The main stages of the formation of the Russian state. Formation of the Russian state (briefly). Stages of political unification in Rus'

The period from the end of the 13th to the 15th centuries inclusive was very difficult in the life of Rus'. The Tatar-Mongol yoke threw Rus' back and caused it to lag behind the countries of Western Europe, leaving it for a long time as a feudal country. But the development of the country, slowed down by the invasion, continued: Rus' was getting back on its feet.

Agriculture developed most rapidly in the area between the Oka and Volga, where the influx of population increased, the arable land grew, forests were cut down, cattle breeding and crafts developed

Feudal land ownership developed. The major owners of the land were princes and boyars, and there was a struggle for land and the enslavement of peasants. Craft production grew in cities, especially in Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov and other cities of northeastern Rus', protected by dense forests and a dense network of rivers and lakes.

The rise of the economy, the development of cities, and trade led to increased communication between the Russian lands and their unification, which was dictated by the struggle against external enemies, primarily against the Mongol-Tatars. For a successful struggle, a unified state with a strong government was required.

At the end of the 15th century, the concept of “Russia” (and before that – “Rus”) appeared, uniting the Russian lands

The formation of the Russian centralized state was a long process that lasted until the middle of the 16th century. Its territory consisted of the lands of the Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, Smolensk, Muromo-Ryazan principalities. And from the end of the 12th century. There was a stubborn struggle for supremacy in these lands. With XIII, the Moscow Principality also entered into this struggle. It was Moscow that became the center of gathering Russian lands. In addition to Moscow, Tver, Ryazan, and Novgorod were real contenders for this role. However, already during the reign of Ivan Kalita (1325-1340), the importance of the young Moscow principality increased immeasurably.

The main reasons for the rise of Moscow were: its relative distance from the Golden Horde; patronage of the Horde khans; the intersection of trade routes in North-Eastern Rus', etc. However, there were two main prerequisites: the transformation of Moscow into the center of the struggle for liberation from Horde rule and the transfer of the center of the Russian Orthodox Church to Moscow under Ivan Kalita.

Moscow took upon itself the organization of the fight against the yoke of the Mongol-Tatars. At the first stage of this struggle and the collection of Russian lands by Moscow, from the formation of the Moscow Principality to the beginning of the reign of Ivan Kalita and his sons, the foundations of the economic and political power of the principality were laid. At the second stage (during the reign of Dmitry Donskoy and his son Vasily I), a fairly successful military confrontation between Rus' and the Horde began. The largest battles of this period were the battles on the Vozha River (1378) and on the Kulikovo Field (1380). At the same time, the territory of the Moscow state is significantly expanding, and the international authority of the Moscow princes is growing.

Along with the military and political processes that took place in the Russian lands during the XIV-XV centuries. and lasting until the middle of the 16th century, significant socio-economic processes took place in them, which largely determined the nature, pace and features of the formation of the Russian centralized state. The essence of these processes is that, firstly, the catastrophic consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the 240th anniversary of the Golden Horde yoke delayed the economic development of Russian lands. This contributed to the preservation of feudal fragmentation; secondly, this historical period can be characterized in general as a period of formation and strengthening of feudal-serf relations, which determined the system of feudal hierarchy, political system and governance. The presence of enormous land and human resources in Rus' also contributed to the aggressive development of feudalism in depth and breadth; Thirdly; political centralization in Rus' was to significantly determine the beginning of the process of overcoming the economic disunity of the country and was accelerated by the struggle for social independence.

An important prerequisite for the unification of the Russian lands was the toast of social forces interested in the elimination of feudal fragmentation and the creation of a unified Russian state in conditions of economic growth, the growth of social development of labor, expressed in the separation of crafts from agriculture, and the development of trade.

One of these social forces was primarily the townspeople, since feudal fragmentation was a significant obstacle to the development of crafts and trade. The fact is that numerous political partitions between the principalities with their outposts and trade duties significantly complicated the exchange and free distribution of goods. Feudal strife sharply undermined the economy of cities.

The main forces of the feudal lords were also interested in creating a Russian state. For the Moscow boyars, for example, the growth of the political power of the Moscow principality and the expansion of its territory meant an increase in its own power. The middle and small feudal lords, who were entirely dependent on the Grand Duke, were even more interested and fought for a unified Russian state. The unifying tendencies were also supported by the Russian Church, which sought to consolidate its privileges throughout the country.

The trends towards overcoming the feudal fragmentation of Rus', which emerged in the 14th century, corresponded to the progressive course of historical development, since the political unification of Rus' was a necessary prerequisite for its further economic growth and achievement of state independence.

A major role in the condition of the Moscow principality, in the gathering of Russian lands around Moscow, was played by the Moscow prince Ivan Kalita - a tough and cunning, intelligent and persistent ruler in achieving his goals. For these purposes, he used the help of the Golden Horde, for which he collected huge tribute from the population. He accumulated great wealth, for which he received the nickname “Kalita” (purse, “money bag”), and used this wealth to acquire lands in foreign principalities and possessions, for which he was nicknamed “the collector of Russian lands.” Under Ivan Kalita, Moscow became the residence of the Metropolitan of “All Rus',” which was important, since the church enjoyed great influence. Kalita's position contributed to the fact that the foundation of the political and economic power of Moscow was laid and the economic rise of Rus' began.

At the third stage (1425-1462), the main goal of the struggle was the desire to seize power in the growing weight in the Moscow state. The final stage in the struggle was the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505 and Vasily III (1505-1533), when the main Russian principalities were united under the rule of Moscow. A single set of laws was adopted, government bodies were created, economic orders were established, etc.

In 1485, the Tver Principality was annexed to the Moscow Principality, in 1489 - the Vyatka Land, in 1510 - the Pskov Republic, in 1521 - the Ryazan Principality.

Under Ivan III, Moscow refused to pay tribute to the Horde, and the punitive campaign of Khan Akhmat was repulsed by the Russian army. Thus, in 1480, the yoke of the Golden Horde ended.

From the very beginning, the Russian state developed as a multinational state.

With the unification of the lands, the task of creating a centralized management system was also solved: the importance of the Boyar Duma increased (it became the permanent supreme body under the Grand Duke). At the end of the 15th century, the first order appeared as a central institution; in 1497, the Sudebnik was compiled - a collection of laws that played a large role in the centralization of public administration. He laid the foundation for the creation of a nationwide system of serfdom.

The formation of the Russian centralized state was a natural and progressive process and was of great historical significance. It contributed to the liberation of Rus' from the Horde yoke. The formation of a political center strengthened the position of the state in the international arena. The formation of a single economic space began on Russian lands. The national economy and culture began to develop faster, local isolation disappeared; the security of the country was better ensured; The influence of the church expanded.

The awareness of the Russian people as a single whole now formed the basis of the spiritual life of residents of various regions of the state.

The Moscow princes began to be called “states of all Rus'” and transfer power in the state by inheritance.

This is how the largest country in Europe was formed. From the end of the 15th century, its new name, Russia, began to be widely used. This meant that at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries a single Russian state emerged. But its education took place only in part of the ancient Russian lands, that part that consisted of principalities that became dependent on the Golden Horde. The process of unifying these lands around Moscow was at the same time a process of gradual, step-by-step liberation (the struggle for independence) from the Golden Horde oppression. And the formation of a unified Russian state was based not so much on economic and cultural ties, but on the military power of the unifying force - the Great Moscow Principality.

