Sealine - tours to France

History of France (key dates)

1st century BC – III century AD
Active Romanization of southern Gaul - cities are being built (many public buildings: baths, theaters, temples), aqueducts. Remains of Roman buildings still remain.

IV century
The city of Burdigala (modern Bordeaux) is famous for its higher education (the study of Greek and Latin literature, rhetoric)

5th century
There were more than 100 cities in Gaul. Under pressure from the German tribes of the Suevi, Burgundians and Franks, Roman troops retreated from the border along the Rhine, leaving part of Gaul to the Germans. The Visigoths occupied Aquitaine from the Loire to the Garonne and founded the Kingdom of Toulouse.

Around 450
Under the pressure of the Anglo-Saxons, part of the Briton tribes moved from the British Isles to the Armorica Peninsula (modern Brittany), the ethnic identity of this province is still preserved.

451
Invasion of the Huns. Roman troops and Frankish squads defeated Attila's Huns in the battle on the Catalaunian fields, near Troyes.

5th century, last quarter
The Visigoths captured Gascony, Provence and almost all of Spain, as well as the central regions (modern Bury, Limousin and Auvergne). In the valleys of the Saone and Rhone, the Burgundians founded the kingdom of Burgundy.

482
The northern regions from the Loire to the Somme and the Meuse were subjugated by the Frankish tribal union. The Frankish ruler Holdwig founded the Frankish Merovingian state. The Franks retained Roman cities and government systems.

496
The Franks adopted Christianity according to the Roman rite, which provided them with the support of the Pope against the rest of the Germanic tribes who professed Arianism.

6th century, beginning
The first edition of the Salic Truth was created - a set of laws, which included the norms of unwritten (customary) law and the norms of early feudal law. For the Gallo-Roman population, the norms of Roman law were preserved.

511
Holdvig died. The Frankish state crumbled into the inheritance of his sons.

6th century, middle
The Franks established their dominance by subjugating the Visigoths and Burgundians. The Frankish state of the Merovingians emerged. Under the influence of the Germans, feudal land ownership began to take shape in Gaul.

6th century, end – 7th century, beginning
During the internecine wars, four parts of the Frankish state took shape: Neustria (in the north-west, with a center in Paris and a predominantly Halo-Roman population, Burgundy (in the east), Aquitaine (in the south-west) and Austrasia (north-eastern part of Gaul, inhabited by the eastern Franks later became part of Germany).

687
Mayor Pepin II (the manager of the royal domain, appointed by the king) concentrated real power in the Frankish state in his hands.

732
Battle of Poitiers. The Frankish majordomo Charles Martell (nickname means “hammer”) defeated the Arabs, stopping their advance into the interior of the country.

737
Charles Martel seized power in the Frankish state.

751
Pepin III the Short exiled the last Merovingian king to a monastery and founded a new Carolingian dynasty.

768-789
Charlemagne (742-814) became King of France. Under him, global transformations were carried out within the state, for example, administrative reform: a court, a palace court, and an office were created to manage the empire. An active foreign policy was pursued (the creation of border stamps, for example, Spanish, Breion). Charles became famous as a patron of the arts. The flourishing of culture under him was called the Carolingian Renaissance. Schools were opened at all monasteries of the Frankish state.

800
The Frankish state turned into a huge “Holy Roman Empire”, covering the western part of Germany, all of France and the northern part of Italy, led by Emperor Charlemagne. Under the influence of a higher Gallo-Roman culture, the Franks assimilated, lost their language, adopted Gallo-Roman speech and enriched it with Germanic words. The official language of the Frankish state is Romance.

842
Exchange of "Oaths" (the first document in French) between kings Charles the Bald and Louis the German.

843
The Treaty of Verdun was a division of the Frankish Empire, the separation of the West Frankish state, which became known as France.

9th century, mid
Norman raids on France. Not only coastal cities were devastated, but also settlements inland, including Paris. The Normans captured part of France at the mouth of the Seine and founded the Duchy of Normandy (911).

10th century
France was divided into counties and duchies.

X-XII centuries
Romanesque style in architecture.

910
Cluny Abbey founded.

987
End of the Carolingian dynasty. Count of Paris Hugo Capet is elected king of France. The beginning of the reign of the Capetian dynasty (ruled until 1328). The royal domain included lands along the Seine and Loire with Paris and Orleans.

1060-1108
Philip I. The struggle of the cities of communes with the lords became a means of strengthening Royal power. As they were annexed to the royal domain, duchies and counties became provinces.

1095
Pope Urban II called at the Council of Clermont to “release the Holy Sepulchre”

1096-1099
I Crusade. It consisted of two parts - a campaign of the poor (from central and northern France and western Germany) under the leadership of Pierre of Amiens (the Hermit) along the route of pilgrims - along the Rhine and Danube to Constantinople. At the same time, the first Jewish pogroms in the history of medieval Europe took place. At the end of 1096, detachments of feudal lords moved from Lorraine, Normandy, the south of France and Italy. In the east, the crusaders created a number of states: the State of Jerusalem and its vassal counties - Tripoli and Edessa, the Principality of Antioch.

Around 1143
In the south of France, between Toulouse and Albi, the heresy of the Cathars (from the Greek “pure”) spread. The Cathars rejected all Catholic dogmas, subordination to the state, and demanded the confiscation of church lands, which attracted the nobility to them. They created their own church organization.

1147
The Muslims conquered Edessa, which became the reason for the Second Crusade led by Louis VII and the German Emperor Conrad III (ended in vain). Louis VII divorced Aleanor of Aquiet, and Henry II Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, married her.

1154
Henry II Plantagenet became king of England and almost 2/3 of France. Normandy, Aquitaine, Anjou, Maine, Poitou came under his rule and cut off access to the sea for the royal domain. An instant conflict arose between England and France.

1209-1228
The kings and knights of Northern France, taking advantage of the spread of the Albigensian (Cathari and Waldensian) heresy in the south, subjected the southern regions with a higher economic and cultural standard of living to terrible defeat and annexed the County of Toulouse (Languedoc) to the royal domain.

Around 1226
The Inquisition was organized in Toulouse.

1226-1270
Louis IX Saint.

1248-1254 years
Louis IX the Saint led the VII Crusade to Egypt, where he was captured and ransomed for a huge sum.

1270
Louis IX gathered the VIII Crusade, but when he reached Tunisia, he died of the plague, like most of the knights.

1285 – 1314
Philip IV the Handsome.

1302
"Bruges Matins". In the city of Bruges, the French garrison was slaughtered, stationed here during the struggle for the County of Flanders. In response, Philip IV the Fair led his knights to Flanders. The “Battle of the Spurs” took place, during which the Flanders weavers killed the knights, took off their golden spurs (the distinction of knighthood and hung them in the church. The Estates General was convened - an estate assembly to vote taxes. The first estate was the clergy, the second was the nobility, the third was the bourgeois (citizens, tax-paying class).

1306
Philip IV the Fair confiscated the property of the Jews (mostly moneylenders) and expelled them from France, but then allowed them to return (this happened more than once during his reign).

