- famous domestic psychologist Arthur Vladimirovich Petrovsky was born on May 14, 1924 in Sevastopol. His fate is complex and interesting. When did the Great Patriotic War, he volunteered to go to the front. After demobilization, Petrovsky, after working for some time at a military factory, entered a vocational school. The next stage of his education was the school for working youth, where young Petrovsky became interested in philology and, after graduating from school, entered the philological faculty of the Moscow City Pedagogical Institute named after V.P. Potemkin, and then to graduate school. The topic of his candidate's dissertation combined aspects of two sciences: philology and psychology, which Petrovsky had become interested in by that time, and in 1950 his first scientific work, Psychological Views of A.N., was defended. Radishcheva.
Subsequently, Petrovsky conducted serious research in the field of psychological theory; he worked at the departments of psychology of the Volgograd Pedagogical Institute, Moscow City Pedagogical Institute, Moscow State Pedagogical Institute. IN AND. Lenin. The result of his activities is the book Conversations on Psychology published in 1961. In parallel, Petrovsky is studying the history of psychology; this topic would interest him throughout his life, so it is no coincidence that his doctoral dissertation, defended in 1965, was called Ways of Forming the Foundations of Soviet Psychology. Exploring the history of the development of psychological thought in Russia, Petrovsky for the first time raises the question of the need for an objective scientific assessment of pedology, so popular at the beginning of our century, as well as psychotechnics, reflexology, reactology and the works of V.M. Bekhtereva, V.A. Wagner, P.P. Blonsky and others.
In 1966, a significant event occurred in Petrovsky’s career: he received the title of professor and became head of the psychology department at Moscow State Pedagogical Institute. In 1967, Petrovsky’s book History of Soviet Psychology was published. In 1968, he became a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, then - academician-secretary of the department of psychology and developmental physiology, and since 1971 - a full member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. At the same time, he works on the editorial boards of the journals Questions of Psychology and Bulletin of Moscow State University. In 1972, Petrovsky left the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute and became the head of the laboratory of personality psychology at the Research Institute of General and Pedagogical Psychology of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR. This laboratory will work under his leadership from 1972 to 1993. By analyzing the works of the laboratory, two main scientific trends can be identified. The first is a historical and psychological direction already known to us, the roots of which go back to the 60s. XX century Research in this area continues to the present day by Petrovsky and his followers. During this period the following books by A.V. were published. Petrovsky: Questions of the history and theory of psychology (1984), History of psychology (1994, co-authored with M.G. Yaroshevsky), Questions of the history and theory of psychology (1984), History and theory of psychology (1996, co-authored with I.G. Yaroshevsky ), Basics theoretical psychology(1997, co-authored with I.G. Yaroshevsky). During this time, over 20 candidate and doctoral dissertations devoted to the development of these ideas were defended.
The second direction is related to problems of personality and interpersonal relationships in groups different types and belongs to the area social psychology. The theory of activity-based mediation of interpersonal relationships, developed by A.V. Petrovsky, or rather, her stratometric concept formed the basis of this direction. This concept allows you to differentiate groups by level of development and explore the structure of intragroup connections. Petrovsky studied the connections between members of different groups and showed the illegality of spreading dependencies identified in groups of the same level of development to other groups. The three-phase concept of personality development formulated by Petrovsky revealed a pattern of changing stages of adaptation, individualization and integration when entering new group or when the status changes in the previous one. On this basis, Petrovsky proposed an age periodization, the essence of which is that for each developing individual, the path to social maturity passes through the macrophases of childhood (mainly personality adaptation), adolescence (mainly individualization) and adolescence, leading to the integration of the individual in society.
From these positions, Petrovsky subjected the concept of leading activity to a critical reassessment. IN general theory interpersonal relations, Petrovsky, exploring the factors that determine the significance of another person for a subject, proposed a three-factor model of a significant other. As a basis for this model, Petrovsky considers power, attraction (attractiveness) and reference (authority). Complex relationships and quantitative changes in these factors form the reflected subjectivity of a significant other. In the early 1980s, Petrovsky developed the concept of personalization, which forms the theoretical basis for the laboratory’s research in the field of problems of the developing personality. On the basis of the above concepts, the following works were created: a collective monograph - Psychological Theory of the Collective (1979) and Petrovsky’s books Personality, Activity, Collective (1982), Popular Conversations on Psychology (1981), Psychology of the Developing Personality (1987) and a number of others. The main data obtained in the research was included in the content of textbooks and teaching aids, published under the editorship of Petrovsky: General psychology (1970), Developmental and educational psychology (1973), Social psychology of the collective (1978), Social psychology (1987), Introduction to psychology (1995).