In the XIII-XV centuries, the main events that determined the development of the culture of Russian lands were Batu’s invasion and the establishment of Mongol-Tatar rule. The largest cultural monuments - cathedrals and monasteries, frescoes and mosaics, handicrafts - were destroyed or lost. The artisans and craftsmen themselves were killed or driven into Horde slavery. Stone construction stopped.

The formation of the Russian nationality and a single state, the struggle for liberation from the Mongols, and the creation of a single language became important factors in the development of the culture of Russian lands in the 13th-15th centuries.

The main theme of oral folk art was the fight against Horde domination. Legends about the Battle of Kalka, the devastation of Ryazan by Batu, Evpatiy Kolovrat, the exploits of Alexander Nevsky, and the Battle of Kulikovo have been preserved or have survived to this day in a revised form. All of them constituted a heroic epic. In the 14th century, epics and the power of their land were created. A new type of oral folk art appeared - a historical song that described in detail the events of which the author was a contemporary.

In works of literature, the theme of the fight against invaders was also central. At the end of the 14th century, all-Russian chronicles were resumed.

From the end of the 13th century, a revival of stone construction began. It developed more actively in the lands that were least affected by the invasion. Novgorod became one of the centers of culture in these years, whose architects built the Church of St. Nicholas and the Church of Fyodor Stratilates. These temples marked the emergence of a special architectural style, characterized by a combination of simplicity and majesty. In Moscow, stone construction began during the time of Ivan Kalita, when the Assumption Cathedral was founded in the Kremlin, which became the cathedral (main) temple of Rus'. At the same time, the Annunciation Cathedral and the Archangel Cathedral (the tomb of Moscow rulers) were created.

Russian culture, which suffered during the Mongol invasion, began its revival at the end of the 13th century. Literature, architecture and fine art of this time were permeated with the idea of the struggle to overthrow Horde rule and form the foundations of all-Russian culture.

The formation of the Russian centralized state took place in several stages:

The rise of Moscow - the end of the 13th - beginning of the 11th centuries;
Moscow is the center of the fight against the Mongol-Tatars (second half of the 11th - first half of the 15th centuries);
Completion of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow under Ivan III and Vasily III - the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries.

Stage 1. Rise of Moscow. By the end of the 13th century, the old cities of Rostov, Suzdal, and Vladimir were losing importance. The new cities of Moscow and Tver are rising. The rise of Tver began after the death of Alexander Nevsky (1263), when his brother, the Tver prince Yaroslav, received from the Tatars a label for the Great Reign of Vladimir.

The beginning of the rise of Moscow is associated with the name of the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniil (1276-1303). Alexander Nevsky distributed honorary inheritances to his eldest sons, and Daniil, as the youngest, inherited the small village of Moscow and its surrounding area on the far border of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Daniil rebuilt Moscow, developed agriculture and started crafts. The territory grew three times and Moscow became a principality, and Daniil was the most authoritative prince in the entire North-East.

Stage 2. Moscow is the center of the fight against the Mongol-Tatars. The strengthening of Moscow continued under the children of Ivan Kalita - Simeon Gordom (1340-1353) and Ivan 2 the Red (1353-1359). This would inevitably lead to a clash with the Tatars. The clash occurred under the grandson of Ivan Kalita, Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1359-1389). Dmitry Donskoy received the throne at the age of 9 after the death of his father Ivan 2 the Red. Under the young prince, the position of Moscow was shaken, but he was supported by the powerful Moscow boyars and the head of the Russian church, Metropolitan Alexei. The Metropolitan was able to obtain from the khans that the great reign would henceforth be transferred only to the princes of the Moscow princely house.

This increased the authority of Moscow, and after Dmitry Donskoy built the Kremlin of white stone in Moscow at the age of 17, the authority of the Moscow Principality became even higher. The Moscow Kremlin became the only stone fortress in the entire Russian Northeast. He became unapproachable.

In the mid-14th century, the Horde entered a period of feudal fragmentation. Independent hordes began to emerge from its composition, which waged a fierce struggle for power among themselves. All khans demanded tribute and obedience from Rus'. Tensions arose in relations between Russia and the Horde.

Stage 3. Completion of the formation of the Russian centralized state. The unification of Russian lands was completed under the great-grandson of Dmitry Donskoy, Ivan 3 (1462-1505) and Vasily 3 (1505-1533).

Under Ivan 3:

1) Annexation of the entire North-East of Rus'

2) In 1463 - Yaroslavl Principality

3) In 1474 - Rostov Principality

4) After several campaigns in 1478 - the final liquidation of the independence of Novgorod

5) The Mongol - Tatar yoke has been thrown off. In 1476, Rus' refused to pay tribute. Then Khan Akhmat decided to punish Rus' and entered into an alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir and set out on a campaign against Moscow with a large army. In 1480, the troops of Ivan 3 and Khan Akhmat met along the banks of the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka). Akhmat did not dare to cross to the other side. Ivan 3 took a wait-and-see attitude. Help for the Tatars did not come from Casimir, and both sides understood that the battle was pointless. The power of the Tatars dried up, and Rus' was already different. And Khan Akhmat led his troops back to the steppe. This was the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

6) After the overthrow of the yoke, the unification of Russian lands continued at an accelerated pace. In 1485, the independence of the Tver Principality was liquidated.

Under Vasily 3, Pskov (1510) and the Ryazan Principality (1521) were annexed.

In the XIII-XIV centuries, the prerequisites for the formation of a Russian centralized state—economic and political—were formed. The starting point in the development of the feudal economy was the rapid development of agriculture, and abandoned lands were being reclaimed. There was an urgent need for more new, more advanced tools, which led to the separation of crafts from agriculture, and hence the growth of cities. There is a process of exchange in the form of trade between the artisan and the farmer, ᴛ.ᴇ. between city and countryside.

The division of labor between separate regions of the country required the political unification of Russian lands. Nobles, merchants, and artisans were especially interested in this. Strengthening economic ties was one of the reasons for the formation of a unified Russian state. During this period, the exploitation of peasants intensifies, which leads to an intensification of the class struggle. The feudal lords strive to legally subjugate the peasants and secure them in their property. Only a centralized state can perform this function. The threat of attack from outside accelerated the process of centralization of the Russian state, because All layers of society were interested in the fight against the external enemy.

In the process of formation of a unified Russian state, three stages can be distinguished.

Back in the 12th century, there was a tendency towards the unification of lands under the rule of one prince in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

The first stage (end of the 13th century) – the rise of Moscow, the beginning of unification. Moscow is becoming the main contender to be considered the center of Russian lands.
The second stage (1389-1462) – the fight against the Mongol-Tatars. Strengthening Moscow.
The third stage (1462-1505) is the completion of the formation of a unified Russian state. The Mongol-Tatar yoke was overthrown, the process of unification of Rus' was completed.

Unlike the countries of Western Europe, the formation of the Russian centralized state had its own characteristics:

The unification took place against the backdrop of late feudalism, and not flourishing as in Europe;
The unification of Russian lands was led by the Moscow princes, and in Europe by the urban bourgeoisie;
First of all, Rus' united for political reasons, and then for economic ones, while for European countries the main ones were economic reasons.

He became the first Tsar of all Rus' and the highest judge Ivan IV Vasilievich the Terrible, son Vasily 3. The appanage princes were now under the control of proteges from Moscow.

A young centralized state in the 16th century. became known as Russia. The country has entered a new stage of its development.

Formation of the Russian centralized state

Agriculture developed most rapidly in the area between the Oka and Volga, where the influx of population increased, the arable land grew, forests were cut down, cattle breeding and crafts developed

At the end of the 15th century, the concept of “Russia” (and before that – “Rus”) appeared, uniting the Russian lands

The Tver Principality was annexed to the Moscow Principality, in 1489 - the Vyatka Land, in 1510 - the Pskov Republic, in 1521 - the Ryazan Principality.

