mutiny caused a government crisis. Prime Minister S. Casares Quiroga resigned. On July 19, 1936, he was replaced by one of the leaders of the Republican Action party, X. Giral, who held the post of head of government until September 1936. In the first days of the war, the leaders of the Republic still underestimated the scope of the rebellion and the degree of the threatening danger. President M. Azaña spoke in favor of “constitutional” action against the rebels. The new government led by the socialist F. Largo Caballero also did not show the necessary energy, rejecting the demands of military specialists, including Soviet ones, for general mobilization and the organization of a regular army. On initial stage During the war, the leaders of the Popular Front were unable to reach agreement on a single tactic and strategy in the fight against the putschists. As a result, there was a lack of coordination throughout the country. Deprived of central leadership, the Popular Front, dispersed into individual fighting groups (most often led by communists), conducted mainly local operations to suppress the rebellion. This gave the rebels the opportunity to organize. In August 1936, the armies of E. Mola and F. Franco launched a vigorous attack on Madrid from the south and north.The first successes of the putschists seriously undermined the authority of the republican government. Self-proclaimed and ideologically heterogeneous revolutionary committees and juntas for the defense of the Republic tried to fill the vacuum of local authorities. In the first months of the war on republican territory, in addition to representatives of the central government, “local government” was carried out by local authorities, which were under the influence of various political parties or military leaders. Groups of Republican Milisianos (people's militias), deprived of unity of command and acting under the slogans of social revolution and the fight against saboteurs, carried out the Red Terror, the victims of which were the military, representatives of the bourgeoisie and right-wing parties, and priests (almost 7 thousand people were killed during the Civil War spiritual rank). At the same time, bloody atrocities and lawlessness were committed by the Francoists within the territory under their control. In Badajoz alone, they shot 2 thousand supporters of the Republic without trial or investigation.
The largest trade union associations, the UGT and the CNT, set the task of launching a struggle against the capitalists in the name of the triumph of the workers' and peasants' revolution. Despite the lack of proper legislative framework, revolutionary committees and trade union organizations carried out “collectivization” in both cities and rural areas. In particular, 3 million were expropriated and placed at the disposal of peasant farms about 5.5 million hectares of land. The redistribution of land in favor of small peasants and tenants became widespread in Castile, Aragon, Andalusia, Murcia and Extremadura. Large factories and factories, on the initiative of trade unions, came under the control of workers and employees. An active process of redistribution of property in the industrial sector was observed in Catalonia. At the same time, the process of “collectivization” practically did not affect small private enterprises, handicraft production and craft workshops.
The government of F. Largo Caballero, formed on September 4, 1936, which included the CNT trade union leaders a few weeks later, made efforts to strengthen the vertical of power. By government decree, revolutionary committees and juntas for the defense of the Republic were dissolved, and at the same time local authorities were reorganized, whose duty was to carry out all orders of the central government. Strict military discipline was introduced in the people's militia units. All operations carried out by the Central Bank of Spain were placed under government control. Government actions to strengthen the vertical power structure often encountered resistance from revolutionary committees, many of which were influenced by anarchists. In the Basque Country and Catalonia, regional government institutions operated, often sabotaging orders coming from Madrid.
In November 1936, the Battle of Madrid began. The possibility of the rebels seizing the capital was quite real. Therefore, the country's president M. Azaña moved to Barcelona, and the government headed by F. Largo Caballero moved to Valencia. After fierce fighting, the rebel troops were stopped at the immediate approaches to Madrid. Militia units led by communists and socialists showed massive heroism in the fight against the fascists. The rallying cry of the leader of the PCI, Dolores Ibárruri, has gained worldwide fame: “¡No pasaran!” - “They will not pass!” In March 1937, the Republican army defeated the Italian corps near Guadalajara.
In the face of growing danger (especially after the fascists captured Malaga in February 1937), among the leaders of the most influential parties of the Popular Front, primarily the PCI, an understanding of the need to abandon overly ambitious and risky revolutionary changes began to mature. The communist tactics consisted of concentrating efforts on the fight against the Francoists and finding new allies, primarily among the petty and middle bourgeoisie. Some concessions to the urban and rural bourgeoisie on the part of the PCI and the Catalan communists were regarded by the most extremist party and trade union leaders as a betrayal of “class interests”. The sharp deterioration of relations between various republican parties, primarily between communists and anarchists, led to street clashes in Barcelona in May 1937. About 500 people died.