In 1976, Petrovsky received the title of vice-president of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR, and from 1978 to 1985, this amazingly efficient person, without stopping the management of the laboratory, also became the head of the department of pedagogy, psychology and teaching methods in higher school at the Faculty of Advanced Studies of Moscow State University. But still, his main hobby was the laboratory of personality psychology; he devoted most of his time and energy to it. Petrovsky creates it like an artist paints a picture, carefully selecting his employees. In the early 1990s. The laboratory undergoes a significant reduction and in 1993 was transformed into a group of personality psychology, which in January 1999 again received the status of a laboratory, but, having changed the profile of scientific research, is now called the laboratory of the theory and history of psychology. The emphasis is shifting to the development of the foundations of theoretical psychology, and above all the categorical-conceptual system of psychological knowledge: after all, back in 1996, Petrovsky began to develop a special field of psychology - theoretical psychology. The subject of this science is the reflection of psychology, revealing in its categorical system the key problems of the basic principles of research. In order to solve these problems, Petrovsky proposed a multi-level categorical system. Using such a system, it is possible to more fully characterize the human psyche at the protopsychological, basic, metapsychological and extrapsychological levels, as well as show inter-level and intra-level connections. Thus, Petrovsky actually managed to build a system of psychological theories, each of which is based on one of the categories included in the general categorical system.
At the end of the 1990s. Petrovsky and his students are also developing a special area of historical and psychological research - political history psychology. The subject of study here is the development of psychological science depending on the political situation that developed in totalitarian states. An independent direction in the work of the laboratory of theory and history of psychology was the research of L.A. Karpenko, devoted to the problems of analyzing the concepts of numerous areas of psychology and interdisciplinary relationships. Simultaneously with research work, laboratory staff are working on dictionary and reference publications on psychology, which have been published since 1983. During this period, they were published under general edition A.V. Petrovsky and M.G. Yaroshevsky, compiled by L.A. Karpenko the following reference publications: Brief psychological dictionary(1985); Psychology. Dictionary (1990). Work is underway to create a Psychological Encyclopedia and a series of reference publications Lexicon, which is a series of eight dictionaries compiled on a thematic basis. For almost 30 years of research conducted by laboratory staff under the leadership of A.V. Petrovsky, 63 doctoral and candidate dissertations were defended. Petrovsky was the editor and co-author of a number of textbooks on general, social, developmental, educational and theoretical psychology. Together with M.G. Yaroshevsky, this scientist developed a multi-level system psychological preparation in universities, for which in 1997 he was awarded the Russian Government Prize in the field of education. He was a consultant for such famous films as Seven Steps Beyond the Horizon, Me and Others, Scarecrow. During my scientific activity he published over 1,500 articles, textbooks, teaching aids, monographs, reference publications, many of which were translated into foreign languages, and all these are the fruits of the work of the great Russian scientist Arthur Vladimirovich Petrovsky.
St. Petersburg: Prime-Eurosign, 2003. - 632 p. — ISBN 5-93878-086-1. Many students and teachers call this book the main psychological book in the country, because a good dictionary is the basis for both theoretical research and practical work. This book has stood the test of time. Here is the latest edition of the famous dictionary. The dictionary contains more than 1600 articles, more than 160 domestic authors. The volume of the dictionary has doubled compared to previous editions ('Psychological Dictionary', 1983, 1996). The dictionary is constructed in a fundamentally new way: each article is published in the author's edition; English equivalents are provided for most terms. Introduced new system cross-references, so it became possible to find a significantly larger number of concepts and terms than the number of articles themselves. Many articles, as is customary in the tradition of fundamental dictionaries, have additions written either by editors or external authors.
A large psychological dictionary can be called a fundamental book, which is of great interest not only to students and specialists, but also to people for whom psychological knowledge has become an indispensable need to satisfy cognitive, professional and personal interests. Preface.
Personalities.
List of authors.
List of abbreviations and list of symbolic notations.
Dictionary entries A-Z
Thematic subject index.
General scientific, methodological and philosophical concepts.
Related humanities (linguistics, ethnography, etc.).
Related information and cybernetic sciences.
Related biomedical sciences.
Methods of psychology and other sciences (including statistical methods).
Branches of psychology.
Age-related psychology and developmental psychology.
Animal psychology, ethology and comparative psychology.
Engineering psychology, occupational psychology and ergonomics.
Medical psychology, pathopsychology (see also neuropsychology, psychotherapy and psychocorrection).
Neuropsychology.
General psychology.
Psychology of sensations and perception.
Psychology of attention.
Psychology of memory.
Psychology of thinking and imagination.
Psychology of emotions, motivation and will.
Parapsychology.
Pedagogical psychology and educational psychological service.
Psychogenetics.
Psycholinguistics and psychosemantics.
Psychology of art, psychology of creativity.
Psychology of consciousness, behavior and personality, differential psychology.
Psychology of management.
Psychometrics.
Psychomotor.
Psychotherapy and psychocorrection.
Psychophysics.
Psychophysiology and psychopharmacology.
Sexology and sexopathology.
Social psychology (including the psychology of communication and interpersonal relationships).
Special psychology.
Ethnopsychology.
Legal psychology.
Directions, concepts, approaches and schools of psychology, history of psychology.
Activity approach.
Behavioral psychology.