Under Ivan III, Moscow refused to pay tribute to the Horde, and the punitive campaign of Khan Akhmat was repulsed by the Russian army. Thus, in 1480, the yoke of the Golden Horde ended.

From the very beginning, the Russian state developed as a multinational state.

The awareness of the Russian people as a single whole now formed the basis of the spiritual life of residents of various regions of the state.

The Moscow princes began to be called “states of all Rus'” and transfer power in the state by inheritance.

In works of literature, the theme of the fight against invaders was also central. At the end of the 14th century, all-Russian chronicles were resumed.

The formation of the Russian state was an objective and natural process of further development of state forms on the territory of the East European Plain. The formation of Russian statehood was greatly influenced by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which led, in particular, to changes in the authorities: the strengthening of monarchical, autocratic principles in the person of the princes. Important reasons for the emergence and development of a new state form - a unified Russian state - were economic and social changes, as well as the foreign policy factor: the need for constant defense from enemies. The chronological proximity of the formation of a unified Russian state and centralized monarchies in Western Europe is often noted. Indeed, the formation of a single state in Rus', as in France and Spain, occurred in the second half of the 15th century. However, in socio-economic terms, Rus' was at an earlier stage of development. In Western Europe in the 15th century, seigneurial relations dominated, and the personal dependence of peasants was weakened. In Rus', state-feudal forms still prevailed; relations of personal dependence of peasants on feudal lords were just taking shape. Unlike Western Europe, where cities played an active role in political life, in Rus' they were in a subordinate position in relation to the feudal nobility. Thus, in Rus' there were no sufficient socio-economic prerequisites for the formation of a single state.

The leading role in its formation was played by the foreign policy factor - the need to confront the Horde and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. This “advanced” (in relation to socio-economic development) nature of the process determined the peculiarities of the development that took shape towards the end of the 15th – 16th centuries. state: strong monarchical power, strict dependence of the ruling class on it, a high degree of exploitation of direct producers.
Decisive steps in creating a unified Russian state were taken by the son of Vasily the Dark, Ivan III. Ivan remained on the throne for 43 years. The blind father early made Ivan co-ruler and grand duke, and he quickly acquired worldly experience and the habit of business. Ivan, who began as one of the appanage princes, became in his life the sovereign of a single nationality.
By the mid-70s, the Yaroslavl and Rostov principalities were finally annexed to Moscow. After 7 years of diplomatic and military struggle in 1478

Formation of the Russian centralized state

Ivan III managed to subjugate the vast Novgorod Republic. At this time, the veche was liquidated, the symbol of Novgorod freedom - the veche bell - was taken to Moscow. The confiscation of Novgorod lands, unprecedented in its scale, began. They were handed over to the servants of Ivan III. Finally, in 1485, as a result of a military campaign, the Tver Principality was annexed to Moscow. From now on, the overwhelming part of the northeastern Russian lands was part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Ivan III began to be called the Sovereign of All Rus'. In general, a single state was created and finally asserted its independence.
Already in 1476, Ivan III refused to travel to the Horde and send gifts. In 1480, the Nogai Horde emerged from the Great Horde. At the end of the first quarter of the 15th century, the Crimean Khanate was formed, in the second quarter - the khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian. Horde Khan Akhmat moved to Rus'. He entered into an alliance with the Lithuanian prince Casimir and assembled an army of 100,000. Ivan III hesitated for a long time, making a choice between an open fight against the Mongols and accepting the humiliating terms of surrender proposed by Akhmat. But by the fall of 1480, he managed to come to an agreement with his rebellious brothers, and the newly annexed Novgorod became calmer. In early October, the rivals met on the banks of the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka). Casimir did not appear on the battlefield, and Akhmat waited in vain for him. Meanwhile, early snow covered the grass, the cavalry became useless and the Tatars retreated. Khan Akhmat soon died in the Horde, and the Golden Horde finally ceased to exist. The 240-year-old Horde yoke fell.
The name “Russia” is the Greek, Byzantine name of Rus'. It came into use in Muscovite Rus' in the second half of the 15th century, when, after the fall of Constantinople and the liquidation of the Horde yoke, the Grand Duchy of Moscow, being the only independent Orthodox state, was considered by its rulers as the ideological and political heir of the Byzantine Empire.
During the reign of Ivan III's son, Vasily III, the Russian state continued to grow rapidly. In 1510, the Pskov land became part of it, and in 1521, the Ryazan principality. As a result of wars with Lithuania at the end of the 15th - first quarter of the 16th centuries. Smolensk and partially Chernigov lands were annexed. Thus, in the first third of the 16th century, Russian lands that were not part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were annexed to Moscow.
Byzantium had a significant influence on the emergence of autocracy and the formation of Russian political ideology. In 1472, Ivan III married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Paleologus. The double-headed eagle, a symbol common in Byzantium, becomes the state emblem of Russia. Even the appearance of the sovereign changed: he had a scepter and an orb in his hands, and a “Monomakh’s hat” on his head. The fall of Byzantium under the blows of the Ottoman Turks made Russia the last stronghold of Orthodoxy and contributed to a certain ideologization of the supreme state power. From the 16th century The idea of Moscow as the “third Rome” is spreading, in which religious and political motives are especially closely intertwined. The Pskov monk Philotheus, in a letter to Vasily III, argued that the “first Rome” fell because of heresies, the “second” - because of the union with Catholicism, the “third,” truly Christian Rome, stands, “but there will not be a fourth.” Thus, the preservation of Orthodoxy was seen as the most important condition for national independence and state power, and the Russian sovereigns acted as guardians of the faith.
The system of central and state governing bodies was formed by: the advisory Boyar Duma, which combined the highest legislative, military-administrative and judicial functions, and two executive bodies - the Sovereign's Palace and the Sovereign's Treasury. There was no clear distribution of management functions. Basically, the Palace was in charge of the sovereign's lands. The treasury was primarily in charge of the state press, finances and foreign policy. The formation of the state apparatus and its centralization was facilitated by the Code of Laws of Ivan III; it was adopted in 1497 and was the first set of Russian laws.
The system of administrative-territorial division was gradually streamlined. Ivan III limited the rights of appanage princes, and Vasily III reduced the number of appanages. By the end of the first third of the 16th century, there were only two of them left. Instead of the former independent principalities, counties appeared, governed by the governors of the Grand Duke. Then the counties began to be divided into camps and volosts, which were headed by volostels. The governors and volosts received the territory for “feeding”, i.e. took for themselves court fees and part of the taxes collected in this territory. Feeding was a reward not for administrative activities, but for previous service in the army. Therefore, the governors had no incentive to engage in active administrative activities. Since they had no experience in administrative work, they often delegated their powers to tiuns - assistants from the slaves.
It should be emphasized that from the very beginning of its existence, the Russian state demonstrated an expansion of borders unprecedented in scale and speed. With the accession of Ivan III to the throne and until the death of his son Vasily III, i.e. from 1462 to 1533, the territory of the state grew six and a half times - from 430,000 square meters. kilometers up to 2,800,000 sq. kilometers.
Thus, despite the chronological proximity of the periods of formation of centralized monarchies in Russia and Western Europe, the Russian state differed from Western ones in its colossal territory, which was constantly growing, multinationality and some features of the organization of power. These features of the Russian state were determined not only by its geopolitical position, but also by the specifics of its creation. Let us remember that a single state was formed in our country thanks mainly to foreign policy factors, and not to new elements in socio-economic development. Therefore, Russian sovereigns, unlike Western European monarchs, relied not on cities, not on contradictions between feudal lords and the third estate, but on the military-bureaucratic apparatus and, to some extent, on the patriotic and religious feelings of the people.
In all of Russian history, there is no event or process comparable in significance to the formation of the Moscow State at the turn of the 15th – 16th centuries. These half centuries are a pivotal time in the fate of the Russian people. The conditions under which and how the formation of the Moscow state took place predetermined the social, political and cultural history of not only the Russian people, but in many ways all the peoples of Eastern Europe.

