Means of artistic expression, table with examples. Means of expression in a poem. What are means of expressive speech?

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1. Means of expressive speech

The expressiveness of speech is understood as such features of its structure that make it possible to enhance the impression of what is said (written), to arouse and maintain the attention and interest of the addressee, to influence not only his mind, but also his feelings and imagination.

The expressiveness of speech depends on many reasons and conditions - strictly linguistic and extralinguistic.

One of the main conditions for expressiveness is the independence of thinking of the author of the speech, which presupposes a deep and comprehensive knowledge and understanding of the subject of the message. Knowledge extracted from any sources must be mastered, processed, and deeply comprehended. This gives the speaker (writer) confidence, makes his speech convincing and effective. If the author does not properly think through the content of his statement, does not comprehend the issues that he will present, his thinking cannot be independent, and his speech cannot be expressive.

To a large extent, the expressiveness of speech depends on the attitude of the author to the content of the statement. The inner conviction of the speaker (writer) in the significance of the statement, interest, and concern for its content gives speech (especially oral) an emotional coloring. An indifferent attitude to the content of the statement leads to a dispassionate presentation of the truth, which cannot influence the feelings of the addressee.

In direct communication, the relationship between the speaker and the listener, the psychological contact between them, which arises primarily on the basis of joint mental activity, are also important: the addresser and the addressee must solve the same problems, discuss same questions: the first - setting out the topic of his message, the second - following the development of his thoughts. In establishing psychological contact, what is important is the attitude of both the speaker and the listener to the subject of speech, their interest, and indifference to the content of the statement.

In addition to deep knowledge of the subject of the message, expressive speech also presupposes the ability to convey knowledge to the addressee and arouse his interest and attention. This is achieved by careful and skillful selection of linguistic means, taking into account the conditions and tasks of communication, which in turn requires a good knowledge of the language, its expressive capabilities and features of functional styles.

One of the prerequisites for verbal expressiveness is skills that allow you to easily select the language means needed in a particular act of communication. Such skills are developed through systematic and deliberate training. The means of training speech skills is careful reading of exemplary texts (fiction, journalistic, scientific), close interest in their language and style, attentive attention to the speech of people who can speak expressively, as well as self-control (the ability to control and analyze one’s speech from the point of view of its expressiveness ). The verbal expressiveness of an individual also depends on the conscious intention to achieve it, on the author’s target setting for it.

The expressive means of language usually include tropes (figurative use of linguistic units) and stylistic figures, calling them figurative and expressive means. However, the expressive capabilities of language are not limited to this; in speech, any unit of language at all levels (even a single sound), as well as non-verbal means (gestures, facial expressions, pantomime) can become a means of expressiveness.

2. Phonetic means of expression. Euphony of speech

As you know, spoken speech is the main form of existence of language. The sound organization of speech and the aesthetic role of sounds are dealt with by a special branch of stylistics - phonics. Phonics evaluates the peculiarities of the sound structure of a language, determines the conditions of euphony characteristic of each national language, explores various techniques for enhancing the phonetic expressiveness of speech, and teaches the most perfect, artistically justified and stylistically appropriate sound expression of thought.

The sound expressiveness of speech, first of all, lies in its euphony, harmony, the use of rhythm, rhyme, alliteration (repetition of the same or similar consonant sounds), assonance (repetition of vowel sounds) and other means. Phonics is primarily interested in the sound organization of poetic speech, in which the importance of phonetic means is especially great. Along with this, the sound expressiveness of artistic prose and some genres of journalism (primarily on radio and television) is also explored. In no artistic speech phonics solves the problem of the most appropriate sound organization of linguistic material, promoting exact expression thoughts because correct use phonetic means of language ensures quick (and without interference) perception of information, eliminates discrepancies, eliminates unwanted associations that interfere with the understanding of statements. For fluency of understanding, the euphony of speech is of great importance, i.e. a combination of sounds that is convenient for pronunciation (articulation) and pleasant to the ear (musicality). One of the ways to achieve sound harmony is a certain alternation of vowels and consonants. Moreover, most combinations of consonants contain the sounds [m], [n], [r], [l], which have high sonority. Consider, for example, one of the poems by A.S. Pushkin:

Driven by the spring rays, There is already snow from the surrounding mountains. They fled through muddy streams to drowned meadows.

Nature's clear smile. Through a dream greets the morning of the year:

The skies are shining blue.

Still transparent, the forests seem to be turning green.

A bee for a field tribute flies from a wax cell...

The sound instrumentation of this poem is interesting. Here, first of all, there is a uniform combination of vowels and consonants (and their ratio itself is approximately the same: 60% consonants and 40% vowels); an approximately uniform combination of voiceless and voiced consonants; There are almost no cases of accumulation of consonants (only two words contain, respectively, three and four consonant sounds in a row - [skvos "] and [fstr" and `ch "aj ьт]. All these qualities together give the verse a special musicality and melody. They are inherent in the best prose works.