Gestalt psychology.
Cognitive psychology.
Cultural-historical psychology and psychology of activity.
Psychoanalysis.
Other.
Personalities.
ORIENTATION OF PERSONALITY
The term personality orientation goes back to the works of V. Stern (Richtungsdipositionen) and is translated as “dominant correct attitude.” Solving the issue of direction always presupposes an indication of what the person is directed towards, therefore they talk about the direction of a person’s interests, tastes, views, desires, which indicates the selectivity, individuality and uniqueness of the individual.
Orientation acts as the leading meaningful characteristic of a personality, its system-forming property, which determines its entire psychological make-up.
In different concepts, direction is revealed in different ways: as a “dynamic tendency” (Rubinstein), “sense-forming motive” (Leontyev), “dominant attitude” (Myasishchev), “subjective relations of the individual” (Lomov), “dynamic organization of the essential forces of man” (Prangishvili), “the main life orientation” (Ananyev).
In the study of personality orientation in domestic psychology have developed various scientific schools and directions:
1) understanding of direction through needs and motives (S.L. Rubinshtein, A.N. Leontyev, L.I. Bozhovich, Yu.M. Orlov);
2) theory of significance (N.F. Dobrynin);
3) theory of personality relationships (V.N. Myasishchev, B.F. Lomov);
4) attitude theory (D.N. Uznadze).
A. V. Petrovsky and M. G. Yaroshevsky (dictionary)
The psychological dictionary edited by A.V. Petrovsky and M.G. Yaroshevsky gives the following definition of personality orientation: “Personality orientation is set of stable motives, orienting the activity of the individual and relatively independent of existing situations. The orientation of a person is characterized by his interests, inclinations, beliefs, ideals, in which a person’s worldview is expressed” (Psychology. Dictionary./Under the general editorship of A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky. - M., 1990. - p. 230).
The same dictionary reveals the components that make up the personality orientation.
Interests- a form of manifestation of a cognitive need that ensures that the individual is focused on understanding the goals of the activity and thereby promotes orientation and familiarization with new facts. Interest can develop into addiction.
Tendencies– the selective focus of an individual on a certain activity, encouraging him to engage in it. The basis of the inclination is the deep, stable need of the individual for a particular activity, the desire to improve the skills and abilities associated with this activity.
Beliefs- a conscious need of the individual, prompting him to act in accordance with his value orientations. The content of needs, appearing in the form of belief, reflects a certain understanding of nature and society. Forming an ordered system of views (political, philosophical, aesthetic, natural science, etc.), a set of beliefs acts as a person’s worldview.
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n1.doc
General psychology.Dictionary / Under. ed. A.V. Petrovsky // Psychological Lexicon. Encyclopedic Dictionary in six volumes / Ed.-comp. L.A. Karpenko. Under general ed. A.V. Petrovsky. - M.: PER SE, 2005. - 251 p.
The dictionary "General Psychology" covers the theoretical and methodological aspects of psychological cognition, including the latest research on this topic. The characteristics of the historical prerequisites for the development of psychology, trends, industries, concepts are given; ideas about the most important mental properties, processes and states; psychology of language and speech; most general methods psychology. Five sections of the dictionary correspond to the subject structure General psychology. As such, it can be useful to both students and teachers of university psychology departments, as well as anyone interested in psychology.
Abstraction[lat. abstractio - distraction] is one of the main operations of thinking, which consists in the fact that the subject, isolating any signs of the object being studied, is distracted from the rest. The result of this process is the construction of a mental product (concept, model, theory, classification, etc.), which is also denoted by the term “A.”.
M.G. Yaroshevsky
Aviation psychology- branch of psychology that studies psychological patterns labor activity aviation specialists. The subject of aviation is the psyche of a person who controls complex aviation systems. The object of administrative activity is the activity of the individual and the team, its content, conditions, organization. Subject A. p. - flight and engineering personnel, aviation dispatchers.
V.A. Bodrov
Austrian (Graz) school- a group of researchers (H. Ehrenfels, S. Vitasek, V. Benussi, etc.) who worked in the 1880-1910s. mainly at the University of Graz under the leadership of the philosopher and psychologist A. Meinong, who founded the first experimental psychology laboratory in Austria (1894) and theoretically developed the ideas of his immediate teacher F. Brentano. She is known primarily for the formulation and theoretical-experimental development of the problem of the integrity of consciousness posed by Ehrenfels. It was Ehrenfels who introduced psychological science the term “gestalt quality” to denote the integrity of the mental image (i.e., the irreducibility of its properties to the sum of the properties of its constituent sensations) and consciousness as a whole. In A. sh. The properties of some integral mental formations were studied (including experimentally on the material of optical-geometric illusions and pathology of perception). Thus A. sh. prepared the ground for the transition of psychology from the elemental strategy of cognition, characteristic, for example, of associative psychology, to the holistic approach proposed and developed by Gestalt psychology and the Leipzig school, although representatives of A. sh. in general, did not go beyond the elementalist way of cognition. They considered the quality of wholeness ("Gestalt quality") - for example, melody, form - as another element of perception, joining the original sum of sounds or visual sensations as another new element- “automatically” (Ehrenfels) or as a result of a special “productive” spiritual act (Meinong). The absence or presence of such an act was explained in A. Sh. the absence or occurrence of optical-geometric illusions and features of music perception, in particular amusia (Vitasek, Benussi). At the same time, A. sh. posed the problem of other units of analysis of consciousness than in associative psychology, the problem of holistic-forming factors and the problem of the subject’s activity in constructing a holistic image (which was subsequently wrongfully ignored by Gestalt psychology). A. sh. also contributed to the development of problems of perception of space, optical-geometric illusions, apparent movement, philosophical, epistemological and ethical issues.