Features of formation

Russian centralized state

The formation of the Russian centralized state chronologically coincides with the formation of monarchies in a number of Western European countries. However, the content of this process had its own specifics.

On the European continent, as a result of acute political and religious struggle, national-territorial states of a secular type with a rational worldview and personal autonomy were formed. This was due to the formation of a civil society and the limitation of government rights by law. This trend was personified by England, France, and Sweden. In the first half of the 17th century, the Holy Roman Empire, a stronghold of the medieval type of development, collapsed, turning into a conglomerate of independent states.

During the same period, a special type of feudal society was formed in Russia, different from the general European one, with an autocracy at its head, strict dependence on the monarchical power of the ruling class, and a high degree of exploitation of the peasantry.

As Klyuchevsky notes, the unification of Russian lands around Moscow led to a radical change in the political significance of this city and the great Moscow princes. They, the recent rulers of one of the Russian principalities, found themselves at the head of the largest state in Europe. The emergence of a single state created favorable conditions for the development of the national economy and for repelling external enemies. The inclusion of a number of non-Russian nationalities into a single state created conditions for the growth of ties between these nationalities and the higher-level economy and culture of Russia.

So, what influenced the creation of a centralized state in Russia? Let's consider some points:

¨ Geographical position

In comparison with Tver, the Moscow Principality occupied a more advantageous central position in relation to other Russian lands. The river and land routes passing through its territory gave Moscow the significance of the most important hub of trade and other connections between Russian lands.

Moscow became in the 14th century. a large trade and craft center. Moscow artisans gained fame as skilled masters of foundry, blacksmithing and jewelry. It was in Moscow that Russian artillery was born and received its baptism of fire. Trade ties of Moscow merchants stretched far beyond the borders of Russian lands. Covered from the north-west of Lithuania by the Tver Principality, and from the east and south-east of the Golden Horde by other Russian lands, the Moscow Principality was to a lesser extent subjected to sudden ruinous raids of the Golden Horde. This allowed the Moscow princes to gather and accumulate strength, gradually create superiority in material and human resources, which allowed them to act as organizers and leaders of the unification process and liberation struggle. The geographical position of the Moscow principality also predetermined its role as the ethnic core of the emerging Great Russian nation. All this, combined with the purposeful and flexible policy of the Moscow princes in relations with the Golden Horde and other Russian lands, ultimately determined the victory of Moscow for the role of the leader and political center of the formation of a unified Russian state.

¨ Economic situation

From the beginning of the 14th century. the fragmentation of Russian lands stops, giving way to their unification. This was caused primarily by the strengthening of economic ties between Russian lands, which was a consequence of the general economic development of the country.

At this time, intensive development of agriculture began. But the rise was due not so much to the development of labor tools as to the expansion of cultivated areas through the development of new and previously abandoned lands. Increasing the surplus product in agriculture makes it possible to develop livestock farming, as well as sell bread externally. The increasing need for agricultural tools determines the necessary development of crafts. As a result, the process of separating crafts from agriculture is going deeper and deeper. It entails the need for exchange between peasant and artisan, that is, between city and countryside. This exchange takes place in the form of trade, which in this period intensifies accordingly and entails the creation of local markets. The natural division of labor between individual regions of the country, due to their natural characteristics, forms economic ties on the scale of all of Rus'. The establishment of these connections also contributed to the development of foreign trade. All this urgently required the political unification of the Russian lands, that is, the creation of a centralized state.

¨ Political situation

Another factor that determined the unification of the Russian lands was the intensification of the class struggle, the strengthening of class resistance of the peasantry. The rise of the economy and the opportunity to obtain an ever-increasing surplus product encourage the feudal lords to intensify the exploitation of the peasants. Moreover, the feudal lords strive not only economically, but also legally to secure the peasants in their estates and estates, to enslave them.

Such a policy caused natural resistance among the peasantry, which took on various forms. Peasants kill feudal lords, seize their property, and set fire to their estates. Such a fate often befalls not only secular, but also spiritual feudal lords—monasteries. Sometimes a form of class struggle was a battle directed against the masters. The flight of peasants is taking on certain proportions, especially to the south, to lands free from landowners. In such conditions, the feudal lords are faced with the task of keeping the peasantry in check and completing enslavement. This task could only be solved by a powerful centralized state, capable of performing the main function of the exploitative state - suppressing the resistance of the exploited masses.

¨ Ideology

The Russian Church was the bearer of national Orthodox ideology, which played an important role in the formation of powerful Rus'. In order to build an independent state and bring foreigners into the fold of the Christian Church, Russian society needed to strengthen its moral strength. Sergius dedicated his life to this. He builds a Trinity temple, seeing in it a call for the unity of the Russian land, in the name of a higher reality. In a religious shell, heretical movements represented a unique form of protest. At a church council in 1490, heretics were cursed and excommunicated.

In the very first years of his reign, Ivan Kalita gave moral significance to Moscow by transferring the metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow. Back in 1299, Metropolitan Maxim of Kiev left Kyiv for Vladimir-on-Klyazma. The Metropolitan was supposed to visit the southern Russian dioceses from Vladimir from time to time.

The formation of a centralized state in Rus' briefly

On these trips he stopped at a crossroads in Moscow. Metropolitan Maxim was succeeded by Peter (1308). A close friendship began between Metropolitan Peter and Ivan Kalita. Together they laid the stone foundation for the Cathedral of the Assumption in Moscow. When visiting Moscow, Metropolitan Peter lived in his diocesan town in the ancient courtyard of Prince Yuri Dolgoruky, from where he later moved to the place where the Assumption Cathedral was soon founded. It was in this town that he died in 1326. Peter’s successor, Theognost, no longer wanted to live in Vladimir and settled in the new metropolitan courtyard in Moscow.

Personal factor

V. O. Klyuchevsky notes that all the Moscow princes before Ivan III are like two peas in a pod. Some individual characteristics are noticeable in their activities. However, following the succession of Moscow princes, one can discern in their appearance only typical family traits.

The founder of the dynasty of Moscow princes was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniel. Under him, the rapid growth of the Moscow Principality began. In 1301, Daniil Alexandrovich captured Kolomna from the Ryazan princes, and in 1302, according to the will of the childless Pereslavl prince, who was at enmity with Tver, the Pereslavl principality passed to him. In 1303, Mozhaisk, which was part of the Smolensk Principality, was annexed, as a result of which the Moskva River, which was then an important trade route, ended up from source to mouth within the Moscow Principality. In three years, the Moscow principality almost doubled in size, became one of the largest and strongest principalities in North-Eastern Rus', and the Moscow prince Yuri Daniilovich considered himself strong enough to join the fight for the great reign of Vladimir.

Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver, who received the label for the great reign in 1304, strove for absolute rule in “all Rus'”, subordination of Novgorod and other Russian lands by force. He was supported by the church and its head, Metropolitan Maxim, who in 1299 moved his residence from devastated Kyiv to Vladimir. Mikhail Yaroslavich's attempt to take Pereslavl from Yuri Danilovich led to a protracted and bloody struggle between Tver and Moscow, in which the issue was already being decided not so much about Pereslavl, but about political supremacy in Rus'. In 1318, through the machinations of Yuri Daniilovich, Mikhail Yaroslavich was killed in the Horde, and the label for the great reign was transferred to the Moscow prince. However, in 1325, Yuri Daniilovich was killed in the Horde by one of the sons of Mikhail Yaroslavich, who avenged his father’s death, and the label for the great reign was again in the hands of the Tver princes.

During the reign of Kalita, the Moscow principality was finally determined as the largest and strongest in North-Eastern Rus'. Since the time of Kalita, a close alliance has been formed between the Moscow grand princely government and the church, which played a large role in the formation of a centralized state. Kalita's ally, Metropolitan Peter, moved his residence from Vladimir to Moscow (1326), which became the ecclesiastical center of all Rus', which further strengthened the political positions of the Moscow princes.

In relations with the Horde, Kalita continued the line outlined by Alexander Nevsky of external observance of vassal obedience to the khans, regular payment of tribute, so as not to give them grounds for new invasions of Rus', which almost completely ceased during his reign. “And from then on there was great silence for 40 years and the abominations ceased to fight the Russian land and slaughter Christians, and the Christians rested and set in motion from great languor and many hardships about Tatar violence...” the chronicler wrote, assessing Kalita’s reign.

The Russian lands received the respite they needed to restore and boost their economy and accumulate strength for the upcoming struggle to overthrow the yoke.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. The more than two-century struggle of the Russian people for their state unity and national independence ended with the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow into a single state.

Despite the commonality of socio-economic and political facts underlying the state-political centralization that took place in the 13th–15th centuries. In many European countries, the formation of the Russian centralized state had its own significant features. The catastrophic consequences of the Mongol invasion delayed the economic development of Rus' and marked the beginning of its lag behind the advanced Western European countries that escaped the Mongol yoke. Rus' bore the brunt of the Mongol invasion. Its consequences largely contributed to the preservation of feudal fragmentation and the strengthening of feudal-serf relations. Political centralization in Rus' significantly preceded the beginning of the process of overcoming the economic disunity of the country and was accelerated by the struggle for national independence and for organizing resistance to external aggression. The tendency towards unification manifested itself in all Russian lands. The Russian state was formed during the 14th–15th centuries. on a feudal basis in conditions of the growth of feudal land ownership and economy, the development of serfdom and the intensification of the class struggle. The unification process ended with the formation at the end of the 15th century. feudal-serf monarchy.

The main territory of the Russian state, which emerged at the end of the 15th century, consisted of the Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod-Pskov, Smolensk and Murom-Ryazan lands, as well as part of the lands of the Chernigov principality. The territorial core of the formation of the Russian nationality and the Russian state was the Vladimir-Suzdal land (see: History of the USSR since ancient times... P. 138).

The socio-economic development of Rus' during this period was varied. According to a number of scientists, in the XIV–XV centuries. In Rus', the pre-Mongol level of agricultural development was restored. Its most rapid restoration and development took place in the northeastern Russian lands, the population of which increased due to the flight of peasants and townspeople to the fertile southern lands, which the Mongol-Tatars turned into huge deserted pastures for nomadic cattle breeding. The free peasant community was almost completely absorbed by the feudal state.

The main form of large feudal land ownership in Rus' in the 14th century. was fiefdom- princely, boyar, church.

However, even in the second half of the 15th century. in northeastern Rus', the so-called “black” lands prevailed, which were characterized by communal land ownership of peasants with individual ownership of a personal plot and arable land, as well as the presence of elected peasant volost self-government under the control of the princely administration. Large tracts of black lands were located in the northern regions of the country, where feudal land ownership was just beginning to penetrate.

Among the huge mass of the peasantry, two categories clearly stood out: black peasants, living in communities in villages that did not belong to individual feudal lords, and proprietary peasants, living on allotment lands in the feudal fiefdom system.

Owning peasants were personally dependent on the feudal lord, but the degree of this feudal dependence varied in different regions. The peasants still retained the right to freely move from one feudal lord to another, but in practice this right increasingly turned out to be formal.

In the XIV century. the system of the Russian feudal hierarchy included four descending levels. On top On the steps sat the great princes - the supreme rulers of the Russian land. Second The level was occupied by the vassals of the Grand Duke - appanage princes who had the rights of sovereign rulers within the limits of their appanages. On third At the next level there were vassals of appanage princes - boyars and service princes who had lost the rights of appanage princes, in other words, large feudal landowners. On inferior The levels of the feudal hierarchy were the servants who managed the princely household, making up the princely and boyar administration.

During the same period, church land ownership expanded very quickly.

The involvement of the entire rural population in the system of feudal relations led to the disappearance of many terms that in the past denoted various categories of the rural population ("people", "smerds", "outcasts"), and the appearance by the end of the 14th century. a new term “peasants”, which indicated the acquisition by various categories of the rural population of a number of common features characteristic of the peasantry as a class. This name has survived to this day.

The rise of agriculture is also associated with the restoration of cities that suffered most from the Mongol invasion. The development of productive forces in cities was manifested primarily in the growth of handicraft production, in the emergence of new large centers of craft in cities such as Moscow, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Kostroma, etc. Market connections between cities and regions in the 14th–15th centuries. were very narrow. The city trade served mainly as a place for natural exchange and sale of products of city artisans and agricultural and craft products delivered from feudal estates.

The Russian city in this period was a complex socio-economic organism, the center of a feudal political organization. Cities were at the forefront of the development of productive forces, the social division of labor, commodity production and commodity-money relations, which created the preconditions for the formation of bourgeois relations within the feudal system. However, all together these phenomena appeared in the history of Rus' somewhat later. Under these conditions, the process of creating a single centralized state took place.

By the end of the 15th century. conditions have arisen for the transition of the unification process to the final stage - the formation of a single centralized Russian state. This stage lasted for approximately half a century during the reign of Ivan III (1462–1505) and the first years of the reign of his successor Vasily III (1505–1533). In these years, a major obstacle to the formation of a centralized Russian state was the existence of a strong and independent Novgorod feudal republic. Only by 1485 did Ivan III manage to liquidate the Novgorod Republic and incorporate its lands into the Russian state. Somewhat later, in 1483, the Vyatka land became part of the Russian state, and at the end of the 15th century. and the beginning of the 16th century. - Chernigo-Seversky lands, lands along the banks of the Desna with its tributaries, part of the lower reaches of the Sodzh and the upper reaches of the Dnieper - the cities of Chernigov, Bryansk, Rylsk, Putivl. A total of 25 cities and 70 volosts (History of the USSR. P. 189). In 1510, the lands of the abolished Pskov Republic were included in the Russian state, and four years later the ancient Russian city of Smolensk entered. Finally, in 1521, the Ryazan principality ceased to exist independently. It was during the years under review that the unification of Russian lands was completed. A huge power was formed, within which the Russian people were united. From the end of the 15th century. The term “Russia” began to be used, which meant one of the largest states in Europe.

The state united around Moscow represented a qualitatively new stage in the development of statehood. The area of the created state was almost 6 times larger than the former Principality of Moscow. State functions have become more complex in both internal and external affairs. Functional governing bodies appeared, separate from the palace economy, and a multi-level layer of service (or government) people was formed.

Service people - nobles, being the support of the Grand Duke in his fight against the boyars, received from him estates, which were assigned to the nobles only for the duration of their service. Therefore, the nobles were interested in supporting the grand ducal power. The Grand Duke, in turn, breaking the resistance of the opposition boyars, expanded local land ownership and allocated the newly annexed lands to the nobles.