1307
The Order of the Templars, to whom the king owed huge sums, was defeated. Many members of the order were executed, some were expelled, and the colossal property of the order was confiscated. The master of the order, Jacques de Molay, cursed the king and his offspring at the stake. In 1312, the Pope dissolved the order.

1328-1350
Philip VI begins the reign of the Valois dynasty, a side branch of the Capetians (until 1589).

1337-1453
Hundred Years' War with England.

1380-1422
Large feudal lords ruled on behalf of Charles VI, who suffered from bouts of madness.

1413
Confrontation under King Charles VI of two parties - the Armagnacs and the Burgundians. Uprisings in Paris, convening of the Estates General, resumption of the Hundred Years' War.

1420
The Duke of Burgundy went over to the side of the English king. Occupation of Paris.

1422-1461
Reign of Charles VII.

1429
Joan of Arc persuaded the indecisive and weak Charles VII to entrust her with an army to lift the siege of Orleans, and when she succeeded, she went with Charles VII to Reims for his coronation in Reims Cathedral, the traditional place of coronation of French kings.

1430
In the battle with the British at Compiegne, Jeanne and her detachment had to retreat to the city gates, but they remained locked. The Burgundians captured her and sold her to the British. The court sentenced Jeanne to death, and in 1431 she was burned at the stake in Rouen. In 1456, all charges against Jeanne were dropped, and she became a national heroine. In the twentieth century, the Catholic Church canonized her.

1439
Charles VII declared the independence of the French Church from the Pope.

1453
Charles VII conquered Bordeaux, ending the Hundred Years' War. The British lost all continental possessions except the city of Calais.

1461-1483
Louis XI. A skilled diplomat, he did not like war and bequeathed to his son to remember: “He who does not know how to pretend does not know how to govern.” Crafts and trade revived. The beginnings of an economic policy of mercantilism arose, which was based on a positive trade balance. Louis XI encouraged the development of industry (in particular, he forced Lyon to produce silk fabrics and organize fairs, which quickly eclipsed those in Geneva).

1477
The annexation of Burgundy to the royal domain after the death of Charles the Bold, the last Duke of Burgundy.

1483-1498
Reign of Charles VIII.

1515-1547
Reign of Francis I

1534
The Jesuit order "Society of Jesus" was founded to fight the Reformation.

1559
King Henry II died during the tournament. His wife Catherine de' Medici became regent under the infant Francis II, then under Charles IX.

1562-1592
Religious wars. A war began (1562) between Catholics and Huguenots (Protestants, followers of Calvin. Most often they were townspeople and nobles of the south of France). Internal migration has led to the erasure of regional differences.

1589
A Dominican friar killed Henry III, the last king of the Valois dynasty.

1589-1610
Henry IV of Bourbon. The beginning of the reign of the Bourbon dynasty (before 1792 and in 1814-1830). The integrity of the country was restored according to the principle of uniting “all lands where French is spoken.”

1598
Edict of Nantes. The Catholic religion is recognized as dominant in France. Freedom of Protestant worship was established. Catholics and Protestants have equal rights.

1610
The Catholic fanatic Ravaillac killed Henry IV, under whom religious peace was established and the state of finances and governance of the country improved. Louis XIII (1601-1643), son of Henry IV and Marie de Medici, ascended the throne. During the regency of M. Medici, the country was actually ruled by her favorite, the Italian adventurer Concino Concini (involved in the murder of the king), whom she made Marquis d'Anchor and Marshal of France.

1617
The favorite of Louis XIII, the Duke of Luynes, persuaded the king to remove Concini. Concini was killed, and his wife was accused of witchcraft and burned at the stake, Luynes appropriated their enormous fortune and achieved the expulsion of Marie de Medici.

1618-1648
Thirty Years' War. France helped German Protestants in the fight against the Habsburgs.

1624-1642
Richelieu's reign under Louis XIII. Richelieu contributed to the strengthening of the absolute monarchy and actually created the centralized state of France.

1631
The first French newspaper "GAZETTE DE FRANCE" was founded.

1635
Richelieu founded the French Academy.

1648
As a result of the Thirty Years' War, France took a dominant position in central Europe.

1659
The marriage of the future Louis XIV to the Spanish Infanta Maria Theresa put an end to the long feud between the two royal houses.

1664
Colbert founded the West India and New East India campaigns.

1665
Jean-Baptiste Colbert has been appointed Comptroller General of Finance of France. Pursuing a policy of mercantilism, he stabilized the financial system and ensured economic growth.

1669
Construction of the Palace of Versailles has begun.

1685
The revocation of the Edict of Nantes on freedom of Protestant worship, the flight of the Huguenots.

1701-1714
War of the Spanish Succession: Austria, Holland, Habsburg Empire against France and Bavaria. Philip V (grandson of Louis XIV) became king of Spain. France lost part of its American possessions.

18th Century of Enlightenment

1715
After the death of Louis XIV, his great-grandson Louis XV became king (until 1774). The country is severely ruined: “1/10 of the inhabitants are begging, and 1/2 do not have the opportunity to give alms.”

1733
War with Austria and Russia for the Polish inheritance.

1774-1793
Reign of Louis XVI.

1781
Report from the Minister of Finance on the appalling state of the country's budget.

1788
The Treasury declared bankruptcy.

1789-1794
The French Revolution.

1789
After a 175-year interval, the Estates General was convened. A month and a half later, the third estate proclaimed itself the National Assembly - this became the prologue to the Great French Revolution. The bourgeoisie demanded equality before the law and the abolition of tax privileges.

1789
Summer. Peasant uprisings, abolition of feudal duties. Political clubs arose in Paris, from which political parties were formed. Nationalization of church property to reduce the budget deficit. On August 26, the Declaration of Human and Civil Rights was adopted.

1790
Church reform, abolition of hereditary nobility, adoption of the first constitution.

1791
The failed flight of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette from Paris. Aggravation of relations between radical and moderate deputies of the National Assembly. The Jacobins, led by Robespierre, demanded that the king be punished and a republic proclaimed.

1791, end
In Europe, interventions were being prepared against revolutionary France.

1792, August 10
Storming the royal Tuileries Palace, overthrowing the monarchy (the king and his family were imprisoned).

1793, April 6-June 2
1793, April 6-June 2, the Committee of Public Safety came to power. The main government body of the Jacobins led by Danton.

1794
The Jacobin bloc split into right and left: Dantonists (Danton) and Héberists (Héber).

1794, Mara
The Héberists opposed the government and were executed (Hébert and Chaumet).

1794, April
Danton, Desmoulins and other Dantonists (supporters of radical measures who opposed terror) were executed.

1794, July 26
Thermidorian coup. The Jacobin club was closed, Robespierre and Saint-Just were arrested and executed without trial. New constitution.

1794, October
Ecole Normale was established, an educational institution for teacher training.

1795
The Institute of France, the country's highest scientific center, was created.

1796
Napoleon's campaign in Italy, the defeat of the Austrian Troops.

1798
Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, the capture of Malta, Admiral Nelson's victory at Abicourt. Napoleon returned to France.