HER. Sokolova
Autokinetic effect- one of the illusory movement phenomena observed in a situation of prolonged gaze fixation on a stationary small object on a homogeneous, “unstructured” background. For example, if you look closely at a stationary luminous point in a dark room, then after some time (1-3 minutes) this spot is perceived to be moving chaotically in different directions. A. e. may have a paradoxical character: the sensation of movement occurs simultaneously with the perception of the same object as motionless. Manifestation of A. e. depends on the illumination and structure of the stimulus field, eye movements, body posture, instructions, the attitude of the subject, social norms and other factors. The amplitude of movements during A. e. can reach several tens of degrees, without coinciding either in amplitude or direction with eye movements. Therefore A. e. cannot be explained by the displacement of the image on the retina or by the eye’s own movements. The generally accepted explanation for A. e. currently does not have.
IN AND. Panov
Automatism(in psychology) [Greek. automatos - self-acting] - an action implemented without the direct participation of consciousness. There are “primary” A., which represent the functioning of innate, unconditional reflex programs, and “secondary” A., formed intravitally. With “secondary” A., a rigid, unambiguous connection is established between certain properties of situations and a series of sequential operations that previously required conscious orientation.
A.I. Podolsky
Agape- an ancient concept denoting love for one's neighbor. In Greek philosophy, a distinction was introduced between the concepts of “A.”, which expressed active, bestowing love, focused on the good of one’s neighbor, and “eros,” which represented passionate love, focused on satisfying one’s own needs. Since the beginning of the spread of Christian culture, the concept of "A." received a new impetus for development: in early Christian communities, in order to develop love for one’s neighbor, special evening meals were organized for all members of the community (received the same name), the purpose of which was to express brotherly feelings to each other. In many philosophical systems the concept of "A." took a central place, for example, in the philosophy of Plotinus (Enneads) or C.S. Pierce (1839-1914), who saw in it the creative energy of the evolution of nature.
THEM. Kondakov
Adaptation- adaptation of the structures and functions of the body to environmental conditions. A. processes are aimed at maintaining homeostasis. The concept of A. is used as a theoretical one in those psychological concepts that interpret the relationship between an individual and his environment as processes of homeostatic balancing (for example, Gestalt psychology, J. Piaget’s theory of intellectual development). Along with sensory A. (that is, with an adaptive change in the senses to an active stimulus), in psychology they talk about A. to social conditions, about A. to a child care institution, school A. (or maladjustment), etc.
B.M. Velichkovsky
Sensory adaptation(from Latin adaptatio - to adapt and sensus - feeling, sensation) - an adaptive change in sensitivity to the intensity of the stimulus acting on the sense organ; can also manifest itself in a variety of subjective effects (see Consistent image). A. s. can be achieved by increasing or decreasing absolute sensitivity (eg, visual dark and light adaptation).
B.M. Velichkovsky
Agitation[fr. agitation - strong excitement, excited state] - an affective state of a person that occurs in response to a threat to life, an emergency situation and other psychogenic factors. A. manifests itself in the form of strong motor agitation, accompanied by anxiety, fear, loss of focus in actions, and accelerated, incomprehensible speech.
L.A. Karpenko
Activity- 1) “causality of cause” (I. Kant); 2) the active state of living organisms as a condition for their existence in the world. An active being is not simply in motion, it contains within itself the source of its own movement, and this source is reproduced in the course of the movement itself. In this case, we can talk about restoring the energy, structure, properties, processes and functions of a living being, its place in the world, generally speaking, about reproducing any dimensions of its life, if only they are considered essential and integral. Bearing in mind this special quality - the ability for self-movement, during which the individual reproduces himself - they say that he acts as a subject of A. In the formation and existence of the human individual as a subject, such manifestations of A are presented as activation, unconditional and conditional reflex acts, search A., voluntary acts, will, acts of free self-determination and self-positing of the subject. In correlation with the activity of activity, the subject is defined as a dynamic condition of its formation, implementation and modification, as a property of its own movement. A. is characterized here by the following properties: spontaneity, i.e., the conditioning of the acts performed by the specifics internal states the individual at the moment of action, in contrast to reactivity as their conditioning by the previous situation; arbitrariness, i.e., the conditionality of what is accomplished by the actual goal of the subject, in contrast to field behavior; suprasituationalism, i.e. going beyond the boundaries of the preset, in contrast to adaptability as the limitation of actions within the framework of the given; effectiveness, i.e. stability in relation to the goal being realized, in contrast to passivity as a tendency of non-resistance to circumstances that must be encountered in the future. The phenomenon of A. as a unity of spontaneity, arbitrariness, supra-situationalism and effectiveness cannot be comprehended within the framework of the traditional “cause-and-effect” scheme, as well as the scheme of “target causality”. Apparently, it is necessary to single out a special type of causality, determined by the specifics of the individual’s current state at the moment of action. Such causation can be called actual. In contrast to determination from the past (usual cause-and-effect relationships) or from the possible future (target determination), in in this case the determining significance of the “moment” is emphasized. The correct form of description of this type of causality is contained in the works of Kant - in his ideas about the “interaction” (or “communication”) of substances.
