Agriculture is the world's main source of food and agricultural raw materials. It is designed to satisfy the growing needs of the population for food, and the needs of industry for raw materials. Food, as well as its production, distribution, exchange and consumption, is an important integral part functioning of the world system and occupy a special place in the world economy and politics. Food is directly related to people’s livelihoods; its shortage is perceived as a disaster. The food market determines the state of the economy and social stability of society, therefore its development is controlled in all countries.

Agriculture- This is not only the oldest, but also a fairly widespread occupation of people. Currently, global agriculture employs more than 1 billion economically active people. World agriculture accounts for about 5% of the world's product.

As an industry, agriculture has certain specifics:

characterized by social heterogeneity and diversity of forms of ownership
the use of land as the main means of production. In agriculture, land serves not only as the basis for the location of the farm, but is used as a direct resource, important has the fertility of the land
agricultural production largely depends on natural conditions. Even in developed countries, agricultural production results are unpredictable. Droughts, floods, pests, diseases make the agricultural sector a rather risky industry
seasonality of agricultural production. For this reason, a significant part of agricultural machinery and labor is idle for a long time and experiences maximum load for short periods
spatial dispersion of agricultural production, i.e. production takes place over large areas, which increases transport costs
Living organisms (plants and animals) are used as means of production, which forces one to take into account the biological laws of development. This results in the extension of production over time.

One of the most important patterns in the development of the agricultural sector is increased integration Agriculture with service industries, resulting in the formation of the agro-industrial complex (AIC).

As you know, the agro-industrial complex includes 4 areas:

industries serving agriculture that supply means of production. Their main function is to maintain the techno-economic efficiency of agricultural production. These are the agricultural engineering industries, the chemical industry, the feed industry, etc.
branches of agriculture – crop production and livestock farming. They are directly involved in the production of agricultural products
industries for processing, storage, transportation and marketing of agricultural products. This food industry, packaging and warehousing, transport, wholesale and retail. The main task is to bring products to the consumer
agro-industrial complex infrastructure is a set of various industries, institutions, organizations that ensure the normal, uninterrupted functioning of all parts of the agro-industrial complex. These are various road organizations, credit system, banking network, intermediary, investment companies, etc.

There is no need to talk about the exclusive role of agriculture. The ancient Greek scientist Xenophon said that:

“...agriculture is the mother and breadwinner of all other crafts. When agriculture is well managed, all other trades flourish, but when agriculture is neglected, all other trades decline.”

These words have not lost their relevance today.

The development of agriculture in the world is determined by a number of reasons that determine the exclusive role of agricultural production in the world. Such functions of the global agricultural sector include the following:

the need to supply food to the extremely rapidly growing population on the planet, especially in developing countries
the need to strengthen the raw material base of industry. Industrialization that is not based on a corresponding expansion of the agrarian base, with the weakness and instability of the latter, also becomes fragile
agriculture acts as a supplier of labor and capital for other sectors of the world economy
Agriculture serves as a source of foreign exchange, and for most developing countries it is the main one. Such countries survive only by exporting agricultural goods. For example, in Guatemala it is bananas and coffee, in Chad it is cotton, etc.

The wealth of functions performed by global agriculture places many demands on the industry. And these are not only economic problems, but also problems of use natural resources, the need to maintain ecological balance in the environment. It is possible to fully appreciate the importance of agriculture in the global economy only by tracing the main patterns of the long-term development of the industry.

Agricultural sectors: livestock and crop production

There are two main branches of agriculture: livestock farming and crop farming.

Livestock is a branch of agriculture concerned with the breeding of farm animals for the production of livestock products.

Main livestock sectors:

Cattle breeding is the breeding of cattle.
Pig farming.
Goat and sheep breeding. These directions are most widespread in the steppe zones, as well as in mountainous regions.
Horse breeding provides the national economy with purebred breeding animals that are athletic and productive.
Camel farming provides the national economy in desert and semi-desert regions with wool and milk.
Reindeer husbandry.
Poultry farming.
Fur farming provides the national economy with the skins of small fur-bearing animals.
Beekeeping is a branch of agriculture that deals with the breeding of honey bees to produce honey, beeswax and other products, as well as to pollinate crops in order to increase their productivity.

Crop production is a branch of agriculture concerned with the cultivation cultivated plants. Plant products are used as a source of food for the population, as feed in livestock farming, as raw materials in many industries (especially in the food, textile, pharmaceutical and perfume industries), as well as for decorative (floriculture) and many other purposes.

Each of us eats a large amount of plant or animal products every day. Natural products are truly extremely useful in the diet of every person; they help our body function properly and maintain our health and well-being. Having a rough idea of their production, don’t we think about what sectors make up agriculture?