1799
Napoleon carried out a military coup. According to the new constitution, power passes to three consuls. Napoleon is the first consul.

1802
Napoleon was appointed consul for life. Amnesty for emigrants, economic reforms began.

1804
Napoleon was proclaimed emperor, the nobility was restored, state power was strengthened, and the Civil Code (Napoleonic Code) was introduced.

1805
The defeat of the Austro-Russian troops at Austerlitz ended the war with the third anti-French coalition.

1807
The Tilsit Peace – Russian-French rapprochement. French hegemony in Europe. Napoleon's first meeting with Alexander I.

1812 Napoleon's campaign in Russia, the capture of Moscow, the death of the French army in Russia.

1813
French troops are expelled from Spain. The anti-French coalition strengthened. The Battle of Leipzig - “Battle of the Nations”, the defeat of Napoleon.

1814, April
Allied forces (England, Austria, Prussia and Russia) occupied Paris. The provisional government announced the deposition of Napoleon, he was given the title of emperor and exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea. After Napoleon's abdication, Louis XVIII (brother of the executed king) gained power. The country maintained civil liberties and the Napoleonic Code. The Treaty of Paris is relatively soft conditions for France, which lost the war.

1815
“One Hundred Days of Napoleon”: Napoleon’s landing on the southern coast of France, the march on Paris. Louis XVIII fled. The empire has been restored. The Battle of Waterloo ended in the defeat of Napoleon, exile to St. Helena. Restoration of the monarchy. The second Treaty of Paris is more stringent than the first (1814).

1821
Death of Napoleon.

1824
Under the Constitutional Charter granted by the King, France became a constitutional monarchy. The national flag is the white banner of the Bourbons.

1830 July - August
July Revolution, abdication of Charles X of Bourbon. The Chamber of Deputies and the Chamber of Pens elected the Duke of Orleans, Louis-Philippe, as king. The French flag became tricolor. The revolution was not as bloody as the Great Revolution, but it affected Belgium, Poland, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland.

1840
Napoleon's ashes were transported to Paris.

1848, February
A new revolution has begun. Fighting in Paris, the Tuileries Palace was captured, Prime Minister Guizot resigned, Louis Philippe abdicated the throne. A republic is proclaimed. Decree on the right to work, Decree on the organization of national workshops.

1848
Republican victory in the elections to the National (Constituent) Assembly.

1848, February 10
The constitution of the second republic was adopted. Louis Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon I) became the President of France.

1849
Elections to the Legislative Assembly. Victory of the monarchists over the republicans.

1850
Law on the transfer of public education to the clergy.

1851
The National Assembly was dissolved. Louis-Napoloen was endowed with dictatorial powers and a censorship was introduced.

1852
Louis Napoleon declared himself Emperor Napoleon III. Second Empire (until 1870).

1870
France declared war on Prussia. The Battle of Sedan, Napoleon III surrendered and abdicated the throne. Paris is surrounded by Prussian troops.

1871
The capitulation of Paris, the signing of peace on very unfavorable terms for France.

1871, March 18-May 16
Paris Commune. Power passed to the Central Committee of the National Guard. The cabinet and army fled to Versailles.

1871
The commune was crushed by German and French troops. 25 thousand people died.

1871, August
The National Assembly elected Thiers president of the French republic.

1875
Constitution of the Third Republic.

1894
The president was assassinated (since 1887). The rise of revolutionary anarchism.

1895
The Lumière brothers invented the cinematograph

The history of France, which is located in the very center of Europe, began long before the appearance of permanent human settlements. Convenient physical and geographical position, proximity to the seas, rich reserves of natural resources have contributed to France being the “locomotive” of the European continent throughout its history. And this is how the country remains today. Occupying leading positions in the European Union, the UN and NATO, the French Republic remains in the 21st century a state whose history is being created every day.

Location

The country of the Franks, if the name of France is translated from Latin, is located in Western Europe. The neighbors of this romantic and beautiful country are Belgium, Germany, Andorra, Spain, Luxembourg, Monaco, Switzerland, Italy and Spain. The shores of France are washed by the warm Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The territory of the republic is covered with mountains, plains, beaches, and forests. Hidden among the picturesque nature are numerous natural monuments, historical, architectural, cultural attractions, ruins of castles, caves, and fortresses.

Celtic period

In the 2nd millennium BC. e. Celtic tribes, whom the Romans called Gauls, came to the lands of the modern French Republic. These tribes became the core of the formation of the future French nation. The Romans called the territory inhabited by the Gauls or Celts Gaul, which was part of the Roman Empire as a separate province.

In the 7th–6th centuries. BC, Phoenicians and Greeks from Asia Minor sailed to Gaul on ships and founded colonies on the Mediterranean coast. Now in their place there are cities such as Nice, Antibes, Marseille.

Between 58 and 52 BC, Gaul was captured by the Roman soldiers of Julius Caesar. The result of more than 500 years of rule was the complete Romanization of the population of Gaul.

During Roman rule, other important events took place in the history of the peoples of future France:

In the 3rd century AD, Christianity entered Gaul and began to spread.
Invasion of the Franks, who conquered the Gauls. After the Franks came the Burgundians, Alemanni, Visigoths and Huns, who completely put an end to Roman rule.
The Franks gave names to the peoples who lived in Gaul, created the first state here, and founded the first dynasty.

The territory of France, even before our era, became one of the centers of constant migration flows that passed from north to south, from west to east. All these tribes left their mark on the development of Gaul, and the Gauls adopted elements of various cultures. But it was the Franks who had the greatest influence, who managed not only to drive out the Romans, but to create their own kingdom in Western Europe.

The first rulers of the Frankish kingdom

Humanism was of particular importance for architecture, which is clearly visible in the castles built in the Loire River valley. The castles that were built in this part of the country to protect the kingdom began to turn into luxurious palaces. They were decorated with rich stucco, decor, and the interior was changed, which was distinguished by luxury.

Also, under Francis the First, book printing arose and began to develop, which had a huge influence on the formation of the French language, including the literary one.

Francis the First was replaced on the throne by his son Henry the Second, who became the ruler of the kingdom in 1547. The policy of the new king was remembered by his contemporaries for his successful military campaigns, including against England. One of the battles that all history books about 16th century France write about took place near Calais. No less famous are the battles of the British and French at Verdun, Toul, Metz, which Henry recaptured from the Holy Roman Empire.

Henry was married to Catherine de Medici, who belonged to the famous Italian family of bankers. The Queen ruled the country with her three sons on the throne:

Francis II,
Charles the Ninth,
Henry the Third.

Francis reigned for only a year and then died of illness. He was succeeded by Charles the Ninth, who was ten years old at the time of his coronation. He was completely controlled by his mother. Karl was remembered as a zealous champion of Catholicism. He constantly persecuted Protestants, who became known as Huguenots.

On the night of August 23-24, 1572, Charles the Ninth gave the order to purge all Huguenots in France. This event received its name because the murders took place on the eve of St. Bartholomew. Two years after the massacre, Charles died and Henry III became king. His opponent in the struggle for the throne was Henry of Navarre, but he was not chosen because he was a Huguenot, which did not suit most of the nobles and nobility.