However, the euphony of speech can often be disrupted. There are several reasons for this, the most common of which is the accumulation of consonant sounds: a sheet of a defective book: [stbr], [ykn]; competition for adult builders: [revzr], [xstr]. Also M.V. Lomonosov advised “to avoid obscene and unpleasant to the ear combination of consonants, for example: the gaze is nobler than all senses, because six consonants placed side by side - vstv-vz, the tongue is very stuttering.” To create euphony, the number of sounds included in a consonantal combination, their quality and sequence are important. In the Russian language (this has been proven), the combination of consonant sounds obeys the laws of euphony. However, there are words that include large quantity consonants compared to the normative: meeting, disheveled, stick. There are lexemes containing two or three consonant sounds at the end, which makes pronunciation much more difficult: spectrum, meter, ruble, callous, acquaintances, etc. Usually, when consonants coincide in oral speech in such cases, additional “syllabicity” develops, a syllabic vowel appears: [rubl "], [m" etar], etc. For example:

This Smury came to the theater two years ago... (Yu. Trifonov); In Saratov there was a play staged by Sergei Leonidovich back in the spring (Yu. Trifonov);

The earth is bursting with heat.

The thermometer is blown up. And on me. Rumbling, the worlds are showered with drops of mercury fire.

(E. Bagritsky)

The second reason that disrupts the euphony of speech is the accumulation of vowel sounds. Thus, the opinion that the more vowel sounds in a speech, the more harmonious it is, is incorrect. Vowels produce euphony only in combination with consonants. The combination of several vowel sounds in linguistics is called gaping; it significantly distorts the sound structure of Russian speech and makes articulation difficult. For example, the following phrases are difficult to pronounce: Letter from Olya and Igor; Such changes are observed in the aorist; the title of V. Khlebnikov's poem "The Lay of El".

The third reason for the violation of euphony is the repetition of identical combinations of sounds or identical words:... They cause the collapse of relationships (N. Voronov). Here, in the words next to each other, the combination - sheni- - is repeated.

True, in poetic speech it can be very difficult to distinguish between a violation of euphony and paronomasia - the deliberate play of words that are similar in sound. See for example:

So we heard the first song of winter quietly penetrating through the first winter (N. Kislik).

Colleague, employee, drinking buddy, interlocutor How many of these COs! Weightless without each other, carried by menacing times, let's fall into these Somas like a squirrel in a wheel. (V. Livshits).

Euphony is also reduced due to the monotonous rhythm of speech created by the predominance of monosyllabic or, on the contrary, polysyllabic words. One example is the creation of so-called palindromes (texts that have the same reading both from beginning to end and from end to beginning):

Frost in the knot, I climb with my gaze.

Nightingale's call, a load of hair.

Wheel. Sorry for the luggage. Touchstone.

The sleigh, the raft and the cart, the call of the crowds and of us.

Gord doh, the move is slow.

And I lie there. Really?

(V. Khlebnikov).

Poor phonetic organization of speech, difficult articulation, and unusual sound of phrases distract the reader’s attention and interfere with the listening comprehension of the text. Russian poets and writers have always closely monitored the sound side of speech and noted the shortcomings of the sound design of a particular thought. For example, A.M. Gorky wrote that young authors often do not pay attention to the “sound vagaries” of living speech, and gave examples of violation of euphony: actresses with passionate looks; wrote poetry, cleverly choosing rhymes, etc. A.M. Gorky also noted that the annoying repetition of the same sounds is undesirable: She unexpectedly found that our relationship needed - even necessary - to be understood differently. V.V. Mayakovsky in the article "How to make poetry?" gives examples of combinations at the junction of words, when a new meaning arises that was not noticed by the authors of poetic texts; in other words, amphiboly arises at the phonetic level: “... in Utkin’s lyric poem placed in “Spotlight” there is a line:

he will not come, just as the summer swan will not come to the winter lakes.

It turns out a certain "belly".

Amphiboly at the sound level can also be noted in A. Voznesensky’s poem “Brighton Beach”:

What is your fault, Willie? What am I, Willie, to blame for? Is it you, is it us? Are we, are you? - Heaven doesn't speak.

The aesthetic perception of texts is disrupted when used in speech active participles present and past tenses such as trudged, trudged, winced, winced, rasped, as they seem dissonant.

Thus, every native speaker should try to avoid the obsessive repetition of identical and similar sounds, the use of dissonant word forms, difficult to pronounce combinations of sounds when connecting words, and skillfully use the expressive capabilities of the sounding side of speech.

3. Vocabulary and phraseology as the main source of expressiveness of speech

The expressive capabilities of a word are associated, first of all, with its semantics, with its use in a figurative meaning. There are many varieties of figurative use of words, their common name is tropes (Greek tropos - turn; turnover, image). The trope is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem close to our consciousness in some respect. The most common types of tropes are comparison, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, personification, epithet, periphrasis. Thanks to the figurative metaphorical use of the word, figurative speech is created. Therefore, tropes are usually classified as means of verbal imagery, or figurative ones.

Metaphorization, one of the most common ways of creating imagery, covers a huge number of commonly used, neutral and stylistically marked words, primarily polysemantic ones. The ability of a word to have not one, but several meanings of a conventional nature, as well as the possibility of updating its semantics, its unusual, unexpected rethinking, lies at the basis of lexical figurative means.

The strength and expressiveness of tropes lies in their originality, novelty, and unusualness: the more unusual and original a particular trope is, the more expressive it is. Tropes that have lost their imagery over time (for example, metaphors of a general linguistic nature such as sharp vision, a clock is running, a river arm, the neck of a bottle, warm relationships, an iron character, or similes that have turned into speech cliches, such as being reflected as in a mirror; cowardly, like hare; runs like a red thread), do not contribute to the expressiveness of speech.