Agriculture branches

A lot has already been written and said about how important it is to consume natural products. Food really an important part life of every living being, but not every one of us has the opportunity to have and care for our own own garden and cattle. All this would require ownership of a considerable amount of personal territory and considerable time and money costs. This fact leads to the fact that most of us simply buy the products we need from local stores or markets. But in order for them to get there, someone must produce them, package them and deliver them to the shelves; this is what a branch of the economy like agriculture does. In turn, it can be divided into two main groups - livestock farming and crop farming. The latter, in my opinion, is more relevant, and now I will note which crops are most relevant to grow.

Cereals include buckwheat, wheat, rice, rye, barley, corn and others.
From fruit crops I’ll mention cucumber, pumpkin, tomato, pepper, zucchini and eggplant.
Leguminous crops include beans, soybeans, lentils and peas.
Leafy ones include dill, lettuce, spinach, parsley and cabbage.
Root vegetables include celery, turnips, radishes, carrots, radishes, beets and parsnips.

All these plant species are undoubtedly important for this industry. These are the crops that the average Russian citizen most often eats. Below I will give some more arguments in favor of the importance of animal husbandry.

Importance of Livestock in Agriculture

I have already told you what main types of plants this industry is engaged in, now it is worth noting animals, without which it would be difficult to do. These include cows, goats, pigs, horses, birds, bees and many others. Some of them produce milk, which is then used to make many different products. Others are used for slaughter and to obtain meat, leather and wool from them. We also regularly eat the eggs of some of them. Bees give people their beloved honey.

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Tyumen State University

Specialty: "Economics"

Test

Economics of an agricultural enterprise

Performed:

Ivanova Tatyana Petrovna

4th year student

code 2003156

Checked:

Petrova Lidiya Vasilievna

Moscow - 2010

Bibliography

1. Economic efficiency of the agro-industrial complex

Production efficiency is an economic category that reflects the essence of the process of expanded reproduction.

According to a group of scientists, two types of efficiency should be distinguished: economic and social.

Economic efficiency is determined by comparing the obtained effect (result) with the resources or costs used. The calculation of the economic efficiency of production based on a comparison of its results both with the total costs of living and past labor, and with the volume of production resources used is due to the fact that the result of production is characterized by production costs, as well as the amount of resources involved in the production process.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of effect and economic efficiency. The effect is the result of activities carried out in agriculture. Thus, the effect of using fertilizers is expressed in the form of an increase in yield, but this does not indicate the benefit of using fertilizers. The benefit can be judged only by comparing the effect obtained with the costs of achieving it. Consequently, it is not the effect, but the economic efficiency that characterizes the profitability of using fertilizers. For example, in one case, the increase in grain yield per 1 hectare from the use of fertilizers was 3 centners, or in monetary terms 225 rubles, in the second - 6 centners and 450 rubles, respectively, and the production costs for their use per 1 hectare were in both cases 300 rubles. Consequently, in the first option it is unprofitable to use fertilizers, but in the second it is beneficial, since in the first case the costs exceed the magnitude of the effect, and in the second, on the contrary, the resulting effect exceeds the costs.

In agriculture, the following types of economic efficiency are distinguished: national economic; industry; individual branches of agriculture; production in various forms ah housekeeping; on-farm divisions of units, teams, etc.; production of certain types of products: grain, vegetables, milk, etc.; individual economic activities - agrotechnical, zootechnical, veterinary, economic, organizational.

The national economic efficiency of agricultural production is assessed from the point of view of meeting the needs of the population for food, industry for raw materials, as well as the financial contribution of the industry to solving national economic problems.

Sectoral efficiency reflects the effectiveness of using resource potential and consumed resources in agriculture.

Other types of efficiency are similar to industry efficiency, but characterize the effectiveness of various forms of organization of production, on-farm divisions, production of certain types of products and activities carried out in agriculture by comparing the resulting effect with resources or costs.

The essence of economic efficiency of agricultural production can be expressed through criteria and indicators. A criterion is a sign on the basis of which performance is assessed.

The criterion of economic efficiency of social production in general view can be formulated as the maximum effect per unit of cost social labor or the minimum cost of social labor per unit of effect. For individual producers, the criterion of economic efficiency economic activity is the maximum profit. This criterion meets the goals of agricultural production in conditions market economy.

Indicators of economic efficiency serve as a means of quantitatively measuring its level.

Increasing the economic efficiency of agriculture allows you to increase the production of agricultural products with the same resource potential and reduce labor and material costs per unit of production.

In a market economy, the efficiency of agriculture largely depends not only on production, but also on distribution, exchange and consumption.