V.A. Petrovsky
Update[lat. actio - action, activity] - the process and result of voluntary (intentional) or involuntary (unintentional) mental actions, consisting of retrieving learned information or experience from memory and preparing them for immediate use. For example, in order to recognize, remember, remember or directly reproduce any information, it is necessary to extract (update) from long-term or short-term memory the corresponding thoughts, images, feelings, desires, movements that have already been in the subject’s experience. In this case, A. can be easy or difficult, complete or incomplete, generalized or selective, depending on the level of preservation in memory of the information being retrieved. According to modern concepts, the process of activation is ensured by excitation of previously formed systems of temporary connections in the nervous system.
L.A. Karpenko
Allusion[lat. alludere - joke, hint] - an expression with which the speaker hints at something known historical event, literary work, image, etc., i.e. “reference to cultural tradition” (R. Barth). A. may consist in a direct mention (“the real William Tell,” “a new Moses is required,” etc.), in a hint through a similar-sounding word (“Genialissimo” by V. Voinovich) and be hidden. Hidden A. are often periphrastic (“like a biblical strongman, he lifted the Gaza Gate on himself” (A.P. Chekhov) - meaning Samson) or arranged as a riddle (for example: “Another poet in a luxurious style / Painted the first snow for us” ( A.S. Pushkin) - we are talking about P.A. Vyazemsky). According to the purpose of creation, A. neutral and parody (ironic) are distinguished; in terms of distribution - well-known and contextual. The latter are understandable only in a certain era, in a certain circle, etc., such as, for example, “curly-haired Mithreikas, wise-haired Kudreiki” - a hint from V.V. Mayakovsky on contemporary poets K.N. Mitreykin and A.A. Kudreiko. A.'s technique was widely used to disguise the meaning in conditions of censored press ("Aesopian language"). A case is possible when the perceiver sees A. where, according to the author’s intention, it is not there: for example, the saying “Here is St. George’s Day for you, grandmother,” can be perceived as a hint at serfdom.
S.A. Shapoval
Ambivalence of feelings[Greek amphi - around, about, on both sides, dual + lat. valentia - strength] - an internally contradictory emotional state or experience associated with an ambivalent attitude towards a person, object, phenomenon and characterized by simultaneous acceptance and rejection (for example, the experience of jealousy, which can combine feelings of love and hatred). The term A. ch. was proposed by the Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist E. Bleuler to designate the contradictory attitudes and reactions characteristic of schizophrenics, which quickly replace each other. The term soon became more widely used in psychology and psychiatry. Ambivalent began to be called complex contradictory feelings that appear in a person in connection with the diversity of his needs and in connection with the versatility of the very phenomena of the surrounding reality, which at the same time attract and at the same time repel, causing both negative and positive feelings. A. h. appears quite early in children in relation to surrounding objects and people. In particular, A. h. manifests itself in the phenomenon of ambivalent behavior, which is observed in many young children.
E.O. Smirnova
Analysis[Greek analysis - decomposition, dismemberment] - the process of dividing a whole into parts. A. is included in all acts of practical and cognitive interaction of the organism with the environment. In humans based practical activities the ability to carry out analysis at the level of operating with concepts has developed. But as necessary stage cognition is inextricably linked with synthesis and is one of the main operations that make up the real process of thinking.