Vocabulary with emotionally expressive overtones is especially expressive. It affects our feelings and evokes emotions. Let us remember, for example, what vocabulary was used by the excellent expert on native speech I.S. Turgenev in the novel “Fathers and Sons” to characterize the meager, miserable economy of the peasants: villages with low huts; crooked threshing sheds; worn-out men on bad nags, etc.

Expressiveness of speech is achieved through a motivated, purposeful collision of words of different functional, stylistic and emotionally expressive colors. For example, from S. Yesenin:

And a swarm of thoughts pass through my head:

What's the homeland? Are these really dreams? After all, for almost everyone here I am a gloomy pilgrim from God knows from what distant side.

And it's me! I, a citizen of the village, which will be famous only for this, That here a woman once gave birth to a Russian scandalous piet.

Here the bookish words duma, homeland, pilgrim, piit are combined with the colloquial words God knows, really, the colloquial woman, the official business citizen.

The motivated collision of words from different spheres of use is widely used as one of the most striking means of comedy. Let's give examples from newspaper feuilletons: Where did Tamara's mentor, a very young girl, come from such a reverent readiness to immediately be fooled by the first charlatan she came across? (combination of book poetic vocabulary with colloquial vocabulary); However, what was the end of the work of the investigative team, which spent more than two years trying to punish Yambulatov? (simple. slammed and book. punished).

In addition to metaphorization and emotional-expressive coloring of the word, polysemantics in their non-figurative meanings, homonyms, synonyms, antonyms, paronyms, vocabulary of limited use, archaisms, neologisms, etc. are used as means of expressiveness.

Polysemantic words and homonyms are often used for ironic and parody purposes, to create puns. To do this, homonym words or different meanings of the same word deliberately collide in the same context. For example, in the sentence They scolded the play, they say, it went, but the play still went (E. Krotkiy), the author collides two homoforms:

1) went - the short form of the adjective vulgar and 2) went - the past tense form of the verb go. Or: And they explained for a long time, // What a sense of duty means (A. Barto).

Many jokes and puns are based on individual author's homonyms: baranka - sheep; carelessness (technical) - lack of a stove or steam heating in the apartment; chickenpox (disapproved) - a frivolous girl; decanter - husband of the countess, etc.

The skillful use of synonyms allows us to pay attention to this or that detail, express a certain attitude towards the named object or phenomenon, evaluate it and, therefore, enhance the expressiveness of speech. For example: Kudrin laughed. Everything that happened seemed to him like wild nonsense, absurdity, chaotic nonsense, which you just have to give up on and it will crumble, dissipate like a mirage (B. Lavrenev). Using the technique of stringing synonyms nonsense - absurdity - nonsense, the author achieves great expressiveness of the narrative.

Synonyms can perform the function of comparison and even opposition of the concepts they denote. At the same time, attention is drawn not to what is common to similar objects or phenomena, but to the differences between them: Nikitin wanted... not just to think, but to reflect (Yu. Bondarev).

Antonyms are used in speech as an expressive means of creating contrast and sharp opposition. They underlie the creation of antithesis (Greek antithesis - opposition) - a stylistic figure built on a sharp contrast of words with opposite meanings. This stylistic device is widely used by poets, writers, and publicists to add emotionality and extraordinary expressiveness to speech. Thus, the prologue to A. Blok’s poem “Retribution” is entirely built on the opposition of antonymous words beginning - end, hell - heaven, light - darkness, holy - sinful, heat - cold, etc.:

Life is without beginning and end...

Know where the light is, and you will understand where the darkness is.

Let everything pass slowly, What is holy in the world, what is sinful in it, Through the heat of the soul, through the coldness of the mind.

Antithesis allows you to achieve aphoristic precision in the expression of thoughts. It is no coincidence that antonymy underlies many proverbs, sayings, figurative expressions, and catchphrases. For example: An old friend is better than two new ones; A little deed is better than a lot of idleness; Learning is light and ignorance is darkness; Pass us by more than all sorrows and lordly anger and lordly love (A. Griboyedov). Antonyms in such cases, creating contrast, more clearly emphasize the idea, allow you to pay attention to the most important thing, and contribute to the brevity and expressiveness of the statement.

Paronymous words have considerable expressive potential. They serve as a means of creating humor, irony, satire, etc. For example: - He [great-grandson] studies at a school with a mathematical inclination. - With an inclination where? - With an inclination towards algebra (from the dialogue between famous television characters Avdotya Nikitichna and Veronika Mavrikievna); When is your wedding procession? - What are you talking about? What card? (V. Mayakovsky).

A striking means of expressiveness in artistic and journalistic speech are individual author’s neologisms (occasionalisms), which attract the attention of the reader (or listener) with their surprise, unusualness, and exclusivity. For example:

Why are you looking away, America? What are your announcers muttering about? What do they intend to explain to you, super-experienced TV nightingales?

(R. Rozhdestvensky);

Tankophobia has disappeared. Our soldiers are hitting the "tigers" with direct fire (I. Ehrenburg).

Lexical repetitions enhance the expressiveness of speech. They help highlight an important concept in the text, delve deeper into the content of the statement, and give the speech an emotionally expressive coloring. For example: Hero - protector, hero - winner, hero - bearer of all high quality, in which the popular imagination dresses him (A.N. Tolstoy); In war you need to be able to endure grief. Grief fuels the heart like fuel fuels an engine. Grief fuels hatred. Vile foreigners captured Kyiv. This is the problem for each of us. This is the grief of the entire people (I. Ehrenburg).