The level of economic efficiency is also influenced by weather conditions, therefore one of the mandatory aspects of determining the efficiency of agricultural production is the analysis of actual indicators that reflect the dynamics for at least 3-5 years. This makes it possible to objectively identify trends and patterns in the development of agriculture and, to a certain extent, smooth out the influence weather conditions on the result of production.

Economic efficiency indicators can be calculated in two ways: express efficiency as a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the effect (result), and the denominator - resources; subtract the costs of achieving it from the effect.

To determine the economic efficiency of agricultural production, it is advisable to use a system of indicators, which is due to both the different nature of measuring the effect and different types of production resources, which differ in economic nature and are not always comparable.

Considering that economic efficiency is determined in one case by comparing the effect and resources, in the other - effect and costs, all indicators characterizing its level can be divided into two groups. One group of indicators characterizes the economic efficiency of using the resources used, the other - current production costs. The first group includes land productivity, capital productivity, labor productivity, resource productivity, etc., the second group includes cost, material intensity, labor intensity, level of profitability, etc. Depending on the purpose and objects of study, indicators of both the first and second can be used simultaneously groups.

Indicators of economic efficiency of agricultural production are divided into specific and general.

Partial ones characterize the efficiency of using certain types of resources or costs, while general ones give the most complete assessment of the economic efficiency of using resource potential and current production costs.

Particular indicators of the efficiency of resource use include land productivity, capital productivity, etc., general indicators include resource productivity, and among the indicators of efficiency in the use of costs, specific indicators include cost, material intensity, labor intensity, and general indicators include the level of profitability.

The efficiency of use of production resources is determined by the ratio of production results to resources.

The economic efficiency of land use is characterized by land productivity, land intensity; production assets - capital productivity, capital intensity, working capital turnover ratio, duration of one turnover of working capital, material intensity; labor resources - indicators of labor productivity.

General indicators of the economic efficiency of using all production resources are resource productivity (Rot) and resource intensity (Rem):

Mouth = VP/RP; Rem = RP/VP,

where VP is the cost of gross agricultural output, rub.; RP - value of resource potential, rub.

A general indicator of the efficiency of use of production resources.

where VP is the actual gross agricultural output per 1 hectare of farmland, rub.; N - standard level of gross output, reflecting the production potential of an agricultural enterprise, rub./ha.

The standard production level is calculated using the equation multiple regression taking into account the provision of the economy with production resources. The resource potential of an agricultural enterprise is a set of labor, natural and material resources, which is determined by the quantity, quality, and internal structure of each resource. The calculation of resource potential consists of their total assessment.

The production potential of an agricultural enterprise is the objective ability of the enterprise to produce agricultural products, depending on the quantity, quality and ratio of material, labor and natural resources, as well as the level of their return, determined by the objective conditions of the functioning of the economy. The calculation of production potential consists of determining the potential volume of products that an enterprise can produce using these resources.

By comparing production potential with resource potential, we obtain an assessment of the influence of objective natural and economic factors on the level of production. The relationship of products to resource potential characterizes the full efficiency of resource use, including both its objective and subjective aspects.

The economic efficiency of agricultural production is characterized by profitability, which is an economic category that reflects the profitability of an enterprise or industry.

The profitability of agricultural production is characterized by gross and net income, profit, level of profitability, cost recovery, and profit margin.

Gross income (GI) is equal to the difference between the cost of gross output (GP) and material costs (MC):

VD = VP - MZ.

Net income (NI) is the difference between the cost of gross output and all costs of its production (PP):

BH = VP - PZ, or BH = VD - OT,

economic agro-industrial integration rural

where OT is labor costs.

Gross profit represents the total profit of an enterprise from all types of activities: sales of products and services; sale of fixed assets and other property; non-operating income and expenses (income from leasing property; dividends; interest on shares and other securities owned by the enterprise, fines, penalties, penalties).

Profit from the sale of products and services (P) is calculated by subtracting the full (commercial) cost (PC) from cash revenue (C):

The net profit of an enterprise is the gross profit minus taxes not included in the cost price.

However, the absolute amount of profit does not yet indicate the achieved efficiency. It is characterized by the level of profitability, which is one of the main indicators of economic efficiency of production. The profitability level (L) is the percentage ratio of the profit received (P) to the total cost (PC):

Ur = P/PS *100.

This indicator characterizes the amount of profit per unit of consumed resources. For example, with a profitability level of 30%, for every ruble of costs, a profit of 30 kopecks was received, or 100 rubles. expenses received 30 rub. arrived.

If production is unprofitable (unprofitable), instead of the level of profitability with negative sign(unprofitability), another indicator can be used - the level of cost recovery (Oz), which is the ratio of cash revenue (B) to the commercial (full) cost (PC), %:

Oz = V/PS *100

This indicator characterizes cash revenue per unit of cost. Production is profitable only if the cost recovery level exceeds 100%.