France in the 17th–19th centuries.

These centuries were very turbulent for the kingdom. The main events include the following:

In 1598, the Edict of Nantes, which Henry the Fourth issued, ended in France. Huguenots became full members of French society.
France took an active part in the first international conflict - the Thirty Years' War of 1618–1648.
The kingdom experienced its golden age in the 17th century. during the reign of Louis the Thirteenth and, as well as the gray cardinals - Richelieu and Mazarin.
The nobles constantly fought with the royal power to expand their rights.
France 17th century constantly faced dynastic strife and internecine wars, which undermined the state from within.
Louis the Fourteenth dragged the state into the War of the Spanish Succession, which caused the invasion of foreign countries into French territory.
Kings Louis XIV and his great-grandson Louis XV paid great attention to creating a strong army, which allowed them to conduct successful military campaigns against Spain, Prussia and Austria.
At the end of the 18th century, a revolution began in France, which caused the liquidation of the monarchy and the establishment of a dictatorship.
At the beginning of the 19th century, Napoleon declared France an empire.
In the 1830s. An attempt was made to restore the monarchy, which lasted until 1848.

In 1848, a revolution called the “Spring of Nations” broke out in France, as in other countries of Western and Central Europe. The consequence of the revolutionary 19th century was the establishment of the Second Republic in France, which lasted until 1852.

Second half of the 19th century. was no less exciting than the first. The Republic was overthrown, replaced by the dictatorship of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who ruled until 1870.

The Empire was replaced by the Paris Commune, which brought about the establishment of the Third Republic. It existed until 1940. At the end of the 19th century. The country's leadership pursued an active foreign policy, creating new ones in different regions of the world:

in North Africa,
Madagascar,
Equatorial Africa,
West Africa.

During the 80–90s. 19th century France constantly competed with Germany. Contradictions between states deepened and aggravated, which caused the separation of countries from each other. France found allies in England and Russia, which contributed to the formation of the Entente.

Features of development in the 20th–21st centuries.

The First World War, which began in 1914, became a chance for France to regain lost Alsace and Lorraine. Germany, under the Treaty of Versailles, was forced to give this region back to the republic, as a result of which the borders and territory of France acquired modern contours.

During the interwar period, the country actively participated in the Paris Conference and fought for spheres of influence in Europe. Therefore, she actively took part in the actions of the Entente countries. In particular, together with Britain, it sent its ships to Ukraine in 1918 to fight against the Austrians and Germans, who were helping the government of the Ukrainian People's Republic drive the Bolsheviks out of their territory.

With the participation of France, peace treaties were signed with Bulgaria and Romania, which supported Germany in the First World War.

In the mid-1920s. Diplomatic relations were established with the Soviet Union, and a non-aggression pact was signed with the leadership of this country. Fearing the strengthening of the fascist regime in Europe and the activation of far-right organizations in the republic, France tried to create military-political alliances with European states. But this did not save France from the German attack in May 1940. Within a few weeks, Wehrmacht troops captured and occupied all of France, establishing the pro-fascist Vichy regime in the republic.

The country was liberated in 1944 by the underground movement of the allied armies of the USA and Britain.

The Second World War hit the political, social and economic life of France hard. The Marshall Plan and the country's participation in economic European integration processes, which in the early 1950s, helped to overcome the crisis. unfolded in Europe. In the mid-1950s. France abandoned its colonial possessions in Africa, granting independence to the former colonies.

Political and economic life stabilized during the presidency, which led France in 1958. Under him, the Fifth Republic in France was proclaimed. De Gaulle made the country a leader on the European continent. Progressive laws were adopted that changed the social life of the republic. In particular, women received the right to vote, study, choose professions, and create their own organizations and movements.

In 1965, the country elected its head of state for the first time by universal suffrage. De Gaulle became president, and remained in power until 1969. After him, the presidents in France were:

Georges Pompidou – 1969–1974;
Valérie d'Estaing 1974–1981;
François Mitterrand 1981–1995;
Jacques Chirac - 1995–2007;
Nicolas Sarkozy - 2007–2012;
Francois Hollande - 2012–2017;
Emmanuel Macron - from 2017 to the present.

After World War II, France developed active cooperation with Germany, becoming with it the locomotives of the EU and NATO. The government of the country since the mid-1950s. develops bilateral relations with the USA, Britain, Russia, countries of the Middle East, Asia. The French leadership provides support to former colonies in Africa.

Modern France is an actively developing European country, which is a participant in many European, international and regional organizations and influences the formation of the world market. There are internal problems in the country, but the well-thought-out successful policy of the government and the new leader of the republic, Macron, is helping to develop new methods of combating terrorism, the economic crisis, and the problem of Syrian refugees. France is developing in accordance with global trends, changing social and legal legislation so that both the French and migrants feel comfortable living in France.

A Brief History of France

The ancestors of the modern French people were the Germanic tribes of the Franks who lived on the banks of the Rhine in the 3rd century. However, the history of the French territory began much earlier, in the prehistoric period. Research has shown that Pithecanthropus inhabited the lands of Gaul about 1 million years ago. Over time, they were replaced by homosapiens, that is, the ancestors of modern humans. There is practically no information about this period.

The Celtic period in France began around the 10th century BC. and lasted for several centuries. In the 2nd century BC. The Roman era began. Since the Romans called the Celts Gauls, the country began to be called Gaul. Gaul occupied vast territories, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. With the arrival of the Romans, the Latin language and Roman way of life came into use, but Celtic culture and art survived.

In the middle of the 5th century, the power of the Roman governors weakened, and the Early Middle Ages began. During this period, France broke up into dozens of small kingdoms. The Rhine region was ruled by the Burgundians, the Franks in the north, and Roman rule still remained in the east. Unity in the country was achieved only under Charles I. This ruler was called the Great during his lifetime. IN 800 year he was elected emperor of the Roman Empire. Unfortunately, after his death, his descendants began to fight for the inheritance, which greatly weakened Western Europe.

The Late Middle Ages began in the 12th century, a controversial era for the French people. On the one hand, it was a time of heyday for art, poetry, and architecture, but on the other hand, serious crises were observed. Thus, in the 14th century, plague epidemics broke out everywhere, and the Hundred Years' War with England began. However, the strife in the country did not end after this war. During the reign of the Valois dynasty, clashes began between Catholics and Huguenots, ending with the Night of St. Bartholomew 24 August 1572. That night, about 30 thousand people died in the massacre of the Huguenots.

After Valois, the Bourbons came to power. The first king from this dynasty was Henry IV (1589-1610). During his reign, a law on religious tolerance was adopted. Cardinal Richelieu, who had actual power during the time of Louis XIII, did a lot for the good of the country. He managed to raise the prestige of France in Europe. The following rulers significantly weakened the country's economy through wars and thoughtless amusements. As a result, a revolution began in the country, the result of which was a coup 1799 of the year. From this moment the period of Napoleon's reign began. After conducting several successful and then failed military campaigns, he was overthrown.