The bloody events in Barcelona and growing disagreements within the Popular Front parties led to the resignation of F. Largo Caballero. A left-wing government led by socialist X. Negrin 9 was sworn in. With his coming to power, the positions of the CPI within the leadership of the Republic were strengthened, while at the same time the anarchists and trade union leaders of the NKP lost their influence. The program of the new government - the victory program (13 points) - provided for the creation of a regular army, a transition in war from defense to offensive, a radical agrarian reform, and the introduction of progressive social legislation. The government has begun to implement social program, established the power of the central government in Catalonia, and managed to prevent separatist sentiments in Aragon and a number of other regions. At the same time, reform of the Armed Forces was carried out. Three ministries - military, navy and the Air Force - were merged into a single Ministry of National Defense. The process of reorganizing the people's militia into regular units has been completed. In most units of the army, the post of political commissar was introduced, whose responsibility was to strengthen military discipline.
Despite the hardships of the war, the Republican Ministry public education paid great attention to improving the level of education and culture of the population. In 1936-1938. 5,500 new schools were built (2,100 of them in Catalonia with funds from the regional government of the Generalitat). The government developed and approved a plan for the further development of primary and secondary school education. The work of the so-called Cultural Militia to eliminate illiteracy in rural areas and among the soldiers of the Republican Army gained great popularity.
Many writers, scientists and artists in Spain from the first days of the war firmly sided with the Republic. Among them were such famous cultural figures as A. Machado, M. Hernandez, R. Alberti, F. García Lorca (shot by the Francoists in the summer of 1936), etc. In 1937, the II International Congress of Anti-Fascist Writers was held in Valencia, Among its participants were outstanding writers from around the world.
In the summer of 1937, Franco's troops took possession of the entire industrial north of the country. No more than a third of Spain's territory remained under Republican control. Even the barbaric bombing of unprotected cities in this territory (the complete destruction of the Basque city of Guernica by German aircraft on April 26, 1937, the brutal shelling of Almeria by German warships on May 31, 1937) did not allow the Nazis to achieve decisive victories here until the spring of 1938.
In contrast to the evolution of institutions political system The Second Republic, the institutional development of the Francoist state in the zones controlled by the rebels, went in a completely different direction. Since its inception, the National Defense Junta has declared a state of war in the country. The Francoist policy was based on the principles of unity of command and dictatorial rule, which was determined by ultimate goal rebels - the conquest of political power and the implementation of counter-revolutionary transformations. The main ideological postulates of the Francoists during the Civil War were the inviolability of private property, the maintenance of strong public order, the prohibition communist ideology and respect for religion. The core element in achieving these goals was the army, characterized by strict military discipline.
Volunteer detachments of opponents of the Republic, formed in July-August 1936, soon merged with regular units. The Francoists quickly eliminated the shortage of officer personnel by awarding the most trained non-commissioned officers and sergeants the rank of junior officer - “temporary lieutenant”.
The success of the rebels during the war was largely due to the concentration of leadership powers and functions in the hands of one person - General F. Franco. In the fall of 1936, the National Defense Junta appointed him Commander-in-Chief of all branches of the armed forces and at the same time the head of government, and soon the head of state. In 1936, F. Franco created the State Technical Junta, the prototype of the future government. On January 30, 1938, in accordance with the law on the Supreme State Administration, governing bodies of power were formed. The head of state, F. Franco, had full legislative power and at the same time headed the Council of Ministers, the highest body of executive power. Even earlier, all the political forces that supported the rebellion (fascists, traditionalists, Carlists 10, monarchists, etc.) united in single party"Spanish Phalanx". It was also headed by F. Franco.
The first steps of the Francoist government were clearly anti-democratic and anti-revolutionary in nature. The junta abolished freedom of the press, speech, assembly and demonstrations, and banned all trade union organizations and political parties, except the Spanish Phalanx. Landed property and other real estate were returned former owners from among the Spanish aristocracy, latifundists and industrial and financial elite. The Frankists took control of school and university education, book printing, librarianship, cultural objects, and abolished all anti-religious laws adopted by republican governments. Frankist propaganda proclaimed the ideological task of its leadership - the formation of a “new man” on the basis of patriotic, nationalistic and religious education. To realize this goal, on September 20, 1938, a law on the reform of secondary education was adopted.
In the anti-government conspiracy of 1936, the highest hierarchs of the Spanish catholic church did not take part. However, after the rebellion, the church supported the Francoists and their slogans, which called for the preservation of the territorial integrity of the country and the national unity of the Spaniards, and the restoration of traditional values, including respect for the Catholic Church. Mass prayer services took place among the rebel troops, and time was officially set aside for confession.
The struggle of the Francoists against the Republic in clerical circles received the name “national crusade" This expression, first used by Bishops Mujica and Olaechea in a pastoral letter to the faithful of August 6, 1936, subsequently became widespread in the Francoist lexicon.