An indicator of production profitability is also the rate of profit (N), which is understood as the percentage of profit to the average annual cost of fixed assets (Fo) and working capital (FoB):

N= P/ (Fo + Fob) * 100

This indicator characterizes the amount of profit received per unit of production (fixed and working) assets -

The considered system of indicators allows us to comprehensively characterize the economic efficiency of agricultural production.

2. Horizontal and vertical integration, forms of integration

Horizontal integration, vertical integration (natural integration, forward integration with the sales stage, combination, backward integration). Increasing the size of capital due to non-market relations (intra-company hierarchy). Definitions and character traits natural integration, forward integration with the sales stage, backward integration, combination, diversification. Russian practice. Advantages and disadvantages of horizontal and vertical integration.

A distinction is made between “backward” integration, when a company expands its business through, for example, the stage of raw material production. A good example The situation that arose around the Lebedinsky mining and processing plant may serve as an example. In this story, the desire of the Oskol Electro-Metallurgical Plant to take control of the supplier of raw materials is most clearly visible. If this happens, then it is obvious real example integration "back". Another example is the Russian metal trader MIKOM, which included the Kuznetsk Metallurgical Plant in its business.

The next type of vertical integration is forward integration. In this case, the company seeks to expand its business through subsequent stages of production and sales. Russian examples of this kind of integration are associated, for example, with the desire of oil companies to create their own networks of gas stations, i.e. bring your business to the end consumer. Let us remember that a network of gas stations is being created not only in Russia. Most shining example- construction by LUKoil of a network of gas stations in the USA.

In the economic literature, natural vertical integration is sometimes specifically distinguished when we're talking about about a process covering adjacent stages united by core technology. There are also mixed forms (actually including both horizontal and vertical integration at the same time), forms of enlargement of the scale of firms - combination and diversification.

The line between them is most likely arbitrary. By the way, O. Williamson also draws attention to this. An important point is the simultaneous use of horizontal and vertical integration methods. In this case, the company can expand its activities as much as possible within the framework of the main and directly related industries (combination) or expand the list of the main industries of its activities (diversification).

A conventional example of combination is the coverage by an oil company of all stages of production and sales with the simultaneous expansion of the main business (type of activity).

A conventional example of diversification is an oil company’s inclusion of other types of activities related to the production and sale of other energy resources (gas, coal, hydropower, uranium), or its transformation into a diversified energy concern through, for example, the production of energy equipment.

Now let's talk about the effect that the use of horizontal, vertical integration (in various forms), combination and diversification can bring to a company.

The “advantages” seem obvious and lie on the surface: either the acquisition of monopolistic power, which makes it possible to regulate activities in a particular industry, or increasing business efficiency by reducing costs (saving on transaction costs, eliminating bottlenecks, reducing losses at “junctions” "process chain, etc.).

The "cons" are less noticeable, but they are there. First of all, the firm can pass the threshold optimal size business, which is followed not by an increase in efficiency, but by a decrease. The second is the complication of the management structure, which can bring to life the “dormant virus” of bureaucratization. Third, loss of dynamism and decreased susceptibility to scientific and technical progress. Fourth, the possibility of becoming the object of anti-monopoly prosecution by the state.

The effectiveness of using forms of business consolidation is also related to life cycle industry. Western practice shows that vertical and horizontal integration have the greatest effect at the early and late stages of industry development, and less effect at intermediate stages of development of a particular sphere of human activity.

Thus, such established industries as automotive, aircraft, oil, etc. provide an excellent opportunity to use all the “advantages” of vertical and horizontal integration. These industries have accounted for the majority of mergers and acquisitions in recent years.

3. Ecology and environmental sustainability of agriculture

A combination of policies can improve the environmental sustainability of agriculture.

Agriculture's large impact on natural resources remains widespread, but there are numerous opportunities to reduce it. Addressing different types of problems requires specific policy responses, as well as concerted action at the appropriate level, depending on whether the source of environmental problems is primarily internal or external.

Removing policy imbalances and other barriers to the adoption of socially best agricultural practices. Widespread adoption of more sustainable approaches is often hampered by inappropriate pricing and subsidy policies, or by factors such as insecure land tenure, limited access to inputs, marketing problems and lack of credit. For example, subsidies for canal irrigation and electricity in northwestern India, coupled with government procurement of produce at guaranteed prices, have led to overproduction of rice (a water-intensive crop) and excessive consumption of groundwater.