WITH 1814 The period of restoration of the monarchy began. First Louis XVIII came to power, then Charles X, and after him Louis Philippe d'Orléans. In the middle of the 19th century, another revolution took place, after which power passed to the Provisional Government. This change of rulers occurred until France received the status of a republic for the fifth time and appointed General de Gaulle as president. (1959-1969). It was he who was involved in liberating the country from the German occupiers and restoring economic balance.

see also: All brief histories of states, cities, events
Abstracts on history

Flag of France

Coat of arms of France

France, the official name is the French Republic. France is a country in the west of the Eurasian continent in Western Europe.

The capital of France is the city of Paris. In the west, France is washed by the Atlantic Ocean with its seas and bays and straits. In the west by the Bay of Biscay, in the northwest by the Celtic Sea, in the north by the English Channel. In the south, the French shores are washed by the warm Mediterranean Sea. The territory of France is 547,030 sq. km, with overseas and dependent territories 674,685 sq. km. France ranks 48th in the world by area, 3rd in Europe and first in Western Europe. In the south-west, France borders on Spain and Andorra, in the east on Monaco, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Luxembourg and Belgium.

In the north, France, divided by the English Channel, borders Great Britain. Administratively, France is divided into the metropolis (the continental part of the state), and overseas possessions and dependent territories belonging to France.

Administrative divisions of France:

18 regions with 5 overseas territories included
101 departments, of which five are overseas
336 districts
2074 cantons
36,658 communes
The three largest French communes - Paris, Marseille and Lyon - are in turn divided into 45 municipal or urban districts.
The cities of Paris have 20 arrondissements, Marseille 16, and Lyon 9 arrondissements.

Paris, as the capital of France, is a separate department and consists of a single commune.

The overseas regions of France (Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, Reunion, Mayotte) consist of a single department.

The island of Corsica, which is also a separate region, includes 2 departments and has a special status as an administrative-territorial entity, different from other regions of the metropolis (continental France). It has independent governing bodies that are not subordinate to the center.

In 2003, a referendum on the unification of the two departments of Corsica failed. All these regions are part of the European Union.

Regions of continental (Metropolitan) France:

New Aquitaine - Bordeaux
Brittany - Rennes
Burgundy - Franche-Comté - Dijon
Normandy - Rouen
Ile-de-France - Paris
Corsica - Ajaccio
Occitania - Toulouse
Grand Est - Strasbourg
Hauts-de-France - Lille
Auvergne - Rhone - Alps - Lyon
Loire Land - Nantes
Provence - Alps - Cote d'Azur - Marseille
Center - Loire Valley - Orleans

Overseas regions:

Guadeloupe - Basse-Terre
Guiana - Cayenne
Martinique - Fort-de-France
Reunion - Saint Denis
Mayotte - Mamoudzou

France is a highly developed European country with a high standard of living, a successful population and one of the world leaders in economic, scientific, technical, industrial, educational and humanitarian fields.

France is of great political and economic importance both in the world and in Europe. In Europe, France has the second largest economy after Germany. France is a nuclear power with both nuclear capabilities and means of delivering nuclear weapons. France is a member of the UN and is one of the five permanent members of the UN with veto rights. France, with its developed economy, is also one of the most important members of the EU.

France is also a space power, having its own spaceport in French Guiana from which it launches its rockets.

Also in French Guiana, in joint cooperation with Russia, an additional Russian-French launch complex is being built for joint launches of Russian missiles. Along with all the scientific, technical, industrial and political-economic achievements, France has unique cultural and historical values of world significance accumulated over many millennia of development of European civilization.

France has given the world many great names in all fields of human activity.

Many world-famous museums and libraries in France contain world masterpieces of painting, sculpture, music and literature from all over the world. The Louvre alone is worth something with its priceless collections of world culture. France is also a world tourism power. Hundreds of millions of tourists visit French attractions every year. There is probably not a single tourist who would not take a photo in front of the Eiffel Tower, which is both a national treasure and a calling card of France.

France is also famous for its Cote d'Azur on the Mediterranean coast with its unique resorts that annually attract tens of millions of tourists from all over the world to pamper their bodies under the warm, gentle sun.

France also has many natural attractions both on the coast and in the central and mountainous regions of the country.

A Brief History of France

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History of France. France: main historical events

People inhabited the territory of France, presumably, 1.8 million years ago.

In France, many cave paintings have remained since the Paleolithic era. The first colony on French territory was founded by the Greeks in 600 BC.

in the city then called Massalia, now called Marseille.

The expansion of the Celtic Gaulish tribes into France occurred between the fifth and third centuries BC, during which much of the borders of modern France were drawn.

The area was then known as Gaul, and its inhabitants, the Gauls, were at odds with the Romans until the Romans captured the southern part of their country (Provence) in 125 BC.

The Franks, an ancient German pagan tribe from which the name "France" originated, settled in and later conquered Gaul, dividing the territory into four regions for the sons of the Frankish king Clovis I. These kingdoms were later united by Charlemagne.

France played an important role during the Crusades between 1095 and 1291.

Between 1337 and 1453, France and England had a series of conflicts called the Hundred Years' War, followed by several civil wars called the Fronde, while at the same time there was a war with Spain between 1635 and 1659.

During the time of European exploration, France founded colonies in the New World.

Under the leadership of Louis XV, the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) in the New World ended with the loss of the territories of New France and their conquest by Britain. As a result, France became a major ally of the American colonists during the American Revolution as they fought for independence from Britain, eventually leading to the Peace of Paris in 1783.

Between 1789 and 1799, the French Revolution took place, ending with the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, as a result of which the absolute monarchy ended in France and a constitutional monarchy emerged.

The French Revolutionary Wars began in 1792, the same year France became a republic. King Louis XVI was executed in 1793 for treason, as was his wife, Marie Antoinette.

In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte came to power in the Republic, who later became emperor.

The French Empire began to conquer Europe, under Napoleon's leadership, until his defeat in 1815.

During the nineteenth century, France became the second largest colonial power of all time, with colonies in North America, Southeast Asia, North, West, and Central Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Islands.

Many of these colonies are still part of the French Republic. France played an important role in both World War I and World War II, and was one of the founders of NATO in 1949.

History of France

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How France came to be

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To the north of Languedoc stretched a country that was conquered in ancient times by the barbarian Franks - it was called Francia or France.

In the 8th century, the Franks were the first to create heavy knightly cavalry, and the great Emperor Charles subjugated half of Europe - but Charles’s weak successors could not restrain the willfulness of the knights.

Cheat Sheet: History of France in Modern Times

The once powerful state fell apart into countless duchies, counties, baronies, and each owner of the castle considered himself the master of the area and master over the life and death of his peasants. Castles, which were formerly log towers, turned into stone fortresses with double walls, moats and drawbridges in the 12th century; Above each castle stood an iron weather vane with the coat of arms of the owner - and France had more than ten thousand such owners.

The lords fought among themselves, burned other people's villages, robbed on the roads; in times of relative peace, according to the old custom, they gathered at congresses and enthroned kings. In 987, they elected Duke Hugh Capet, ruler of the Ile-de-France, a region stretching from Paris to Orleans, as king of the Franks.