Serious changes also took place in the army. Feudal squads supplied by the boyars now played a secondary role in it. Its main force now consisted of the militia of nobles, noble cavalry, foot regiments equipped with firearms, and artillery.

The creation of a unified state had a serious impact on the development of the country's economy and social system. The nature of land ownership of princes is changing. He is getting closer and closer to boyar land ownership. Due to the fragmentation of old feudal estates, part of the feudal lords moved to new places. These feudal settlers later began to be called landowners, and their possessions - estates. The political system of the Russian state at the turn of the 15th–16th centuries. is evolving towards greater centralization. The Moscow Grand Duke already systematically began to use the title “sovereign”. In 1472, the widowed Ivan III married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Paleologus. After this event, the Byzantine double-headed eagle became the grand ducal coat of arms.

With the increase in the functions of public administration, the need arose to create special institutions that would directly manage military, foreign, financial, judicial and other affairs. In the ancient bodies of the palace administration, special departmental “tables” began to be formed, controlled by clerks. Later they developed into orders. The order system was a typical manifestation of the feudal organization of government. It was based on the ancient principles of the inseparability of judicial and administrative powers. In order to centralize and unify the procedure for judicial and administrative activities throughout the entire state, the Code of Law of Ivan III was compiled in 1497.

The country was divided into counties, and the boundaries of the counties went back to the borders of the former principalities. Power in the district belonged to the governors, who received control of the territories “in feeding”; they were entitled to court fees and a certain part of taxes.

A generalization of the above indicates that in the second half of the 15th - first third of the 16th centuries. An autocratic monarchy was established in Russia, in which the Grand Duke had full political power. However, a ramified state apparatus had not yet developed, which in fact limited the capabilities of the central government.

Reasons and prerequisites for the formation of a centralized state.

At the end of the 13th century. the formation of a centralized state begins. This process actually continued until the 15th century. Feature The unification process was that the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion delayed the economic development of Russian lands and contributed to the conservation of feudal fragmentation. Political centralization significantly outpaced the beginning of overcoming economic disunity and was accelerated by the struggle for national independence.

One of the prerequisites for centralization was the approximate synchronicity in the development of all principalities.

Reasons the formation of a centralized state was the growth and development of feudal land ownership, and the absorption of the peasant community by the feudal lords (the feudal lords were interested in creating a centralized apparatus of power to suppress the resistance of the peasants); the rise of cities (city residents were interested in eliminating feudal fragmentation, which impeded free trade); princely strife devastated peasant lands, so the peasants were also interested in stabilizing power.

In addition, the patrimonial owners (boyars) were interested in the unity of the country, since, for example, they did not have the right to buy land outside the borders of their principality.

Stages of formation of a centralized state.

Conventionally, the process of formation of a centralized state can be divided into three periods:

1) The end of the XIII - first half of the XIV centuries - the movement of the economic center to the North-East; strengthening of the Moscow and Tver principalities, the struggle between them; the growth of the territory of the Moscow Principality, its victory over Tver.

2) II half of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries - defeat by Moscow in the 60-70s. its main rivals and the transition from the assertion of political supremacy to the state unification of Russian lands around Moscow. Moscow's organization of a nationwide struggle to overthrow the Horde yoke. The feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century was the defeat of a coalition of appanage princes who tried to defend the independence of their principalities.

3) Second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries. - subordination of Novgorod to Moscow; completion of the unification of lands around Moscow; elimination of the Mongol-Tatar yoke; registration of statehood.

The fight between Moscow and Tver.

At the end of the 13th century. the center of economic life is moving to the Northeast. About 14 principalities arose here, of which the most significant were: Suzdal, Gorodets, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Pereyaslavl, Tver and Moscow. However, most of them could not maintain their political independence for long and were forced to submit, one way or another, to a stronger neighbor.

The main rivals at the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV centuries. become Moscow and Tver.

The founder of the dynasty of Moscow princes was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky. Daniel (1271-1303). The Tver principality in 1247 was received by the younger brother of Alexander Nevsky, Yaroslav Yaroslavich.

At the first stage, both principalities fought to increase their territories.

Alexander Nevsky allocated the Moscow principality to his youngest son when Daniil was only two years old, so until 1271 the principality was ruled by the governors of the Grand Duke of Vladimir. From the beginning of the 80s, Daniil began to actively participate in the struggle of his brothers (princes Dmitry Pereyaslavsky and Andrei Gorodetsky) for the reign of Vladimir. In 1301, Daniel captured Kolomna from the Ryazan princes; in 1302, according to the will of the childless" Pereyaslavl prince Ivan Dmitrievich, who was at enmity with Tver, the Pereyaslavl principality passed to him; in 1303, Mozhaisk was annexed. Thus, in the interfluve of the Oka and Volga, the Moscow principality was formed, which included four cities, each of which had its own fortress-kremlin. In Moscow itself, two fortified monasteries were built - Epiphany, next to the Kremlin, and Danilov (founded in 1298) - in the south, on the road along which the Tatars most often approached the city. g., before his death, Prince Daniil became a monk at the Donskoy Monastery.

After the death of Daniel, the Principality of Moscow passes to his eldest son, Yuri (1303-1325), who, after the death of the Grand Duke of Vladimir Andrei Yaroslavich, enters the struggle for the grand-ducal throne.

In 1304, Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver received a label from the Horde for a great reign.

In 1315, Yuri Danilovich went to the Horde. Having married the sister of Uzbek Khan, Konchak (Agafya), and promising to increase the tribute from Russian lands, he finally received the label for the great reign. But the Tver prince did not obey the khan’s decision and started a war against Yuri. In December 1318, in a battle near the village of Borteneva, Mikhail defeated Yuri’s squad and captured his wife. Agafya died in captivity, and Yuri blamed Mikhail for her death. The Tver prince was summoned to the Horde and killed. The Moscow prince received the label for the great reign in 1319.

But in 1325, Yuri Danilovich was killed in the Horde by the Tver prince Dmitry Mikhailovich. Khan executed Dmitry, but the label was again transferred to Tver (Prince Alexander Mikhailovich).

Ivan Kalita.

The youngest son of Daniil Alexandrovich, Ivan Kalita (1325-1341), becomes the Prince of Moscow.

In 1326, Metropolitan Peter moved his residence from Vladimir to Moscow. It was officially moved under Theognostus in 1328. In 1327, an uprising against the Horde broke out in Tver. The Tatar took the horse from the local deacon, and he called on his fellow countrymen for help. People came running and rushed at the Tatars. Baskak Chol Khan and his entourage took refuge in the princely palace, but it was set on fire along with the Horde. Prince Alexander Mikhailovich initially tried to dissuade the townspeople from the uprising, but in the end he was forced to join them.

Ivan Danilovich, together with the Horde troops, came to Tver and suppressed the uprising. The Tver prince fled to Pskov, but Metropolitan Theognost, an ally of Kalita, cursed the Pskovites and excommunicated them. Alexander Mikhailovich had to flee to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Having defeated the uprising in Tver, Ivan Kalita in 1328 received the label for the Great Reign of Vladimir. In addition, he receives the right to collect tribute 6 Russian principalities and delivering it to the Horde.

Under Ivan Kalita, the boundaries of the Moscow Principality expanded significantly; The Galich, Uglich, and Beloozersk principalities submitted to him. Active construction is underway - four stone churches are being built in the Moscow Kremlin: the Assumption Cathedral (1326), the Church of Ivan Climacus (1329), the Church of the Savior on the Bor (1330), the Archangel Cathedral (1333).