As a result, 60 percent of groundwater aquifers are being exploited beyond their natural recharge rate in Punjab, a state leading the green revolution. But eliminating subsidies has proven difficult for political reasons. Improving the quality of irrigation services, improving the control of water and electricity use, combined with building institutional mechanisms with active participation of the population in their work, can make the process of reducing subsidies easier from a political point of view. Peasant participation in the management of irrigation systems through water user associations, cost-sharing with communities, and other innovative institutional mechanisms and technologies (such as remote sensing of water levels) help achieve at least partial cost recovery and improve the quality of irrigation services.

When there are environmental problems caused by internal factors, such as mineral depletion or soil depletion in farmers' own fields, addressing policy distortions can provide sufficient incentives for farmers to select appropriate water management technologies and practices and move towards environmentally friendly water management. sustainable resource management (for example, by growing crops and using water-saving technologies). Many external problems (those caused by external factors) require additional intervention through regulatory or market transfers because both the positive and negative consequences of peasant activities extend beyond those peasants' fields and pastures.

The choice between market approaches and regulation. Regulation may be an obvious solution to environmental impacts caused by external factors such as pollution from pesticides and animal waste and deforestation to expand agricultural land. But in developing countries, where government institutions and control mechanisms are generally weak, it is difficult to enforce environmental requirements. If some environmental management systems are complemented by innovative technologies and institutional approaches, they may be more successful. For example, using satellite technology, the state of Mato Grosso in Brazil has been able to effectively combine licensing for the conversion of forests to agricultural land with monitoring of this process.

Market-based instruments, including fees for environmental services, environmental certification, and incentives for investment through taxation and subsidies, can be more effective ways to address environmental impacts caused by external factors. Thus, in Thailand, tax refunds have effectively created incentives for poultry farmers to move their farms away from urban areas where populations are particularly affected by increased disease incidence. Organic product certification (such as fair trade certification or tree-grown coffee) is another market tool that allows consumers to pay a premium for products produced according to sustainable management standards.

Protecting watersheds and forests creates environmental services (net drinking water, constant flow of water into irrigation systems, carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation) for which their suppliers may be compensated in the form of a fee. Under this approach, environmental service providers (such as hydropower producers, irrigation service providers, and other water users) can pay farmers and local community organizations to clean water or other environmental services provided through forest conservation, watershed protection, and sustainable agricultural practices. Pilot projects using such payments in Colombia, Costa Rica and Nicaragua have resulted in significant changes in land use, with depleted grasslands being converted to sustainable pastures with significant forest cover (where livestock production is accompanied by tree growing). As payment schemes become more widely used, it is necessary to ensure a long-term sustainable funding base. This will require creating a direct link between service users and service providers.

Investments in technology. Many promising innovative technologies can make agriculture more environmentally sustainable without having to choose between growth and poverty reduction. Examples include conservation tillage methods, improving fallow systems, introducing cover crops that provide green manure, protecting and rational use soils and pest control, focusing more on biodiversity and biological controls than on pesticides. One of the main examples of the success that agriculture has achieved over the past two decades is the widespread adoption of conservation (or no-till) tillage. Because these technologies are largely site-specific, their development and implementation require more decentralized and participatory approaches, coupled with participatory action among peasants and communities.

New technologies can also help improve the management and control of natural resources. Remote sensing technology used in Thailand has helped address environmental and health concerns in intensive poultry and livestock production systems. Such technologies can also facilitate the regulation of surface and groundwater use in water-scarce regions such as the Republic of Yemen.

Development of institutional mechanisms and approaches based on participatory action. The adoption of environmentally sustainable technologies depends on the adequate development of institutions, such as clearly defined and secure property rights and, especially in the case of externalities, some level of cooperative action. In Niger, secure tree ownership has helped reverse desertification in some Sahel regions through agro-forestry interventions. Introducing community-based approaches to natural resource management (e.g. successful program watershed management in Eastern Anatolia in Turkey) has helped combat serious soil erosion. But community-based approaches are not a panacea, and much remains to be learned about the conditions necessary to successfully implement and scale up such programs.

Based on the material studied, the following conclusions can be drawn about agriculture and the environment: features and ways to solve environmental problems.

The negative consequences of agricultural activities are:

* pollution of surface waters and degradation of aquatic ecosystems due to eutrophication;

* deforestation and degradation of forest ecosystems (deforestation);

* violation of the water regime in large areas;

* desertification;

* destruction of natural habitats.

Changes in farming practices and political management measures are considered as solutions.

A combination of policies, innovative institutional solutions and investments can help reduce agriculture's significant environmental impacts and harness its potential to provide environmental services. Managing the linkages between agriculture, natural resource conservation and the environment must be an integral part of using agriculture for development to improve the sustainability of agricultural production systems.