Often the same word, used twice, or words of the same root are contrasted in the context and reinforce the subsequent gradation, giving the context special significance and aphorism: Imperishable for times, I am eternal for myself (E. Baratynsky); I would be glad to serve, but I feel sick to serve (A. Griboyedov). It is no coincidence that tautological and pleonastic combinations underlie many phraseological units, proverbs and sayings: I don’t know; saw the views; forever and ever; if only; Leave no stone unturned; out of the blue; it was overgrown with its former days; friendship is friendship, and service is service, etc.

A living and inexhaustible source of expressiveness of speech are phraseological combinations characterized by imagery, expressiveness and emotionality, which allows not only to name an object or phenomenon, but also to express a certain attitude towards it. It is enough to compare, for example, the A.M. Give bitter phraseological turns of pepper, to tear the skin with equivalent words or phrases (scold, scold, punish; mercilessly, cruelly exploit, oppress someone) to see how much more expressive and figurative the former are than the latter: - Only when we come to the volost -What?... -You're a joker! He, the chief, will give pepper; He owns... he has hundreds of thousands of money, he has steamships and barges, mills and lands... he skins a living person...

Due to their imagery and expressiveness, phraseological units can be used unchanged in the familiar lexical environment. For example: Chelkash looked around triumphantly: - Of course, we swam out! W-well, happy are you, steros cudgel! (M. Gorky). In addition, phrasemes are often used in a transformed form or in an unusual lexical environment, which allows them to increase their expressive capabilities. Each artist’s methods of using and creatively processing phraseological units are individual and quite diverse. So, for example, Gorky used the phraseme bend (bend) in three deaths (“cruelly exploit, tyrannize”) in an unusual context, semantically changing it: Next to him, an old soldier... walked the Lawyer, bent over, without a hat. .., with his hands deep in his pockets. The writer deliberately dissects the general linguistic phraseological phrase "measure with his eyes" with the help of explanatory words, as a result of which its figurative core appears more clearly: He [the prisoner] measured Efimushka from head to toe with narrowed eyes lit up with anger. A favorite method of transforming phraseological units in Gorky's early stories is the replacement of one of the components: abyss from the eyes (dictionary phraseological unit - disappear from the eyes), hang your head (lose your spirit), tear your nerves (fray your nerves), etc.

Compare V. Mayakovsky’s methods of using phraseological units: They won’t leave one stone unturned, they won’t leave a leaf on a leaf, they will beat you (the phraseological unit is formed according to the model presented in the same context: stone upon stone); I would close America, clean it up a little, and then open it a second time (development of the motive given by the phraseological unit).

The expressive capabilities of phraseological units are increased by their ability to enter into synonymous relationships with each other. Reducing phrasemes into a synonymous row or the simultaneous use of lexical and phraseological synonyms significantly enhances the expressive coloring of speech: You and I are not a couple... A goose is not a comrade to a pig, a drunk is not related to a sober one (A. Chekhov); They scratch their tongues all day long, wash the bones of their neighbors (from colloquial speech).

Conclusion

linguistic expressive stylistic

Man is a social being, and the leading means of communication is speech. The main function of speech is the transformation of a person’s internal image, which arises as a result of subconscious internal or spiritual work. To accurately reproduce an image, expressive speech is necessary, thanks to which the reproduced information breaks through the prism of subjective assessment and becomes an integral part of his inner world. The expressiveness of speech refers to those features of its structure that maintain the attention and interest of the listener or reader.

Expressiveness can be spoken by a person appropriate following conditions: independence of thinking, caring, good knowledge of the language, as well as language styles, systematic conscious training of speech skills. Expressive means of language are sometimes reduced to the so-called expressive-inventive, i.e. paths and figures, but expressiveness can be enhanced by units of language at all levels, from sounds to syntax and styles.

The expressive capabilities of a word are supported and strengthened by the actualization of its semantics. The actualization of the semantics of the word of poetry is usually associated with what can be called the associativity of figurative thinking. Others also act on the principles of the association means of expression speech. The syntax of language has no less potential than vocabulary to enhance and weaken the expressiveness of speech.

However, the ability to find expressive and emotional words will not make speech alive if you do not master the secrets of expressive syntax.

Literature

1. Alekseev D.I. Word formation of the modern Russian literary language / 1986 - 299 p.

2. Aleferenko N.F. “Living Word” / 2009 - 341 p.

3. Bazzhina T.V. Russian punctuation: a reference guide. Forum 2010 - 303 p.

4. Gorshkov A.I. History of the Russian literary language. Short course Lectures: textbook, manual for government. Un-tov and ped. universities USSR / 2001 - 120s.

5. Life readings. Russian as a state language: ChSU, 2002 - 222 p.

6. Kamynina A.A. Modern Russian language. Morphology: textbook / 2002 - 240 p.

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Vocabulary

Trails– a figure of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative meaning. Paths are based on internal rapprochement, comparison of two phenomena, one of which explains the other.

Metaphor- a hidden comparison of one object or phenomenon with another based on similarity of characteristics.

(p) “The horse is galloping, there is a lot of space,

The snow is falling and the shawl is laying down"

Comparison- comparison of one object with another based on their similarity.