OK. Tikhomirov
Analysis through synthesis - term of late S.L. Rubinstein, characterizing the initial universal “mechanism” (or basic form) of thinking that he and his students studied. A.h.s. means that in the process of thinking, the cognizable object is included in ever new connections and therefore appears in ever new qualities, which are fixed in new concepts; from object so. it’s as if all the new content is being sucked out; it seems to turn every time with its other side, new properties are revealed in it. For example, the same straight line segment, included in various geometric figures, appears in correspondingly different qualities: as a bisector, median, diagonal of a parallelogram, etc. A. h.s. ensures the continuity of thinking and, in general, the mental process as a process, since during the latter the cognizing subject continuously interacts with the object, and not with the signs, words, concepts, meanings, meanings, etc. (all of them, to varying degrees, express the content of this object). Thus, A. h.s. ensures not only the continuity of thinking as a process (the “same” object is included in all new connections), but also mental new formations (it also appears in new qualities). One and the same cognizable object is an inextricable unity of already known (for a given subject) and still unknown, new properties and their relationships, i.e., the old and the new belong, respectively, not to two different objects, but to one object. A.h.s. and all thinking as a whole as a process is formed by a person predominantly unconsciously, unconsciously within and in the course of thinking as an activity carried out by the subject mainly consciously (under the control of always conscious goals, etc.). A.h.s. - this is a mechanism of thinking as a process not only of an individual, but also of a group subject. When, in the course of a group solution of a problem, an object, being included in different systems of connections, appears in correspondingly new qualities, then these systems of objective essential relations are first isolated by correspondingly different individuals. Then a discussion may arise between the latter. Consequently, various systems of relations and the qualities of the object appearing in them are, as it were, personified by different individuals and therefore correlate (synthesize) with each other in subjects and through subjects. These relationships also include a person’s attitude to a cognizable object that changes in the process of thinking, because by discovering new qualities of the object, the subject at the same time more and more adequately determines their meaning for his activity and communication. As thinking progresses as a process, motivation is formed for its further progress. With this approach to the problem, meaning and significance appear primarily as different qualities of the same object revealed and experienced by the subject to varying degrees. Thus, A. h.s. - this is a mental, and not the actual speech mechanism of human thinking, which is always inextricably linked with language and speech. This is an alternative position to the one according to which not only communication, but also thinking is a function of speech, and therefore the latter is a mechanism of mental activity. There is no reason to absolutize speech so much, although it, without being divorced from thinking, is undoubtedly the most important means of communication. Thinking and its mechanism "A. h.s." - this is not a function of speech, but of a subject carrying out activities (including cognitive), communication, behavior, contemplation, etc.
A.V. Brushlinsky
Analytical psychology- the belief system of the Swiss psychologist K.G. Jung, who gave it this name in order to distinguish it from a related direction - the psychoanalysis of S. Freud. Attaching, like Freud, a decisive role in the regulation of behavior to the unconscious, Jung identified, along with its individual (personal) form, a collective form, which can never become the content of consciousness. The collective unconscious forms an autonomous mental fund, which contains the inherited (through the structure of the brain) experience of previous generations. The primary formations included in this fund - archetypes (universal human prototypes) underlie the symbolism of creativity, various rituals, dreams and complexes. As a method for analyzing hidden motives, Jung proposed a word association test: an inadequate reaction (or delayed reaction) to a stimulus word indicates the presence of a complex. AP believes that the goal of human mental development is individuation - a special integration of the contents of the collective unconscious, thanks to which the individual realizes himself as a unique indivisible whole. Although AP rejected a number of postulates of Freudianism (in particular, libido was understood not as sexual, but as any unconscious mental energy), but the methodological orientations of this direction are characterized by the same features as other branches of psychoanalysis, since the socio-historical essence of motivating forces is denied human behavior and the predominant role of consciousness in its regulation. The typology of characters proposed by Jung, according to which there are two main categories of people - extroverts (directed to the outer world) and introverts (directed to the inner world), was developed independently of AP in specific psychological research personality.
M.G. Yaroshevsky
Analogy[Greek analogos - corresponding, commensurate] - similarity between objects in some respect. The use of A. in cognition is the basis for making guesses and hypotheses. Reasoning according to A. often led to scientific discoveries. Reasoning according to A. is based on the formation and actualization of associations. A targeted search for A is also possible. Tasks to establish A are included in the content of psychodiagnostic examinations. Difficulties in finding similarities between objects on an abstract basis can serve as an indicator of insufficient development of thinking or its impairment.
OK. Tikhomirov
Questionnaire[fr. enquкte - list of questions] - a methodological tool for obtaining primary sociological and socio-psychological information, formalized in the form of a set of questions logically related to the central task of the study. Questionnaire surveys are carried out in order to find out biographical data, opinions, assessments, value orientations, attitudes, dispositions, etc.
IN AND. Slobodchikov
Anticipation[lat. anticipatio - anticipation] - the ability of a system in one form or another to foresee the development of events, phenomena, results of actions. In psychology, two semantic aspects of the concept “A.” are distinguished: 1) a person’s ability to imagine the possible result of an action before it is carried out (W. Wundt), as well as the ability of his thinking to imagine a way to solve a problem before it is actually solved; 2) the ability of the human or animal body to prepare to react to any event before its occurrence. This expectation (or “anticipatory reflection”) is usually expressed in a certain posture or movement and is provided by the mechanism of the acceptor of action results (P.K. Anokhin). A. is especially significant in creative and research activities.