Hugo Capet was not the master even in his duchy, and his successors had to start with the subordination of the local barons, who considered themselves to have every right to fight with the “king of the Franks.”

Nevertheless, the Capetians managed to retain the crown: they made it a rule during the king’s life to gather congresses of the nobility for the coronation of the heir - and the nobility did not resist this, because they did not take the royal title seriously.

By the beginning of the 12th century, the kings had brought order to their “domain”, Ile-de-France, destroyed many castles and expelled rebellious barons.

Bishops of neighboring regions began to turn to them for help: the church had long tried to stop private wars and establish “God’s peace” - now it had acquired a strong ally, the king. Local cathedrals imposed excommunication on the barons who ravaged the area and called upon the royal soldiers against them, who moved siege towers to the walls of the castles and smashed the gates with battering rams.

The cities, trying to free themselves from the power of the lords, also sought an alliance with the king; with the permission of the king, they proclaimed themselves communes and paid a lot of money for support. Money, in turn, made it possible to hire soldiers - after all, the word “soldier” comes from the soldo coin; hired crossbowmen and mounted "sergeants" were much more disciplined than the vassal knights, whose service lasted only forty days a year.

HISTORY OF THE STATE AND LAW OF FRANCE IN MODERN TIMES

plan

French state of the early period of the 18th century revolution

Gironde Republic

Jacobin Republic

Thermal Republic

Legal monarchy

Another republic

Other empires

Rehabilitation of the Republic

Paris Commune in 1871

Third Republic

The French state of the early period of the revolution of the 18th century.

The beginning of the revolution.

The root, the deep cause of the revolution, was the contradiction between the productive forces and the feudal production coefficients that prevailed in the country that had reached its peak. Feudalism could no longer ensure their further growth and objectively transform into their inhibition. People felt this primarily due to the strengthening of feudal oppression.

Even most of the industrialists, merchants and traders were not satisfied with their situation.

Significant taxes and duties were applied, mainly related to the maintenance of the royal court and privileged ownership.

A brief history of France by dates for schoolchildren. For short and only important events

The government repeatedly carried out the so-called "pressed sponges": the entrepreneur grew up without forgery, mostly illegally, was thrown into prison and released only after giving them a large ransom.

The domestic market was extremely narrow for the industry, since the farmer (the majority of the country's population) bought almost no manufactured goods. A large number of internal customs hindered trade. Production was hampered by trade regulations.

Foreign trade, especially colonial trade, was artificially concentrated in the hands of a small group of privileged traders who shared their income with the aristocratic nobility.

Most of the nobility and the high priest tried to maintain the existing system. The main weapon of its defense is not without reason seen in the feudal absolutist state.

Meanwhile, the country has matured in understanding the need for profound changes. For them, this is also the bourgeoisie, economically and politically the most influential and the most organized and, no less important, educated social group in the protefedalističnem movement.

At that time in France, the bourgeoisie began to refer to bankers, tax farmers, manufacturers, merchants and even big businessmen; Before the bourgeoisie, the bourgeoisie were the indigenous people. Mainly due to financial and other support for the most famous works of the bourgeoisie, the ideologists of the Enlightenment - the theoretical thinkers of the movement, who were the subject of criticism of the feudal view in the world of writing - absolutist tyranny, class privileges, medieval superstitions and obscurantism.

The Enlightened People, on the other hand, are a reactionary ideology with a new political perspective that they wrote meets the demands of universal and timeless reason and justice. They studied the experience of the revolution in the Netherlands, England, and the USA, including the practice of state building in these countries. Their views on a number of problems differed, but were mainly united - in the need for serious state and legal reforms on a democratic basis.

In 1788

France was hit by a deep economic crisis. Due to the subsequent worsening of the harvest, famine was threatened by farmers and poor cities in most countries. Production was limited and thousands of city workers lost their jobs. Rural upheavals began, which soon spread to the cities. What was new about these events was that soldiers in several places refused to move against the people.

Transformation of the general states into a constitutional assembly.

In a situation where, in the words of one of the ministers, “there is no obedience and cannot be persuaded by the army,” the government was forced to refuse concessions. He announced the convening of general states, which had not been formed for more than 150 years.

According to ruling circles, countries should help monarchies overcome financial difficulties by adopting new taxes. But other hopes lie in the “third property” of the common states, which proposed to bring about important changes in the social and national system of France.

Mandates for their deputies - representatives of the great bourgeoisie - require restrictions on royal tyranny, the introduction of the right to approve the budget, supervision of its implementation, the establishment of strict laws in the activities of administrative bodies and courts, the elimination of guild rules, and the improvement of the difficult situation of farmers and others.

In May 1789, the General Staff was opened. The ruling circles, which tried to maintain a pro-government majority, demanded compliance with the old voting order - each class has one vote.

Representatives of the third property did not agree with this. They requested that meetings not be held separately in the classroom, but that decisions be made by majority vote. members of the "third estate". Only in this way can they count on the success of their efforts, since the number is equal to the number of members of the privileged classes, and they hope (later events showed that they are not against) in the support of some members of the privileged classes (the liberal nobility and the lower clergy).

In response to the refusal, the government adopted a new voting procedure for members of the “third property” in June 1789, which was adopted by the National Assembly, a month later - in the Constituent Assembly, which, on behalf of the French people, demanded the right to repeal old laws and adopt new ones.

The Tsar and the nobles decided to dissolve the meeting. Troops were assembled at Versailles, where the meeting took place. There seemed to be nothing stopping the government from finding out what was planned.

The Constitutional Assembly saved the people. When Paris knew about the imminent massacre with the anti-feudal movement, the people in Paris rose into armed rebellion. Most of the soldiers soon went over to their side, and almost all of Paris was in the hands of the rebels.

On July 14, they attacked the royal fortress - the prison in the Bastille. The day the Bastille fell was essentially the birthday of the new France and is now celebrated as a national holiday.

A constitutional monarchy. The revolution, which began in Paris, soon captured the entire country. The rebels excommunicated royal officials, and farmers refused to perform feudal duties. In many provincial cities the old local authorities were abolished.

The vast majority of the forces fell under the obedience of the royal generals. The soldiers did not want to shoot people.

Those at the top of the "third estate" (big bourgeoisie), occupying a dominant position in the Constituent Assembly (i.e. in the capital), we used the popular movement to gain political power locally. New local communities were created - municipalities, where the main role was played by the richest person from the “third estate”.

At the same time, the bourgeoisie began to create its own armed forces.

The recruitment of the National Guard - territorial militia - was announced. Each national guard had to purchase expensive weapons and equipment at their own expense, which blocked access to the national guard for all affected citizens.

The Grand Bourgeoisie financed the acquisition of weapons, training, etc. In the National Guard, they appointed their men to command positions. The head of the National Guard was Marques M. J-Lafayette, a participant in the North American Revolutionary War, who supported moderate reforms, which were very popular in the country at that time.

As a result, the country found itself in the hands of a political group that objectively represented the interests of wealthy bourgeois and liberal nobles.