(p) “Anchar, like a formidable sentry,

Stands alone in the entire Universe"

Personification- a type of metaphor, the transfer of human qualities to inanimate objects, phenomena, animals, endowing them with thoughts with speech.

(p) “The sleepy birch trees smiled,

Silk braids disheveled"

Hyperbola- exaggeration.

(p) “A yawn tears wider than the Gulf of Mexico”

Metonymy- replacement of the direct name of an object or phenomenon with another that has a causal connection with the first.

(p) “Farewell, unwashed Russia,

Country of slaves, country of masters..."

Periphrase– similar to metonymy, often used as a characteristic.

(p) “Kisa, we will still see the sky in diamonds” (we will get rich)

Irony- one of the ways of expressing the author’s position, the author’s skeptical, mocking attitude towards the depicted.

Allegory– the embodiment of an abstract concept, phenomenon or idea in a specific image.

(p) In Krylov’s fable “Dragonfly” is an allegory of frivolity.

Litotes– an understatement.

(p) “... in big mittens, and he’s as small as a fingernail!”

Sarcasm- a type of comic, a way of demonstrating the author’s position in a work, caustic ridicule.

(p) “I thank you for everything:

For the secret torment of passions... the poison of kisses...

For everything I was deceived by"

Grotesque– a combination of contrasting, fantastic and real. Widely used for satirical purposes.

(p) In Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita,” the author used the grotesque, where the funny is inseparable from the terrible, in a performance staged by Woland in a variety show.

Epithet– a figurative definition that emotionally characterizes an object or phenomenon.

(p) “The Rhine lay before us all silver...”

Oxymoron- a stylistic figure, a combination of opposite in meaning, contrasting words that create an unexpected image.

(p) “heat of cold numbers”, “sweet poison”, “living corpse”, “ Dead Souls».

Stylistic figures

Rhetorical exclamation- the construction of speech, in which a particular concept is affirmed in the form of an exclamation, in a heightened emotional form.

(p) “Yes, it’s just witchcraft!”

A rhetorical question- a question that does not require an answer.

(p) “What summer, what summer?”

Rhetorical appeal- an appeal that is conditional in nature, imparting the necessary intonation to poetic speech.

Stanza ring– sound repetition located at the beginning and at the end of a given verbal unit - lines, stanzas, etc.

(p) “The darkness gently closed”; " Thunder skies and guns thunder"

Multi-Union- such a construction of a sentence when all or almost all homogeneous members are interconnected by the same conjunction

Asyndeton- omission of unions between homogeneous members, giving thinness. speech compactness, dynamism.

Ellipsis- an omission in speech of some easily implied word, part of a sentence.

Parallelism– concomitance of parallel phenomena, actions, parallelism.

Epiphora– repetition of a word or combination of words. Identical endings of adjacent poetic lines.

(p) “Baby, we are all a bit of a horse!

Each of us is a horse in our own way...”

Anaphora- unity of beginning, repetition of the same consonances, words, phrases at the beginning of several poetic lines or in a prose phrase.

(p) “If you love, it’s crazy,

If you threaten, it’s not a joke..."

Inversion- a deliberate change in the order of words in a sentence, which gives the phrase special expressiveness.

(p) “Not the wind, blowing from above,

Touched the sheets on the moonlit night..."

Gradation– the use of means of artistic expression that consistently strengthen or weaken the image.

(p) “I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry...”

Antithesis– opposition.

(p) “They came together: water and stone,

Poems and prose, ice and fire..."

Synecdoche– transfer of meaning based on the convergence of the part and the whole, the use of singular parts. instead of plural

(p) “And it was heard until dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced...”

Assonance– repetition of homogeneous vowel sounds in verse,

(p) “my son grew up on nights without a smile”

Alliteration– repetition or consonance of vowels

(p) “Where the grove of neighing guns neighs”

Refrain– exactly repeated verses of the text (usually its last lines)

Reminiscence – in a work of art (mainly poetic) certain features inspired by the involuntary or deliberate borrowing of images or rhythmic-syntactic moves from another work (someone else’s, sometimes one’s own).

(p) “I have experienced a lot and many”

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The means of artistic expression are so numerous and varied that it is impossible to do without dry mathematical calculations.

Wandering through the nooks and crannies of the metropolis of literary theory, it’s easy to get lost and not reach the most important and interesting things. So, remember the number 2. Two sections need to be studied: the first is tropes, and the second is stylistic figures. In turn, each of them branches into many alleys, and we currently do not have the opportunity to go through all of them. Trope - a derivative of the Greek word “turn”, denotes those words or phrases that have a different, “allegorical” meaning. And thirteen paths and alleys (the most basic). Or rather, almost fourteen, because here, too, art has surpassed mathematics.

First section: trails

1. Metaphor. Find similarities and transfer the name of one object to another. For example: worm tram, bug trolleybus. Metaphors are most often monosyllabic.

2. Metonymy. Also a transfer of the name, but according to the principle of contiguity, for example: I read Pushkin(instead of the name “book” we have “author”, although many young ladies have also read the poet’s body).

2a. Synecdoche. Suddenly - 2a. This is a type of metonymy. Replacement by concept. And in the plural. " Save your penny"(Gogol) and" Sit down, luminary"(Mayakovsky) - this is based on concepts, instead of money and sun." I will retrain as a building manager"(Ilf and Petrov) - this is by numbers, when the singular number is replaced by the plural (and vice versa).