L.A. Karpenko
Apperception[lat. ad - to, perceptio - perception] - the dependence of perception on past experience, on the general content of a person’s mental activity and his individual characteristics. The term A. was proposed by the German philosopher G. Leibniz, who interpreted it as a distinct (conscious) perception by the soul of a certain content. According to W. Wundt, A. is a universal explanatory principle, “internal spiritual force” that determines the course of mental processes. In contrast to these ideas about A. as an internal spontaneous activity of consciousness, modern scientific psychology interprets A. as the result of an individual’s life experience, which ensures the development of hypotheses about the characteristics of the perceived object, its meaningful perception. There is a distinction between stable A. - the dependence of perception on the existing characteristics of the individual (worldview, beliefs, education, etc.) and temporary A., in which situationally arising mental states (emotions, expectations, attitudes, etc.) are reflected.
A.V. Petrovsky
Aristotle's experience (Aristotle's illusion)- the illusion of touch, the essence of which is that if a small round object (for example, a pea) is placed between two crossed fingers (index and middle or others), then a sensation of touching not one, but two objects occurs. The illusion is enhanced by the slight sliding of crossed fingers over the object. There are known references to this phenomenon in the 17th - 19th centuries. Over time, A. o. was also described for other parts of the body: lips, tongue, ears. A. o. explained by the unusual, artificial, unnatural position of the fingers. In modern studies, considering a modified version of the A. o., a search is made for the transition point from the normal position of the fingers to the crossed one, i.e., the border where adequate tactile sensations are replaced by illusory ones. Currently, there are no convincing explanations for A. o. It is also not clear at what level of the nervous system (peripheral or central) this illusion occurs.
N.L. Morina, T.S. Pogoreltseva
Artifact[lat. artefactum - artificially made] - a fact that is not characteristic of the natural course of a given process and is caused artificially. In experimental psychology, “A” refers to data generated by the methodology itself or the conditions for studying a process and, in fact, not characteristic of it. In criminal psychology, A. refers to artificially induced (for example, for the purpose of simulation) processes and states.
A.A. Brudny
Archetype[Greek archetypos - prototype, literally "the most ancient sample"] - a way of organizing the psyche through forms that pass from generation to generation. A. is the central concept of analytical psychology. According to K. Jung, A. represents the structural elements of the human psyche, which are hidden in the collective unconscious, common to all humanity. They are inherited in the same way that body structure is inherited. A. sets the general structure of the personality and the sequence of images that emerge in consciousness when creative activity awakens, therefore spiritual life bears an archetypal imprint.
A.A. Brudny
Associative psychology (associationism)- a general name for a number of concepts and schools that considered association the main (or even the only) mechanism of functioning of consciousness and psyche, striving for a strictly deterministic way of explaining mental phenomena. The following stages can be distinguished in the development of AP. 1. Prerequisites for the emergence of AP: the identification of association as an explanatory principle for a limited range of mental phenomena and behavioral processes (IV century BC - beginning of the 18th century). The mechanism of association was used to explain the processes of remembering by Plato and Aristotle. Subsequently, the principle of association was used to explain the processes of mastering one’s passions (R. Descartes), acquiring experience (T. Hobbes), some features of the “movement of thought” (B. Spinoza), the formation of prejudices and “false ideas” (J. Locke), perception space (J. Berkeley). In D. Hume, association becomes an explanatory principle of the entire cognitive sphere of the psyche. During this period, the term “association” itself appeared (Locke). 2. “Classical associationism” (mid-18th - early 19th centuries). During this period, complete systems of artistic expression emerge, in which association becomes the explanatory principle of the entire psyche in general (D. Hartley, T. Brown, James Mill). By calling his associative concept “mental mechanics,” Mill thereby emphasized the most characteristic feature associative theories of this time: the desire to derive all the laws of mental life from inherently mechanical connections (associations) and indivisible elements (sensations or ideas). 3. Mid-19th - early 20th centuries. The beginning of the crisis of AP in theory and the development of individual ideas of AP in experimental and practical research. The theory consolidates the position that it is impossible to reduce the “laws of the spirit” to mechanical laws and puts forward the demand for a “reverse” introduction into the concept of AP of the activity of the subject, the I (“mental chemistry” of John Stuart Mill, “creative associations” of A. Bahn); Attempts are being made to consider associations in a biological (evolutionary) aspect (G. Spencer). IN experimental studies and in practice, the ideas of AP are used to explain the laws of memory (G. Ebbinghaus), in the diagnosis of pathological changes in the psyche (E. Kraepelin, Z. Bleuler), in studies of motivation (Z. Freud), in the practice of forensic examination (associative experiment) etc. 4. 1920s. The final disappearance of AP as a trend and the assimilation of its ideas in various industries psychological theory and practice. The idea that “association is not so much a “mechanism” at all, but a phenomenon, of course, fundamental, which itself requires explanation and disclosure of its mechanisms” (S.L. Rubinstein), is becoming generally accepted. Critical analysis different ideas AP was contained in almost all the main psychological trends of the 20th century.