Its leaders - the Marquis of Lafayette - Abbot Sieys, the scientist, astronomer Bayly, the sociologist A. Barnave, A. Lamet and especially Count Mirabeau - a brilliant orator, but an unscrupulous politician - did not demand the complete elimination of the old system. Their ideal was a constitutional monarchy, which is why they were called constitutionalists.

Their political activity was based on attempts to reach agreement with the nobility on the basis of mutual concessions.

"Abolition of feudalism." At the Constitutional Assembly, the “abolition of feudalism” was solemnly proclaimed. However, the publication of this Law (August 1789) showed that the basic demands of the farmers were not met. This is due to the abolition of relatively small so-called personal feudal rights (service, right to a "dead hand", exclusive right to hunt, etc.). Given the free refusal of them, he easily agreed, especially since they were virtually lost - farmers had ignored them since the first days of the revolution.

Everything else: the rights to the land and the actual payments and benefits associated with agriculture are preserved, the land belongs to the lord.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen of 1789 On August 26, 1789, the founding assembly adopted the most important document of the revolution, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.

Compiled as a program of revolution, according to the plan of the creators, they contribute to the world of people, preserving “fraternal unity.”

At the same time, its content largely depends on the specifics of the specific historical moment that the state is experiencing.

At that time, the political forces in the revolutionary camp did not run away, and the interest in the victory of the revolution was predetermined by the general direction of its anti-factional struggle. Some revolutionaries and their ideologists still believed in the possibility of the immediate triumph of the ideals of freedom, equality and fraternity. However, many wanted to see the Declaration as a set of abstract principles to which society should strive, but not necessarily for immediate implementation. “The objectives of the Declaration,” said one of its leading deputies, Dupont, in his speech before the Constitutional Assembly, to express the truth for all time and people.

That means, what if it was contrary to that part of the constitution that would be acceptable to us? “It is important that this statement does not contradict the ruling majority, but at the time of adoption of the declaration it provides an exception in the case of its most progressive provisions.

From the Caroline Empire, the “Kingdom of France” stands out in the Middle Ages. The Middle Ages bring decentralization to the country. The power of the princes reached its apogee in the 11th century. In 987, Hugo Capet founded the Capetian dynasty. Capetian rule opens the gates to religious wars. The king's vassals seize territories beyond the French border. The most significant was the Norman conquest of England by William I the Conqueror. The Battle of Hastings was immortalized in the Bayeux Tapestry.

Philip II Augustus (1180-1223) does a lot for his country. Thanks to Philip II, the University of Paris was founded, and the construction of Notre Dame Cathedral continued. He begins construction of the Louvre. During Philip's time it was a castle-fortress.

At the end of the 12th century, the French economy slowly began to rise, industry developed, and power was centralized, which allowed the country to defeat England and complete the unification of its lands. In the 12th and 13th centuries, a number of architectural structures were built that became national monuments of France. One of them is Reims Cathedral - a striking example of Gothic architecture. In 1239, Saint Louis brought the Crown of Thorns from Venice. To store this relic, the Saint-Chapelle chapel is being built.

With the death of the last descendant of the Capetians, a conflict ensued between the houses of Valois and Plantagenet for succession to the throne.

The Valois family on the throne of the French Empire (1328-1589)

During this period, the country's military activities took center stage. The Hundred Years' War begins. After the death of Charles IV, King Edward III of England decides to seize the French throne by force. France is a loser: the battle of Poitiers deprives the country of the color of knighthood, King John the Good is captured.

France has reached a dead end: no army, no king, no money. The entire burden of the current situation falls on the shoulders of ordinary French people. The people have risen: Paris and the Jacquerie are rebelling. The outrage was suppressed. The British decide to take Orleans to open the route to the south of France.

The Maid of Orleans, Joan of Arc, leads the French army and defeats the English near Orleans in 1429. She convinced the Dauphin to undergo the coronation ceremony in the cathedral in the Rhine under the name of Charles VII. After 2 years in Rouen, Jeanne dies in agony at the stake. The French people dedicated There is more than one architectural structure for this courageous girl. For example, a statue of Joan is also located in the Sacré-Coeur Basilica, which is located on the hill of Montmartre.

Only in 1453 did the confrontation between the dynasties end with the victory of the Valois, which strengthened the French monarchy. The struggle between the two powers for territory and the throne lasted for a long and painful 116 years. France becomes a colonial empire, powerful and strong. In the second half of the 18th century, the country would lose its position on all counts.

From Louis to Louis

In the meantime, in the 15th - 17th centuries, kings succeeded each other, ruling the country according to their capabilities and abilities. Under Louis XI (1461-1483), the country expanded its territory, science and art flourished, medicine developed, and postal service began to function again. It is he who makes the famous and formidable dungeon out of the fortress - the Bastille.

He is replaced by Louis XII (1498-1515), then the reins of government of the country are held by Francis I (1515-1547). Under him, a beautiful Renaissance-style palace was built in the vicinity of Fontainebleau. Soon the palace was surrounded by buildings, and a whole city was formed. The palace is decorated with three gardens: the Grand Parterre, the English Garden and Diana's Garden.

The next ruler of the country was Henry II (1547-1559), who became famous for increasing taxes. His life was cut short at the Place des Vosges during a tournament in 1559.

Under his son, Francis II, the Huguenots protested against taxation. The reign of Charles IX (1560-1574) plunges the country into religious wars. In fact, power was in the hands of Catherine de Medici (it was she who became one of the mistresses of the “Ladies' Castle” - Chenonceau Castle on the Cher River), under whom Catholics and Protestants were already openly expressing their irreconcilability towards each other.

Ten wars have passed in three decades. The most terrible page in them was the Night of Bartholomew from August 23 to 24, 1572, the mass extermination of the Huguenots on St. Bartholomew's Day. One of the best historical television series is “Queen Margot,” which shows these events colorfully and authentically.

The Great French Revolution is the general name for the processes that swept France in the late 1780s - the first half of the 1790s. The revolutionary changes were radical in nature, they caused:

breaking the old system
abolition of the monarchy,
gradual transition to a democratic system.

In general, the revolution was bourgeois, directed against the monarchical system and feudal remnants.

Chronologically, the revolution spans the period from 1789 to 1794, although some historians believe that it ended in 1799, when Napoleon Bonaparte came to power.

Participants

The basis of the Great French Revolution was the confrontation between the privileged nobility, which was the support of the monarchical system, and the “third estate”. The latter was represented by such groups as:

Peasants;
Bourgeoisie;
Factory workers;
The urban poor or plebs.

The uprising was led by representatives of the bourgeoisie, who did not always take into account the needs of other groups of the population.

Prerequisites and main reasons for the revolution

At the end of the 1780s. A protracted political, economic and social crisis erupted in France. Changes were demanded by the plebs, peasants, bourgeoisie and workers who did not want to put up with this state of affairs.

One of the most difficult issues was the agricultural one, which was constantly becoming more complicated due to the deep crisis of the feudal system. Its remnants prevented the development of market relations, the penetration of capitalist principles into agriculture and industry, and the emergence of new professions and production areas.