Bibliography

1. Borodin A.I. Agriculture and environment/ A.I. Borodin // Scientific notes of Sakhalin State University. - 2005. - No. 5. - P. 40-42.

2. Kovalenko N.Ya. Agricultural Economics. Lecture course. - M.: Tandem, 1998.

3. Mishchenko V.I. Economic turnover and efficiency of agricultural resources - Kharkov, 1996.

4. Organizational forms materially - technical support// Organization of agricultural production: Textbook / Ed. F. K. Shamirova. - M., 2000.

5. Organization and planning of agricultural production. / Ed. L.Ya. Zribnyaka - M.: Kolos, 1992.

6. Popov N.A. Organization of agricultural production: Textbook. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 2000.

7. Popov N.A. Economics of agricultural production: Textbook. - M.: Tandem, 1999.

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MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Ryazan State Agricultural Academy named after Professor P.A. Kostycheva

Test

In the subject "Economics of agro-industrial complex enterprises"

3
5
10
Bibliography 17
1. Subject, tasks and methods of economics of agricultural production
Agriculture is one of the most important branches of material production: the cultivation of crops and the breeding of farm animals to obtain agricultural and livestock products. Agriculture also includes different kinds primary processing of plant and animal products (if they have not separated into independent industries). In a number of countries forestry is classified as agriculture. Agriculture creates food for the population, raw materials for many industries (food, feed, textile, pharmaceutical, perfume, etc.), reproduces live draft power (horse breeding, reindeer husbandry, etc.); includes branches of agriculture (field farming, vegetable growing, fruit growing, viticulture, etc.) and livestock farming (cattle breeding, pig breeding, sheep breeding, poultry farming, etc.), the right combination which ensures the rational use of material and labor resources and is the main task of the economics of agricultural production.
The main means of production in agriculture is land, the characteristics of which cause specific forms of concentration and specialization of agricultural production, necessitating the use of scientifically based farming systems to increase soil fertility. Living organisms - plants and animals - are used as means of production in agriculture, as a result of which the action of economic and biological laws is intertwined in the development of the industry, the production period does not coincide with the working period, means of production and labor are used seasonally. These are the main features of agricultural economics as a science.
Agricultural production is spatially dispersed, carried out over large areas, therefore it mainly uses mobile agricultural units. Over 20% of the gross agricultural output (seeds, feed, animal offspring) is used in the subsequent production cycle as means of production, which determines the specificity of the formation of agricultural production assets and a lower degree of marketability than in industry.

The role of agricultural economics is increasing significantly in connection with transition processes in the Russian economy. Reform transformations in the agro-industrial sector have been actively carried out since 1992: the state monopoly on land has been eliminated, a multi-structure production has generally emerged, institutional reform of agricultural enterprises is being carried out, the importance of such organizational mechanisms as cooperation and integration is increasing, the denationalization of the procurement system of agricultural products is being implemented and the introduction of a competitive procedure procurement for state needs, a mechanism for state leasing operations, a network of wholesale food markets is being formed, the agricultural producer is defined as market-oriented. The transformation processes were accompanied by a deterioration in the economic situation in the agricultural sector. Gross agricultural output decreased by 40% compared to 1992, the production potential of the industry tends to decline, processes of land degradation are intensifying, there is a predominant decline in production in the food and processing industries in comparison with sectors of agriculture itself, material and financial resources are implemented ineffectively, and there is an increase in accounts receivable and payable. Negative trends, both at the macro and meso levels, are due to the general situation in the economy. The reasons for negative manifestations at all levels, including at the regional level, may be: incompleteness of land transformations; the mechanism of disposal, ownership and use of land is not reflected in actual practice, which significantly reduces investment attractiveness and labor motivation; the mechanism of state economic regulation is not fully involved; liberalization of foreign economic activity, which entailed an increase in food imports; disparity in prices for agricultural products from other industries; inconsistency of the existing structure and infrastructure of the agro-industrial complex with the requirements of a market economy.

The ways out of this state are in the market sphere with its inherent specific tools for improving the economy, but both state support and measures of state regulation of the development of the agro-industrial complex are necessary. In addition, internal factors of stabilization and growth in the agro-industrial sector itself must be involved: structural transformations can be fully attributed to them. The process of restructuring the agro-industrial complex is not completed. The modeled functional-sectoral, production-technological, regional (territorial), organizational and economic structure must fit into the market conditions of farming. All of the above vital issues for the country are dealt with by the science of agricultural economics.