The lack of proper coordination of actions within the leadership of the Republican Army in 1938 led to the disruption of the Republican offensive in the Teruel area and facilitated the advance of the putschists. On April 15, the Francoists reached the Mediterranean coast, dividing the republican forces into two parts. In June they attempted an attack on Valencia. The Republicans, defending Valencia, carried out a successful operation on the river. Ebro, where large enemy forces were pinned down for more than 3 months.
In the second half of 1938, the situation at the front changed dramatically. France closed the Spanish border, thereby strengthening the blockade of Republican Spain. At the same time, Germany and Italy openly supported F. Franco. Munich agreement between Nazi Germany and ruling circles Great Britain and France were enthusiastically received by the Francoists and had a negative impact on the mood in the Republican camp. The Nazis entered Catalonia in March 1938, but captured its entire territory on January 26, 1939. A month later, on February 27, 1939, England and France broke off diplomatic relations with the legitimate government of Spain and recognized the government of F. Franco. At the end of March, all of Spain was in the hands of the rebels. The war in Spain ended on April 1, 1939 with the defeat of the Republican forces. On the same day, the government of F. Franco received official recognition from the United States. A dictatorial regime was established in Spain. For decades the country was divided into winners and losers.
The following figures speak about the tragic consequences of the Civil War for Spain: about 145 thousand people died during the battles, 135 thousand were shot or died in prisons, more than 400 thousand people were seriously wounded, about 500 thousand emigrated. About 300 thousand were kept in prisons or concentration camps until 1945. In 1939-1940. agricultural production was only 21% of the 1935 level, and industrial production was 31%. More than 500 thousand buildings were destroyed. Spain, having paid the USSR for arms supplies with its gold reserves 11, was destined for the fate of being a debtor to Germany and Italy. The debt to these countries was expressed in the amount of $1 billion. To eliminate only material damage damage caused by the war took the country more than 10 years.
State final certification in grades XI in history is carried out orally on tickets. Each of the 25 tickets consists of 3 questions.
The first question to test your knowledge of the course “ Recent history 1900 - 1939." (X class). The second question to test the knowledge of the course “Newest and modern history(1939 - beginning of XXI century)", studied in the XIth grade. The third question to test the knowledge of the course "History of the Fatherland in the XX - early XXI centuries (1939 - early XXI century)", studied in the XIth grade.
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“Causes, results of the Spanish Civil War 1936–1939.”
Ticket 13
13.1. Causes, results of the Spanish Civil War 1936–1939.
Civil War 1936-1939
Causes:
Polarization of society.
Miscalculations of the Popular Front government:
1) the radical forces did not disarm;
2) reactionary generals remained in the highest military positions, who enjoyed the support of financial magnates, the landed aristocracy and the highest clergy;
3) the economic situation worsened.
July 19, 1936 - The Popular Front government, led by left-wing Republican José Giral, began distributing weapons to the population to organize resistance to the rebels. A civil war began in Spain.
The governments of Great Britain, France, and the United States pursued a policy of “non-interference” in Spanish affairs.
The republic was deprived of the opportunity to buy weapons, military equipment, and also take out loans in Great Britain, France, and the USA.
The Franco regime was helped by Germany, Italy, and Portugal.
The USSR helped the Popular Front.
The Catholic Church sided with the Nazis
Results of the Spanish Civil War:
a lot of money was spent on the war;
great loss of life;
the country lay in ruins;
immigration;
The defeat of the Spanish Republic contributed to the outbreak of World War II.
a fascist dictatorship was established in the country;
(1936-1939) - an armed conflict based on socio-political contradictions between the left-socialist (republican) government of the country, supported by the communists, and the right-wing monarchist forces that launched an armed rebellion, on the side of which most of the Spanish army led by Generalissimo Francisco Franco took the side .
The latter were supported by fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, the USSR and anti-fascist volunteers from many countries of the world came out on the side of the Republicans. The war ended with the establishment of Franco's military dictatorship.
In the spring of 1931, after the victory of anti-monarchist forces in municipal elections in all major cities, King Alfonso XIII emigrated and Spain was proclaimed a republic.
The liberal socialist government began reforms that resulted in increased social tension and radicalism. Progressive labor legislation was torpedoed by entrepreneurs, the reduction of officer corps by 40% caused protest among the army, and secularization public life- the traditionally influential Catholic Church in Spain. The agrarian reform, which involved the transfer of surplus land to small owners, frightened the latifundists, and its “slipping” and inadequacy disappointed the peasants.
In 1933, a center-right coalition came to power and rolled back the reforms. This led to a general strike and an uprising of the Asturian miners. New elections in February 1936 were won by a minimal margin by the Popular Front (socialists, communists, anarchists and left-wing liberals), whose victory consolidated the right flank (generals, clerics, bourgeois and monarchists). The open confrontation between them was provoked by the death of a Republican officer on July 12, shot dead on the threshold of his home, and the retaliatory murder of a Conservative MP the next day.