3. Epithet. A figurative definition of an object or phenomenon. Examples of a car (an example - instead of “many”). Expressed by almost any part of speech or phrase: leisurely spring, beautiful spring, smiled like spring etc. The means of artistic expression of many writers are completely exhausted by this trope - diverse, rascal.

4. Comparison. Always binomial: the subject of comparison is the image of similarity. The most commonly used conjunctions are “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, as well as prepositions and other lexical means. Beluga scream; like lightning; silent like a fish.

5. Personification. When inanimate objects are endowed with a soul, when violins sing, trees whisper; Moreover, completely abstract concepts can also come to life: calm down, melancholy; just talk to me, seven-string guitar.

6. Hyperbole. Exaggeration. Forty thousand brothers.

7. Litota. Understatement. A drop in the sea.

8. Allegory. Through specificity - into abstraction. The train left- it means the past cannot be returned. Sometimes there are very, very long texts with one detailed allegory.

9. Paraphrase. You beat around the bush, describing an unsayable word. " Our everything", for example, or " The sun of Russian poetry"But not everyone can simply say Pushkin with such success.

10. Irony. Subtle mockery when words with the opposite meaning are used .

11. Antithesis. Contrast, opposition. Rich and poor. Winter and summer.

12. Oxymoron. Combination of incompatibilities: a living corpse, hot snow, a silver bast shoe.

13. Antonomasia. Similar to metonymy. Only here a proper name must appear instead of a common noun. Croesus- instead of "rich man".

Second section: Stylistic figures, or Figures of speech that enhance the expressiveness of the statement

Here we remember 12 branches from the main avenue:

1. Gradation. The arrangement of words is gradual - in order of importance, ascending or descending. Crescendo or diminuendo. Remember how Koreiko and Bender smiled at each other.

2. Inversion. A phrase in which the usual word order is broken. Especially often combined with irony. " Where, smart one, are you wandering from?"(Krylov) - there is also irony here.

3. Ellipsis. Because of his inherent expressiveness, he “swallows” some words. For example: " I am going home" instead of "I'm going home."

4. Parallelism. The same construction of two or more sentences. For example: " Now I walk and sing, now I stand on the edge".

5. Anaphora. Unity of people. That is, each new construction begins with the same words. Remember Pushkin’s “Near the Lukomorye there is a green oak tree”, there is a lot of this goodness there.

6. Epiphora. Repeating the same words at the end of each construction, and not at the beginning. " If you go to the left, you will die, if you go to the right, you will die, and if you go straight, you will definitely die, but there is no turning back."

7. Non-union or asyndeton. Swede, Russian, it goes without saying that he chops, stabs, cuts.

8. Polyunion or polysyndeton. Yes, that's also clear: and it’s boring, you know, and sad, and there’s no one.

9. Rhetorical question. A question that does not expect an answer, on the contrary, it implies one. Have you heard?

10. Rhetorical exclamation. It greatly increases the emotional intensity writing. The poet is dead!

11. Rhetorical appeal. Conversation not only with inanimate objects, but also with abstract concepts: " Why are you standing there, rocking...", "Hello, joy!"

12. Parcellation. Also very expressive syntax: That's it. I'm done, yes! This article.

Now about the topic

The theme of a work of art, as the basis of the subject of knowledge, directly lives on the means of artistic expression, since anything can be the subject of creativity.

Telescope of intuition

The main thing is that the artist must examine in detail, looking through the telescope of intuition, what he is going to tell the reader about. All phenomena can be depicted human life and the life of nature, flora and fauna, as well as material culture. Fantasy is also a wonderful subject for research, from there gnomes, elves and hobbits fly into the pages of the text. But the main theme is still a description of the characteristics of human life in its social essence, no matter what terminators and other monsters frolic in the vastness of the work. And no matter how much the artist runs away from current public interests, he will not be able to break ties with his time. The idea, for example, of “pure art” is also an idea, right? All changes throughout the life of society are necessarily reflected in the themes of the works. The rest depends on the author’s flair and dexterity - what means of artistic expression he will choose for the most full disclosure selected topic.

The concept of Big style and individual style

Style is, first of all, a system that incorporates creative style, features of verbal structure, plus subject visualization and composition (plot formation).

Big style

The totality and unity of all visual and figurative means, the unity of content and form is the formula of style. Eclecticism does not completely convince. Great style is the norm, expediency, tradition, it is the incorporation of the author's feeling during the Great Time. Such as the Middle Ages, Renaissance, classicism.

According to Hegel: three types of Grand Style

1. Strict - from severe - with the highest functionality.

2. Ideal - from harmony - filled with balance.

3. Pleasant - from the everyday - light and flirty. Hegel, by the way, wrote four thick volumes only about style. It is simply impossible to describe such a topic in a nutshell.

Individual style

Acquiring an individual style is much easier. This is both the literary norm and deviations from it. The style is especially visible fiction by attention to detail, where all components are merged into a system of images, and a poetic synthesis occurs (again, the silver bast shoe on Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov’s table).