2. The concept and significance of the material and technical base of agriculture, its features and composition. Features of the formation of the material and technical base in market conditions

An important condition for organizing effective agricultural production is the optimal formation and rational use of the material and technical base of agriculture. It is multifaceted and has a natural and cost composition. In terms of its natural composition, the material and technical base includes means and objects of labor (machines, equipment and other technical means, industrial and cultural facilities, working and productive livestock, perennial plantings, plant protection products, seeds, feed, raw materials, fuel). In the process of its functioning, natural resources (water, etc.) are used. All elements of the material and technical base are combined into certain technological processes through certain forms of production organization.

The economic content of the material and technical base is very closely related to the content of the productive forces. However, there are significant differences between them. Thus, the material base of the agricultural sector does not include the direct producer, although it is created and set in motion labor force. And the difference between the material and technical base and production itself is that the latter represents a dialectical unity of productive forces and industrial relations, and the material and technical base is only an element of the productive forces, on the basis of which between the subjects production process corresponding relations of production are formed.

The economic mechanism for the formation and reproduction of the material and technical base of agriculture is characterized by the action of two different groups of factors. The first group of these factors manifests itself through the use of horizontal economic ties between agriculture and mechanical engineering, energy, chemical industry, construction and other sectors of the economy. The elements of the material and technical base formed on this basis represent the materialized labor of industry and capital construction in the form of potential productive force.

Another group of factors manifests itself through vertical economic ties within agriculture, ensuring the interaction of living labor and all elements of the base. As a result, such components as agricultural land and the biological group of means of production are annually reproduced cyclically and extensively within the industry and each individual enterprise. If agricultural plants and animals are reproduced not only quantitatively, but also qualitatively, then the reproduction of cultivated lands occurs only in a qualitative sense, through the expanded reproduction of their fertility. From an economic point of view, the essence of expanded reproduction in agriculture is to increase the productive power of living organisms and soil.

The economic essence of material and technical resources lies in the fact that they, being revolving funds enterprises completely transfer their value to newly created agricultural products. Their cost is included in the total cost of production. Material and technical resources are involved in the production process during one production cycle and, therefore, require constant compensation at the same level with simple reproduction or in increased sizes with expanded reproduction. During the production process, they change their material form, which distinguishes them from another group of the production base - technical resources that make up the fixed assets of the enterprise. Thus, during the production process, seed material is transformed under the influence of natural, biological and soil factors into plants, and mineral fertilizers added to the soil are transformed into various nutritional elements that create conditions for the formation of plants.

The material and technical base of agriculture includes material and technical resources and technical means. Material and technical resources are represented by inventories and work in progress. Industrial stocks include various material elements of agricultural production used as objects of labor in the production process (feed, seeds, fuel - lubricants, fattening animals, etc.).

Availability of reserves is a prerequisite for provision normal functioning agricultural enterprise. They allow him to provide production with material and technical resources continuously and in an optimal ratio.

Work in progress is included in the composition of material and technical resources at the cost of expenses in agriculture made in a given year for the harvest of winter and spring crops of the next year, as well as expenses in animal husbandry for incubating eggs, etc., transferred to next year. Work in progress of industrial and auxiliary divisions includes costs for the purchase of raw materials and materials for processing agricultural products, etc.

Technical means play a special role in organizing agricultural production. These include tractors, combines, trucks and passenger vehicles, various agricultural implements (seeders, etc.), and energy capacities.

Taking into account the frequency of work on cultivating crops and the peculiarities of organizing production processes in animal husbandry, special sets of machines are formed to perform interrelated technological operations (sowing grain crops, caring for crops, removing manure on farms, distributing feed) in accordance with the equipment available on the farm.

The technical re-equipment of agricultural production, the completion of a machine system for a specific enterprise requires taking into account local conditions, the adopted farming system, its specialization and cooperation with other sectors in the agro-industrial complex system. The machine system must provide maximum level mechanization of work, implementation intensive technologies, growth in production volume and labor productivity.

Technology in agriculture is understood as a set of production methods and processes of agricultural work of a certain sequence with a fixed start and end of operations.

Complex mechanization includes the consistent use of machine systems, mechanisms and devices at all technological operations and stages of the production process, allowing complete replacement manual labor machine for both main and auxiliary agricultural work.

A characteristic feature of modern agricultural production is the improvement of means and objects of labor under the influence of scientific and technological progress. This objective natural process the development of the productive forces of agriculture is becoming increasingly decisive in the context of a reduction in rural labor resources.

NTP is designed to ensure savings in current production costs and, above all, limited types of fuel and raw materials of natural origin. The creation of material-saving technology requires an appropriate orientation of scientific and technological progress. It should be noted that NTP is not only a saving of social labor, but also an increase in its costs. Therefore, the task is to ensure that additional costs are lower than the additional effect, which means ensuring scientific and technical progress on an effective basis.