M.G. Yaroshevsky
Association experiment- a term established in psychology to designate a special projective method for studying personal motivation. Proposed at the beginning of the twentieth century. K.G. Jung and almost simultaneously with him M. Wertheimer and D. Klein. The subject must respond to a certain set of stimulus words as quickly as possible with any word that comes to his mind. The type of associations that arise, the frequency of similar associations, latent periods (the time between the stimulus word and the subject’s response), behavioral and physiological reactions, etc. are recorded. By the nature of these data, one can judge the subject’s hidden drives and “affective complexes,” his attitudes, etc. n. In the 1920s. A.R. Luria proposed the so-called “hidden traces of affect” for diagnosing “hidden traces of affect”. conjugate motor technique, which was a modified version.
HER. Sokolova
Association[lat. associatio - connection] - a natural connection that arises in the experience of an individual between two contents of consciousness (sensations, ideas, thoughts, feelings, etc.), which is expressed in the fact that the appearance in the consciousness of one of the contents entails the appearance of the other. The phenomenon of A. was described by Plato and Aristotle, but the term “A.” proposed by J. Locke in the 17th century. In associative psychology, types of A. were identified, differing in the ways of their formation: some authors (D. Hume, J. St. Mill) identified A. by similarity (blue-blue), by contrast (black-white), by contiguity in space and in time (a random fright of a child in a dark room then causes fear of the dark), cause-and-effect (Hume): a bright flash of light - a painful sensation; others (D. Hartley, J. Mill) reduced all A. to associations by contiguity in space and time, since they denied the activity of the subject in the process of A. formation. In addition to these primary laws of A. formation, “secondary” laws were identified (T. Brown) , i.e., factors contributing to the emergence of a specific A. from the many possible at a given moment: the strength of impressions united in A., their novelty, abilities and/or pathological characteristics of the individual, etc. Subsequently, A. Ben identifies the so-called . creative A., the formation of which is explained by the “spontaneous activity of the mind”, and not by a combination of ideas obtained through experience, which contradicts the original principles of associative psychology. One can also distinguish two opposing points of view on the “mechanisms” of A.: some authors considered A. only a “shadow” of brain processes, combined according to certain physiological laws (T. Hobbes, Hartley, Mill, Bahn), others attributed the emergence of A. exclusively to the laws consciousness itself (J. Mill). Some associationists (T. Brown) took an intermediate position. Subsequently, the physiological mechanisms of A. were studied at the school of I.P. Pavlov, who explained A. by contiguity in time and space by the formation of conditioned reflexes, A. by similarity - by their generalization. Pavlov also used the concept of “reinforcement” to explain the selective formation of A. The points of view of psychologists on the role of A. in mental life also differed: some considered A. the only type of mental connections, others identified, along with A., other types of connections (“reasonable” in Locke, apperceptive in W. Wundt, etc.). The concept of A. is still widely used in the psychological literature, although it is no longer given such a broad explanatory meaning.
HER. Sokolova
Affect [lat. affectus - emotional excitement, passion] - a strong, explosive, relatively short-term emotional reaction, accompanied by pronounced changes in both the physiological state of the body and in the behavior of the individual, and developing in critical conditions when the subject is unable to find an adequate way out of dangerous, most often unexpected situations. Possessing the properties of a dominant, A. inhibits mental processes unrelated to it and imposes one or another stereotypical method of “emergency” resolution of the situation (numbness, flight, aggression), which developed in the process of biological evolution and therefore justifies itself only in typical biological conditions. Another important regulatory function of A. is the formation of specific experience - affective complexes (traces), emotionally imprinting individual elements of the situation that gave rise to A. and in the future warning of its possible repetition. In a person, A. can occur when both his biological needs are frustrated (for example, when life is threatened) and social values (when insulted, when faced with injustice). Sometimes A. occurs as a result of repeated repetition of traumatic events, which creates in a person the impression of hopelessness in relation not to a specific situation, but to his whole life; in such cases the so-called accumulation of A., as a result of which it can arise and lead to uncontrollable behavior in one of many encounters with injustice, that is, in a situation that is not exceptional. The state of A. is characterized by a narrowing of consciousness, in which the subject’s attention is completely absorbed by the circumstances that gave rise to A. and the actions imposed by them. Impairments of consciousness can lead to the inability to subsequently remember individual episodes of one’s behavior and the development of events, to a noticeable dulling of sensitivity to pain, and in the case of exceptionally severe A., result in loss of consciousness and complete amnesia. Since A. extremely limits the possibility of voluntary regulation of behavior, recommendations for overcoming it, used in pedagogical and psychotherapeutic practice, emphasize the importance of avoiding situations that generate A., imagining undesirable consequences, performing distracting actions, etc. Resistance to involvement in the state of A. depends both on the natural constitution of a person and on the level of development of the individual, his moral motivation. Diagnosis of A. is a typical task in the practice of forensic psychological examination; when solving it, in addition to the physiological state of the body and disorders of consciousness, the nature of a person’s actions in state A also serve as indicators. (impulsivity, stereotyping, lack of preparation) and the degree of their divergence from his usual behavior.