According to Aristotle: Three steps to achieving style

1. Imitation of nature (discipleship).

2. Manner (we sacrifice truthfulness for the sake of artistry).

3. Style (fidelity to reality while maintaining all individual qualities). The perfection and completeness of style are distinguished by works that have historical truthfulness, ideological orientation, depth and clarity of issues. To create a perfect form that matches the content, a writer needs talent, ingenuity, and skill. He must rely on the achievements of his predecessors, choose forms that correspond to the originality of his artistic ideas, and for this he needs both a literary and general cultural outlook. The classical criterion and spiritual context are the best way and the main problem in finding style in current Russian literature.

Words are capable of conveying the subtlest shades of feelings, the movement of the human soul and thoughts, thereby evoking a response from listeners and readers. This is facilitated by such quality of speech as expressiveness. Expressive is called speech that can maintain the attention and interest of the listener or reader, enhance efficiency the impact of speech on the addressee.

The linguistic basis of expressiveness is the presence in the language of figurative and expressive means, traditionally called paths and figures. Linguistic means of expression also include proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions, and catchwords.

The concept of word figurativeness is associated with the phenomenon of polysemy. Polysemy to some extent reflects the complex relationships that exist in reality. So, if there is an external similarity between objects or they have some hidden common feature, if they occupy the same position in relation to something, then the name of one object can become the name of another. For example: needle- sewing, at the spruce, at the hedgehog; spicy knife - spicy mind - acute joke - spicy sauce - acute pain. The first meaning with which the word appeared in the language is called direct, and the subsequent ones portable. The following are associated with the concept of figurative use of words: artistic media like paths. Trails- figures of speech and words in a figurative meaning, preserving expressiveness and imagery. The main types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, epithet, comparison, hyperbole, litotes, personification, periphrasis.

There are general linguistic tropes (with pre-prepared imagery) and original ones. General language tropes are widely used in speech: hot time- metaphor, tired to death!- hyperbola, they pay mere pennies- litotes, the sun has set- personification, eat a plate(offer to eat a bowl of soup) - metonymy. However, not every figurative meaning is perceived as figurative, for example, metaphors with erased imagery: river branch, bottle neck and so on. When using these phrases, the first, main meaning of the words sleeve(piece of clothing covering the hand), neck(front of the neck. diminutive) is not reproduced in the mind of the speaker (listener). They implement new meanings that have already become common language “a branch from the main channel of the river”, “the upper narrowed part of the vessel”. Thus, these phrases have lost their originality, expressiveness and do not belong to the means of verbal imagery. Original, author’s tropes give expressiveness to speech "stupid indifference"(D. Pisarev), "marmalade mood"(A. Chekhov), as well as figurative meanings of words that have not lost their imagery, the ability to make speech expressive, for example: melancholy “gnaws”, resentment “hurts”, praise “warms” etc.

Paths perform the following functions: give speech emotionality(reflect a person’s personal view of the world, express assessments and feelings when comprehending the world); visibility(contribute to a visual reflection of the picture of the external world, the inner world of a person); contribute original reflection of reality(show objects and phenomena from a new, unexpected side); allow better understand internal state speaker (writer); give speech attractiveness.

In order for trails to perform these functions, improve the quality of speech, enhancing its impact, a number of requirements must be taken into account: J) trails should not be far-fetched, unnatural (when the trail is based on signs or concepts that are not compatible in life or nature); 2) when comparing objects, it is necessary to maintain the “unity of the characteristic”; one cannot move from one characteristic to another; 3) the characteristics by which the comparison is made must be significant and characteristic; 4) paths must correspond to the laws of language.

If tropes are used in an utterance in violation of these rules, the effectiveness of the message is reduced. So, for example, in a fragment of an advertising message “A bouquet of subtle scents, a stimulating effect on hair health, domestic shampoos “Lavender”, “Natalie”, “Tenderness”... a metaphor was used to name the main property of advertised shampoos a bouquet of subtle scents. The metaphor used does not clarify the real, significant features of the object, but displaces them, since the main thing in shampoo is not the smell, but its quality, especially since the message further talks about the effect of healing hair. In addition, the phrase “A bouquet of... odors, a stimulating healing effect...” raises questions: do you need a healing effect or healing itself? Can smell make hair healthier? Can a bouquet make your hair healthier? The compatibility of words in this phrase is broken, which led to the absurdity of the statement.

Tropes are more common in artistic and journalistic speech; to a lesser extent, they are characteristic of scientific speech. IN official business speech the use of tropes is unacceptable. In colloquial speech, general language tropes are more often used; the use of original, author's tropes depends on the individuality of the speaker, the topic of conversation, and the communication situation.

Figures of speech- special forms syntactic constructions, enhancing the impact of speech on the addressee. Experts distinguish three groups of figures: 1. Figures based on relationship between word meanings: antithesis(a turn in which the meanings of words are sharply contrasted: “Where there was a table of food, there is a coffin”(G. Derzhavin), gradation(arrangement of words in which each subsequent one contains increasing or decreasing meanings: I do not regret, do not call, do not cry.(S. Yesenin), inversion(arrangement of words that violates the usual order: Our amazing people(I. Ehrenburg), ellipsis(omission of any implied term: Guys- for axes(A. Tolstoy). 2. Shapes based on repetition of identical elements: anaphora(repetition of the same words at the beginning of a sentence), epiphora(repetition of individual words or phrases at the end of a sentence), parallelism(same syntactic construction neighboring proposals), period(rhythmic-melodic construction, the thought and intonation in which gradually increase, reach the peak, the theme receives its resolution, after which the intonation tension decreases). 3. Shapes based on expression of rhetorical address to the reader or listener: appeal, question, exclamation.