3. The concept of economic efficiency of agricultural production. Its main indicators and methods for calculating them

Production efficiency is an economic category that reflects the essence of the process of expanded reproduction.

According to a group of scientists, two types of efficiency should be distinguished: economic and social.

Sectoral efficiency reflects the effectiveness of using resource potential and consumed resources in agriculture.

The essence of economic efficiency of agricultural production can be expressed through criteria and indicators. A criterion is a sign on the basis of which performance is assessed.

The criterion for the economic efficiency of social production in general can be formulated as the maximum effect per unit of social labor expenditure or the minimum expenditure of social labor per unit of effect. For individual commodity producers, the criterion for the economic efficiency of economic activity is the maximum profit. This criterion meets the goals of agricultural production in a market economy.

Indicators of economic efficiency serve as a means of quantitatively measuring its level.

In a market economy, the efficiency of agriculture largely depends not only on production, but also on distribution, exchange and consumption.

Indicators of economic efficiency of agricultural production are divided into specific and general. Partial ones characterize the efficiency of using certain types of resources or costs, while general ones give the most complete assessment of the economic efficiency of using resource potential and current production costs. Particular indicators of efficiency in the use of resources include land productivity, capital productivity, etc., general indicators include resource productivity, and among indicators of efficiency in the use of costs, specific indicators include cost, material intensity, labor intensity, and general indicators include the level of profitability.

The efficiency of use of production resources is determined by the ratio of production results to resources.

General indicators of the economic efficiency of using all production resources are resource productivity (R from) and resource intensity (R em):

P from = VP/RP; R em = RP/VP,

where VP is the cost of gross agricultural output, rub.; RP - value of resource potential, rub.

A general indicator of the efficiency of use of production resources E o can also be calculated using the following formula:

E o = VP/N,

where VP is the actual gross agricultural output obtained per 1 hectare of farmland. rub.; N - standard level of gross output, reflecting the production potential of an agricultural enterprise, rub./ha.

The standard level of production is calculated using a multiple regression equation, taking into account the provision of the economy with production resources. The resource potential of an agricultural enterprise is a set of labor, natural and material resources, which is determined by the quantity, quality, and internal structure of each resource. The calculation of resource potential consists of their total assessment.

The economic efficiency of agricultural production is characterized by profitability, which is an economic category that reflects the profitability of an enterprise or industry.

The profitability of agricultural production is characterized by gross and net income, profit, level of profitability, cost recovery, and profit margin.

Gross income (GI) is equal to the difference between the cost of gross output (GP) and material costs (MC):

VD = VP - MZ.

Net income (NI) is the difference between the cost of gross output and all costs of its production (PP):

BH = VP - PZ, or BH = VD - OT,

where OT is labor costs.

Profit from the sale of products and services (P) is calculated by subtracting the full (commercial) cost (PC) from cash revenue (C):

The net profit of an enterprise is the gross profit minus taxes not included in the cost price.

Ur = P/PS *100.

This indicator characterizes the amount of profit per unit of consumed resources. For example, with a profitability level of 30%, for each ruble of costs, a profit of 30 kopecks was received, or 100 rubles. expenses received 30 rub. arrived.

If the production of products is unprofitable (unprofitable), instead of the level of profitability with a negative sign (unprofitability), another indicator can be used - the level of cost recovery (Oz), which is the ratio of cash revenue (B) to commercial (full) cost (PC),% :

Oz = V/PS *100

This indicator characterizes cash revenue per unit of cost. Production is profitable only if the cost recovery level exceeds 100%.

An indicator of production profitability is also the rate of profit (N), which is understood as the percentage of profit to the average annual cost of fixed assets (Fo) and working capital (FoB):

N = P/ (Fo + Fob) * 100

This indicator characterizes the amount of profit received on unit of production (fixed and working) assets -

The considered system of indicators allows us to comprehensively characterize the economic efficiency of agricultural production.

Bibliography

1. Kovalenko N.Ya. Agricultural Economics. Lecture course. - M.: Tandem, 1998.

2. Mishchenko V.I. Economic turnover and efficiency of agricultural resources - Kharkov, 1996.

3. Organizational forms of material and technical support // Organization of agricultural production: Textbook / Ed. F.K. Shamirova. - M., 2000.

4. Organization and planning of agricultural production. / Ed. L.Ya. Zribnyaka - M.: Kolos, 1992.

5. Popov N.A. Organization of agricultural production: Textbook. -- M.: Finance and Statistics, 2000.

6. Popov N.A. Economics of agricultural production: Textbook. - M.: Tandem, 1999.

Agriculture: branches of agriculture. Branches of agriculture in Russia. Characteristic features of livestock farming. What influences the development of agriculture

Agricultural sectors: livestock and crop production

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