On the evening of July 17, 1936, a group of military personnel in Spanish Morocco and the Canary Islands spoke out against the Republican government. On the morning of July 18, the mutiny engulfed garrisons throughout the country. 14 thousand officers and 150 thousand lower ranks took the side of the putschists.
Several cities in the south (Cadiz, Seville, Cordoba), the north of Extremadura, Galicia, and a significant part of Castile and Aragon immediately fell under their control. About 10 million people lived in this territory; 70% of the country's agricultural products were produced and only 20% of industrial products.
In large cities (Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao, Valencia, etc.) the rebellion was suppressed. The fleet, most of the air force and a number of army garrisons remained loyal to the republic (in total - about eight and a half thousand officers and 160 thousand soldiers). The territory controlled by the Republicans was home to 14 million people and contained major industrial centers and military factories.
Initially, the leader of the rebels was General José Sanjurjo, exiled in 1932 to Portugal, but almost immediately after the putsch he died in a plane crash, and on September 29, the top of the putschists elected General Francisco Franco (1892-1975) as commander in chief and head of the so-called “national” government. He was given the title caudillo ("chief").
Back in August, rebel troops captured the city of Badajoz, establishing a land connection between their disparate forces, and launched an attack on Madrid from the south and north, the main events around which occurred in October.
By that time, England, France and the United States had declared “non-intervention” in the conflict, introducing a ban on the supply of weapons to Spain, and Germany and Italy sent, respectively, the Condor Aviation Legion and the Volunteer Infantry Corps to help Franco. Under these conditions, on October 23, the USSR declared that it could not consider itself neutral, and began supplying the Republicans with weapons and ammunition, also sending military advisers and volunteers (primarily pilots and tank crews) to Spain. Earlier, at the call of the Comintern, the formation of seven volunteer international brigades began, the first of which arrived in Spain in mid-October.
With the participation of Soviet volunteers and fighters of the international brigades, the Francoist offensive on Madrid was thwarted. The slogan “¡No pasaran!” that was heard during that period is widely known. (“They will not pass!”).
However, in February 1937, the Francoists occupied Malaga and launched an offensive on the Jarama River south of Madrid, and in March they attacked the capital from the north, but the Italian corps in the Guadalajara area was defeated. After this, Franco moved his main efforts to the northern provinces, occupying them by the fall.
At the same time, the Francoists reached the sea at Vinaris, cutting off Catalonia. The June Republican counteroffensive pinned down enemy forces on the Ebro River, but ended in defeat in November. In March 1938, Franco's troops entered Catalonia, but were able to completely occupy it only in January 1939.
On February 27, 1939, France and England officially recognized the Franco regime with its temporary capital in Burgos. At the end of March, Guadalajara, Madrid, Valencia and Cartagena fell, and on April 1, 1939, Franco announced the end of the war by radio. On the same day it was recognized by the United States. Francisco Franco was proclaimed head of state for life, but promised that after his death Spain would again become a monarchy. The caudillo named his successor the grandson of King Alfonso XIII, Prince Juan Carlos de Bourbon, who, after the death of Franco on November 20, 1975, ascended the throne.
It is estimated that up to half a million people died during the Spanish Civil War (with a predominance of Republican casualties), with one in five deaths being victims political repression on both sides of the front. More than 600 thousand Spaniards left the country. 34 thousand “children of war” were taken to different countries. About three thousand (mainly from Asturias, the Basque Country and Cantabria) ended up in the USSR in 1937.
Spain became a place for testing new types of weapons and testing new methods of warfare in the run-up to World War II. One of the first examples of total war is the bombing of the Basque city of Guernica by the Condor Legion on April 26, 1937.
30 thousand Wehrmacht soldiers and officers, 150 thousand Italians, about three thousand Soviet military advisers and volunteers passed through Spain. Among them are the creator of Soviet military intelligence Yan Berzin, future marshals, generals and admirals Nikolai Voronov, Rodion Malinovsky, Kirill Meretskov, Pavel Batov, Alexander Rodimtsev. 59 people were awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. 170 people died or went missing.
A distinctive feature of the war in Spain were the international brigades, which were based on anti-fascists from 54 countries. According to various estimates, from 35 to 60 thousand people passed through the international brigades.
The future Yugoslav leader Josip Bros Tito, the Mexican artist David Siqueiros, and the English writer George Orwell fought in the international brigades.
Ernest Hemingway, Antoine de Saint-Exupery, and the future Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany Willy Brandt illuminated their lives and shared their positions.
The material was prepared based on information from RIA Novosti and open sources