Historians have different assessments of the role of Ivan Kalita in the formation of a centralized state. Some believe that Ivan Kalita did not set himself any major state goals, but pursued only selfish goals of enriching himself and strengthening his personal power. Others, on the contrary, believe that he sought to make the Moscow principality not “just one of the largest in Rus', but a center for the unification of lands. Ivan Kalita died on March 31, 1341.

Semyon Proud.

After his death, Semyon the Proud (1341-1353) becomes the Grand Duke. During this period of time, four great principalities were active on the political scene in North-Eastern Rus': Moscow, Tver, Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod and Ryazan. From the mid-40s, a long internecine struggle began in the Tver Principality, which was skillfully supported by Moscow. At the same time, the Moscow princes have to put up with the loss of the Nizhny Novgorod territories, which in 1341 Uzbek Khan transferred from the Grand Duchy of Vladimir to the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod Principality. The conflict with Ryazan over Lopasny also did not continue. Relations with Novgorod became complicated - they were only able to be established under Ivan the Red. Tensions are growing in relations with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

In 1353-1357 there was a plague epidemic in Moscow, from which Metropolitan Theognost died in March 1353, and later Semyon the Proud. His heir was his brother, Ivan the Red (1353-1359). Under the sons of Ivan Kalita, the Moscow principality included the Dmitrov, Kostroma, Starodub principalities and the Kaluga region. At the same time, the independence of most Russian lands is increasing.

The second stage of the creation of a centralized state begins in the second half of the 14th century.

Dmitry Donskoy.

After the death of Ivan Ivanovich the Red in 1359, his son, nine-year-old Dmitry Ivanovich, became the prince of Moscow. Taking advantage of his early childhood, Prince Dmitry Konstantinovich of Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod tried to obtain a label from the Horde for the Great Reign. However, Metropolitan Alexei and the Moscow boyars achieved in 1362 the transfer of the label to Dmitry Ivanovich. Soon, in 1363, Dmitry Konstantinovich again received the label, but this time his great reign lasted only 12 days - the Moscow army ravaged the outskirts of Vladimir, and the prince himself was expelled. In 1366, he renounced his claims to the Grand Duke's throne, and even married his daughter Evdokia to Dmitry Ivanovich.

In 1367, the construction of the stone Kremlin in Moscow began.

Tver remained a serious rival of Moscow. Based on an alliance with the Lithuanian prince Olgerd, the Tver prince Mikhail Alexandrovich attacked Moscow several times. Having failed to subjugate the Muscovites by force, he turned to the Horde and in 1371 received a label for the Great Reign. But the residents of Vladimir did not let Mikhail in. In 1375, Mikhail again received the label, but Dmitry refused to recognize him. Dmitry was supported by Yaroslavl, Rostov, Suzdal and even Novgorod, and the residents of Tver themselves, after a three-day siege of the city by Moscow regiments, demanded that their prince renounce his claims to the Grand Duke's throne. The peace of Tver and Moscow in 1375 lasted until 1383.

The struggle for the Grand Duke's throne showed a new balance of forces - the Horde increasingly supported the opponents of Moscow, but itself had already weakened (from the late 50s, fragmentation began in the Horde) and was unable to provide active support to its proteges. In addition, the very appeal to the Horde compromised the princes. On the other hand, the Moscow princes already enjoy significant authority and support from other Russian lands.

It was at this moment that the policy of the Moscow princes towards the Horde changed. If earlier the Moscow princes were somehow forced to maintain peaceful relations with the Horde, now they are leading an all-Russian campaign against the Mongol-Tatars. This began in 1374 at the congress of princes in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky.

Having united his allies, Prince Dmitry won his first major victory over the Mongol-Tatars - in 1380 on the Kulikovo Field. And although after some time it will be necessary to resume paying tribute to the Horde, the prestige of the Moscow princes increases significantly.

In 1389, Dmitry Donskoy, drawing up his will, transferred the Vladimir Grand Duke's throne to his eldest son as the “patrimony” of the Moscow princes, without mentioning the label. Thus, the territory of the Vladimir and Moscow principalities merged.

Vasily I (1389-1425) continued his father's policies. In 1392, he bought a label for the Nizhny Novgorod principality, and then annexed Murom, Tarusa and Gorodets to Moscow. The annexation of these lands made it possible to create an all-Russian border defense system. But the attempt to annex the Dvina land ended in failure.

After the death of Vasily I, the ten-year-old son of Vasily I, Vasily, and the younger brother of Vasily I, Yuri Dmitrievich, became contenders for the grand-ducal throne.

According to the will of Dmitry Donskoy, after the death of Vasily, the Grand Duke's throne was supposed to pass to Yuri, but it was not stipulated that this order would continue after the birth of Vasily's son. The guardian of young Vasily was the father of Vasily I’s wife, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas, so Yuri recognized his nephew as the “eldest brother” and the Grand Duke. But in 1430 Vytautas died, and Yuri opposed Vasily. In 1433 and 1434 he captured Moscow, but could not stay there. After the death of Yuri (June 5, 1434), the fight was continued by his sons: Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka. In 1445, the Kazan Khan Ulu-Mukhammed captured Vasily II, and Shemyak seized power. Soon, however, Vasily returned, promising a ransom to the khan. In February 1446, Shemyaka again seized power in Moscow. The arrested Vasily II was blinded and sent into exile in Uglich. In September, Vasily swore that he would not strive for the Grand Duke's throne and became an appanage prince in Vologda.

But Shemyak aroused discontent among Muscovites: the Moscow boyars were pushed aside by Shemyakin’s entourage; when the independence of the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod principality was restored, the estates seized or purchased by Moscow boyars were returned to local feudal lords; collection of funds continued to pay the ransom to the Kazan Khan. Vasily the Dark was supported not only by the boyars close to him, but also by the Tver Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich (this union was sealed by the betrothal of Vasily II's six-year-old son Ivan and the four-year-old Tver princess Marya).

At the end of 1446 Shemyaka was expelled from Moscow, but the feudal war continued until his death (1453).

In 1456, Vasily the Dark defeated the Novgorod troops and in Yazhelbitsy concluded an agreement with Novgorod, according to which the power of the prince was strengthened in Novgorod (he, and not the veche, was now the highest court). Novgorod lost the right to foreign relations; paid a large indemnity and pledged not to provide support to Moscow’s opponents. The cities of Bezhetsky Verkh, Volok Lamsky, and Vologda were assigned to Moscow.

Feudal War of the Second QuarterXVV.

After the death of Vasily the Dark, his son Ivan III (1462-1505) becomes the Grand Duke. Under him, the Yaroslavl (1463-1468) and Rostov (1474) principalities lost their independence.

The struggle between Moscow and Novgorod.

But the main task remained the fight against Novgorod.

After the defeat of the Novgorodians on the Shelon River, inflicted by the troops of Ivan III (July 14, 1471), and the execution of Dmitry Boretsky, there was a further reduction in the independence of Novgorod - the Grand Duke acquired control over the judicial activities of the Novgorod authorities.

November 23, 1475 Ivan III enters Novgorod for “trial.” As a result, many boyars were arrested, some of them were sent to Moscow.

In 1477, some of Moscow's supporters were killed at a veche in Novgorod. As a result, a new campaign against Novgorod was undertaken. In January 1478, the Novgorod authorities capitulated. The veche was cancelled, the veche bell was taken to Moscow. Instead of mayors and thousanders, Moscow governors began to govern the city. The confiscation of boyar lands began.