Metaphor(Greek metaphora - transfer) – a type of trail formed by principle of similarity; one of the means of enhancing the figurativeness and expressiveness of speech. The first attempts at scientific interpretation of mathematics date back to antiquity (the doctrine of the so-called dhvani in Indian poetics, the judgments of Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, etc.). Subsequently, a revival of interest in metallurgy arose already in the 19th century. due to development will compare. linguistics and poetics. Some authors are primarily interested in the genesis and evolution of M. (the works of A. A. Potebnya, A. Bizet, K. Werner, etc.), others - the “statics” of this phenomenon, its internal. structure and functions.
M. is based on the ability of a word to undergo a kind of doubling (multiplication) in speech, denoting functions. So, in the phrase: “The crew... was... like... thick-cheeked convex watermelon , placed on wheels... The watermelon was filled with chintz pillows..., stuffed with bags of bread, rolls...” (N.V. Gogol, “Dead Souls”) - the word “watermelon” (in the second case) means simultaneously two items: “crew” (only in this context) and “watermelon”. The role of the first and second objects can be any figuratively assimilated facts of reality - phenomena of inanimate nature, plants, animals, people, their internals. world. Paired into “subject pairs”, they form combinations characterized by great diversity.
Basic types M.: 1) inanimate - inanimate (about the month: “hanging behind the woman’s hut edge of bread ...", mystery); 2) alive - alive (about a girl: “a nimble and thin snake”, M. Gorky); 3) living – non-living (about muscles: “cast iron”); 4) nonliving – living (“wave ridges”). More complex are those based on synesthesia, that is, bringing together phenomena perceived by different senses (“to the colors on the canvas”, etc.). The objective similarity between objects, which makes it possible to create m., most often consists of such properties as: 1) color - “trees in winter silver” (A. S. Pushkin); 2) form – “blade of the month” (M. A. Sholokhov), “ring” (about a snake); 3) size (often in combination with other properties) - “crumb”, “bug” (about a child), “filled his nose with tobacco from both entrances” (Gogol; about large nostrils); 4) density - “gas” (about light fabric), “milk” (about thick fog), cf. also “bronze of muscles” (V.V. Mayakovsky); 5) dynamism - “a heap of fatty body crushed by sleep” (Gorky), “an idol” (about motionless standing man), cf. “lightning”, “give lightning” (about a telegram). A common property in the first object (image object) may be. both constant and variable; in the second (means of likening) - only constant. Often objects in M. are compared several times at the same time. signs: “a thick macaron glitters on an epaulette - generality” (Gogol; color and shape).

Metonymy(Greek metonymia - renaming) – a type of trail based on contiguity principle. Like metaphor, M. is a word that, in order to enhance the figurativeness and expressiveness of speech, simultaneously denotes two (or more) phenomena that are actually connected with each other. Thus, in the phrase “Everything flags will come to visit us" (A.S. Pushkin, "The Bronze Horseman") the word "flags" means: ships with flags various states, the merchants and sailors sailing on them, as well as these flags themselves - preserving this. and its usual meaning.
Several can be distinguished. types of metonymic subject pairs. 1) The whole is a part, i.e. synecdoche; the subject as a whole is denoted by k.-l. a striking detail (it becomes a representative of this item). Wed. about man: “no human foot has set foot here”; “Hey, beard! and how to get from here to Plyushkin?..." (N.V. Gogol); about the royal gendarmes - “And you, blue uniforms...” (M. Yu. Lermontov); “a detachment of two hundred sabers” (cavalry). 2) Thing – material. About dishes: “It’s not like eating on silver, I ate on gold” (A. S. Griboyedov); about the pipe: “The amber in his mouth was smoking” (Pushkin). 3) Content – containing. “I ate three plates” (I. A. Krylov); about wood in the stove: “The flooded stove is cracking” (Pushkin); “No, my Moscow did not go to him with a guilty head” (Pushkin). 4) The carrier of the property is the property. Instead of a thing, a person is indicated. internal its property, which is, as it were, abstracted from its bearer and objectified. About brave people: “The city takes courage” (last); in addresses: “my joy” (about a person who brings joy). 5) The product of the action is the producer of the action. “A man... Belinsky and Gogol will carry away from the market” (N. A. Nekrasov). 6) Product of action - place of production. Wed. in Gogol - Captain Kopeikin in the St. Petersburg reception room “huddled... in a corner so as not to push with his elbow... some America or India - a gilded, you know, porcelain vase of sorts” (M. with its immediate “decoding”). 7) Action is an instrument of action. “For the violent raid he doomed their villages and fields to swords and fires” (i.e., destruction and burning; Pushkin).

Multi-Union(from the Greek polysyndeton - multi-union), - special the use of conjunctions in stylistics. purposes; such a construction of a phrase in which all homogeneous members of a sentence are connected by conjunctions, while usually only the last two are connected by a conjunction homogeneous members. P. is often associated with anaphora and usually emphasizes internal. enumerable connection:
AND more insidious than the northern night,
AND more intoxicated than golden ai,
AND gypsy love in short
Your caresses were terrible... (A. Blok).
P. also enhances the perception of the unity of the events described: “And finally, they screamed at him, and laid him down, and the whole thing was over” (Yu. Tynyanov).

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