Among the main causes of the Great French Revolution, it is worth noting the following:

The commercial and industrial crisis that began in 1787;
The king's bankruptcy and the country's budget deficit;
Several lean years led to the peasant uprisings of 1788-1789. In a number of cities - Grenoble, Besançon, Rennes and the outskirts of Paris - a series of plebs protests took place;
Crisis of the monarchical regime. Attempts were made at the royal court to solve the problems that had arisen, but the methods of overcoming the systemic crisis that officials resorted to were hopelessly outdated and did not work. Therefore, King Louis XVI decided to make certain concessions. In particular, the notables and the States General were convened, which last met in 1614. Representatives of the third estate were also present at the meeting of the States General. The latter created the National Assembly, which soon became the Constituent Assembly.

The nobility and privileged layers of French society, including the clergy, spoke out against such equality and began to prepare to disperse the meeting. In addition, they did not accept the king's proposal to tax them. The peasants, bourgeoisie, workers and plebs began to prepare for a nationwide uprising. An attempt to disperse it brought many representatives of the third estate onto the streets of Paris on July 13 and 14, 1789. Thus began the Great French Revolution, which changed France forever.

Stages of the revolution

Subsequent events are usually divided into several periods:

From July 14, 1789 to August 10, 1792;
From August 10, 1792 to June 3, 1793;
June 3, 1793 - July 28, 1794;
July 28, 1794 – November 9, 1799

The first stage began with the capture of the most famous French prison, the Bastille fortress. The following events also belong to this period:

Replacement of old authorities with new ones;
Creation of the National Guard, subordinate to the bourgeoisie;
Adopted in the fall of 1789;
The adoption of a number of decrees concerning the rights of the bourgeoisie and the plebs. In particular, the class division was eliminated, church property was confiscated, the clergy came under the control of secular authorities, the old administrative division of the country was abolished and the guilds were abolished. The most intense process was the abolition of feudal duties, but in the end the rebels managed to achieve this too;
The emergence of the so-called Varenna crisis in the first half of the summer of 1791. The crisis was associated with the king's attempt to flee abroad. Associated with this event: the shooting of a demonstration on the Champ de Mars; the beginning of the confrontation between the poorest layers of the population and the bourgeoisie, which went over to the side of the nobility; as well as the separation from the revolutionary club of the Jacobins of the moderate political party of Feuillants;
Constant contradictions between the main political forces - the Girondins, Feuillants and Jacobins, which made it easier for other European states to penetrate into French territory. During 1792-1792 War was declared on the state torn apart by the revolution: Prussia, Sardinia, Great Britain, Austria, the Kingdom of Naples, Spain, the Netherlands and some German principalities. The French army was not ready for such a turn of events, especially since most of the generals fled the country. Due to the threat of an attack on the capital, volunteer detachments began to appear in Paris;
Activation of the anti-monarchy movement. On August 10, 1792, the final overthrow of the monarchy and the creation of the Paris Commune took place.

The main feature of the second stage of the revolution was the confrontation between the Girondins and the Jacobins. The leaders of the first were J.P. Brissot, J.M. Roland and P.V. Vergniaud, who spoke on the side of the commercial, industrial and agricultural bourgeoisie. This party wanted a speedy end to the revolution and the establishment of political stability. The Jacobins were led by M. Robespierre, J.P. Marat and Zh.Zh. Danton, who were representatives of the middle class and poor bourgeois. They defended the interests of workers and peasants, and also advocated for the further development of the revolution, since their demands remained unheard.

The main events of the second period of the French Revolution were:

The struggle between the Jacobin-controlled Paris Commune and the Girondin Legislative Assembly. The consequence of the confrontation was the creation of the Convention, whose representatives were elected from the entire male population of France over 21 years of age on the basis of universal suffrage;
Proclamation of France as a republic on September 21, 1792;
Execution of the last king of the Bourbon dynasty on January 21, 1793;
Continuation of peasant uprisings caused by poverty, landlessness and hunger. The poor seized the estates of their masters and divided the common land. The townspeople also rioted, demanding fixed prices for food;
Expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention at the end of May - beginning of June 1793. This completed the second period of the uprising.

Getting rid of their opponents allowed the Jacobins to concentrate all power into their own hands. The third period of the Great French Revolution is known as the Jacobin dictatorship and, first of all, is associated with the name of the leader of the Jacobins - Maximilian Robespierre. This was a rather difficult period for the young republic - while internal contradictions were tearing the country apart, troops from neighboring powers were advancing towards the borders of the state. France was involved in the Vendée Wars, which engulfed the southern and northwestern provinces.

The Jacobins, first of all, took up the solution of the agrarian question. All communal lands and lands of the fleeing nobles were transferred to the peasants. Then feudal rights and privileges were abolished, which contributed to the formation of a new class of society - free owners.

The next step was the adoption of a new Constitution, which was distinguished by its democratic character. It was supposed to introduce constitutional rule, but a complex socio-political and economic crisis forced the Jacobins to establish a regime of revolutionary democratic dictatorship.

At the end of August 1793, a decree was adopted on the mobilization of the French to fight against foreign invaders. In response, opponents of the Jacobins who were inside the country began to massively carry out terrorist attacks in all cities of France. As a result of one of these actions, Marat was killed.

At the end of July 1796, Republican troops defeated the interventionist forces near Fleurusset. The last decisions of the Jacobins were the adoption of the Ventose decrees, which were not destined to be implemented. Dictatorship, repression and the policy of requisition (expropriation) turned the peasants against the Jacobin regime. As a result, a conspiracy arose aimed at overthrowing the government of Robespierre. The so-called Thermidorian coup ended the rule of the Jacobins and brought moderate republicans and the bourgeoisie to power. They created a new governing body - the Directory. The new government carried out a number of transformations in the country:

Adopted a new Constitution;
Replaced universal suffrage with a qualification one (only those citizens who owned property worth a certain amount received access to elections);
Established the principle of equality;
Granted the right to elect and be elected only to those citizens of the republic who are over 25 years old;
Created the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders, which monitored the political situation in France;
She waged wars against Prussia and Spain, which ended with the signing of peace treaties. Continued military operations against England and Austria.

The rule of the Directory ended on November 9, 1799, when another coup took place in the republic. It was led by Army General Napoleon Bonaparte, who was extremely popular among the soldiers. Relying on the military, he managed to seize power in Paris, which marked the beginning of a new era in the life of the country.

Results and results of the revolution

Elimination of remnants of the feudal system, which contributed to the rapid development of capitalist relations;
Establishment of a republican system based on democratic principles;
The final consolidation of the French nation;
Formation of government bodies formed on the basis of suffrage;
Adoption of the first constitutions, the provisions of which guaranteed citizens equality before the law and the opportunity to enjoy national wealth;
Solution of the agrarian issue;
Elimination of the monarchy;
Adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

However, the positive transformations also contained a number of negative features:

Introduction of property qualification;
Ignoring the opinions of the majority of citizens, which led to new unrest;
The establishment of a complex administrative division, which prevented the formation of an effective management system.