In 1480, after standing on the Ugra River, the yoke of the Mongol-Tatars was finally overthrown.

In September 1485, Tver was annexed. On September 8, Moscow troops approached Tver. On the night of September 11-12, Mikhail Borisovich fled to Lithuania. On September 15, Ivan III and his son Ivan solemnly entered Tver.

Completion of land consolidation. Formation of statehood.

The annexation of Tver meant the creation of a single state. It was from this moment that Ivan III titled himself the sovereign of all Rus'.

In 1489 the Vyatka land was annexed.

After the death in 1490 of the son of Ivan III from the Tver princess Maria Borisovna, Ivan was left with a six-year-old grandson, Dmitry Ivanovich; on the other hand, from his marriage with the niece of the Byzantine emperor Sophia Paleologus 1, he had a ten-year-old son, Vasily.

At the end of the 90s. A struggle for power unfolds between these two contenders for the throne, with Ivan III himself first supporting his grandson (crowned in 1498), then his son (crowned in 1502).

In October 1505, Ivan III died and Vasily III (1505-1533) became Grand Duke. Under him, Pskov was annexed in 1510, and Ryazan in 1521. In 1514, Smolensk, conquered from Lithuania, was included in the Moscow lands.

In addition, the size of appanages and the rights of appanage princes were being reduced: escheated appanages were to go to the Grand Duke, and the court in the Moscow villages of appanage princes was to be carried out by the viceroy of the Grand Duke. The brothers of the Grand Duke were forbidden to mint their own coins, trade in Moscow, and even enter Moscow unnecessarily.

After twenty years of a fruitless marriage with Solomonia Saburova, in 1526 Vasily divorced her (Solomonia was forcibly tonsured a nun) and

marries Elena Glinskaya. From this marriage, in August 1530, Elena gave birth to a son, Ivan, and later, Yuri.

In December 1533, Vasily III died.

Social and political structure of the new state.

So, by the first quarter of the 16th century. the process of creating a centralized state is almost complete, although many remnants of feudal fragmentation will still persist for quite a long time.

The state is formed in the form monarchy with strong Grand Ducal power. The Grand Duke already systematically used the title “sovereign” (from 1485 Ivan III began to be called the sovereign of all Russia), and the features of an autocrat appeared in his power.

The advisory body under the Grand Duke was the Boyar Duma. The Duma included about 24 people (Duma officials - boyars and okolnichy). In the 16th century Duma boyars will begin to favor princes (which actually lowered the status of princes and deprived them of the remnants of independence).

The organization of public administration was based on the principles of the inseparability of judicial and administrative powers. Functional management bodies have only just begun to take shape.

Until the middle of the 16th century. Two national departments emerged and operated: the Palace and the Treasury.

The palace, headed by the dvorsky (butler), was in charge of the personal lands of the Grand Duke. Subordinate to him were “servants under the court” (good boyars), who managed the “paths” - individual branches of the princely economy (stables, stewards, chashniki, hunters, falconers, etc.). Over time, the functions of the butlers became broader: they considered litigation about land ownership, judged the population of some counties, were in charge of collecting taxes, etc. As new lands were annexed to Moscow, local “palaces” were created to manage them (Dmitrovsky, Nizhny Novgorod, Novgorod, Ryazan, Tverskoy, Uglitsky).

Another department - the Treasury - was in charge not only of financial affairs, but also of the state archive and the state seal. Since 1467, the positions of state clerk and clerks in charge of office work appeared.

With the increase in the functions of public administration, the need arose to create special institutions that would manage military, foreign, judicial and other affairs. Inside the Grand Palace and the Treasury, special departments began to form - “tables” managed by clerks. Later they developed into orders. The first mention of orders dates back to 1512. Some historians believe that they arose somewhat earlier and by the time of the death of Vasily III there were already about 20 orders. According to others, the order system began to take shape only in the middle of the 16th century.

There was no clear division of functions in the state apparatus. There was no clear administrative-territorial division. The country was divided into

counties, and those, in turn, into camps and volosts. The districts were governed by governors, and the camps and volosts were governed by volostels. These positions were given, as a rule, for previous military service and there was no strict order in these appointments.

Speaking about the structure of local government, historians express almost opposite points of view on a number of issues. For example, some argue that “feeding” was given for a limited time, others - that it was a lifelong hold. Some believe that the “breadwinner’s income” (part of the taxes collected) and the “judgment” (court fees) were remuneration for judicial-administrative activities, while others believe that this remuneration was not for the performance of administrative and judicial duties, but for previous service in troops, etc.

In order to centralize and unify the procedure for judicial and administrative activities throughout the state, in 1497 the Code of Laws 1 was drawn up, which established uniform norms of tax liability and the procedure for conducting investigations and trials. In addition, the Code of Law defined in general terms the competence of individual officials.

The strengthening of centralized power also contributed to changes social structure of society.

If at the beginning of the formation of a centralized state there was a complex system of feudal vassalage, and the immune rights of feudal lords developed, then gradually the independence of individual landowners is reduced. The Grand Duke becomes not just the head of the hierarchy - he is considered “father in place.” The number of appanage princes has been reduced, and their rights have been significantly curtailed. Princely land holdings are approaching patrimonial ones. The “conquest of the princes” begins; “departure” is prohibited.

The independence of the boyars is significantly limited. In the 15th century The boyars lost the right of free passage. Now they were obliged to serve not the appanage princes, but the Grand Duke of Moscow, and they swore allegiance to him in this. He, in turn, had the right to take away the boyar estates, impose disgraces, and deprive them of property and life.

In the 15th century a layer of “service princes” also appears, who went into the service of the Moscow prince (from the Lithuanian). Gradually, the number of service people increases significantly. They became the force on which the central government relies in the fight against local separatism. Receiving

land on the terms of service in favor of the Grand Duke, service people - landowners - were more interested in stable grand-ducal power than all other social groups.

Local land ownership was given to service people under certain conditions (administrative control or military service) for a certain period. The main difference was that the estates were forbidden to be sold or given away, they were not inherited and formally belonged to the Grand Duke.

Another large category of feudal lords are church lords. Large church landholdings are attracting increasing attention from the grand ducal authorities, who are seeking to find a way to take away the church’s lands. A confrontation is brewing between church and state. It is expressed in the support of “heresies” by the secular authorities and active intervention in the struggle of non-possessors and Josephites.

As for the feudal-dependent population, the position of its various categories is gradually getting closer - in the 14th century. a single term appeared for everyone - “peasants”.

According to the degree of involvement in feudal dependence, peasants can be divided into black moss(the feudal lord in relation to them, according to most historians, was the state) and privately owned: a) living in the estate of a prince or boyar or on church and monastery lands; b) belonging to the Grand Duke personally.

Article 57 of the Code of Law of 1497 limited the right of a peasant to transfer from one feudal lord to another a week before and a week after the autumn St. George's Day (November 26); for care, the peasant had to pay “elderly”: a ruble in the steppe and half a ruble in forest areas (a quarter of this amount for each year lived). Some historians believe that the “elderly” was payment for the use of real estate (house) on land owned by the feudal lord. Others believe that this was a kind of compensation for the loss of an employee.

The social structure of the urban population was determined both by the existing mode of production in general and by the specific occupation of the townspeople. In the structure of cities, “white” settlements began to form, the population of which was in personal feudal dependence on secular or spiritual feudal lords and did not pay city taxes. Personally, the free population, who paid the tax, lived on the black lands (black hundreds 1). The top of the urban population were merchants and urban feudal lords.