The appearance of the phrase “economic and social geography” was a reflection of complex processes beginning in our society and geographical science. It meant the beginning of a turn towards man, towards his production and non-production activities.
Economic and social geography reveals a picture of the state of the economy and life of the population in different countries, helps to gain a deeper understanding modern stage their development, to specifically imagine the world.
The object of study of economic and social geography is the developed part geographic envelope Earth. The world economy is the object of study of many economic sciences. For example, population is the object of demography, ethnography and a number of other sciences; natural conditions are one of the objects of physical geography; mineral resources are a private object of geology and physical geography. Each country has its own characteristics in the structure and distribution of the economy and population. These features are determined by the entire historical course of the country’s development, by the social conditions that prevailed in it at the time. different stages her stories. Therefore, in order to understand the current state of the economy, one must remember and know history well.
Natural conditions have a great influence on the economy. The wealth of nature favors the development of the economy. Lack of mineral wealth, difficult to Agriculture climatic conditions and poor soils, on the contrary, hinder the development of the economy.
The ability to correctly assess natural conditions from the point of view of the possibilities of their use in the economy is an important task in economic geography. In order to learn this, you need to know physical geography.
Modern science has ensured technological progress, which greatly increases labor productivity and increases the volume of output in all sectors of the economy. At the same time new technology changes production technology, introduces new types of raw materials, and allows the use of lands that until recently were considered unsuitable. Knowledge of biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics will help to understand the technology issues of various sectors of the economy.
Economic and social geography deals with the analysis of digital indicators and various economic calculations. Many tasks in the textbook will require students to be able to work with statistical tables, make calculations, and build graphs and map diagrams.
Economic and social geography also studies the features and patterns of territorial organization of the economy in different countries and regions.
Attention to the human factor strengthens the role of the geography of the service sector, the geography of living conditions, the geography of culture, etc.
The origins of economic geography can be traced back to the old, general, descriptive geography. This was a variety of information about the nature, distribution of the population and economy of individual territories, first in the form of route notes of travelers, and then in local history and regional studies descriptions. Thus, separate directions were gradually identified that studied the geography of the economy and its individual branches.
The scientific foundations of the economic development of new territories, the issue of effective formation of production complexes, urbanization and environmental problems, rational environmental management - all these problems can only be solved by interdisciplinary sciences.
Economic and social geography is an interdisciplinary field of knowledge in which there is close interaction between the natural and social sciences.
Economic and social geography of the world is a social science and therefore is included simultaneously in other systems of sciences that study society, man, and social production.
Part 1. Introduction to economic geography
Part 2. Economic geography of the world
Section 1. Geography of the world population
Chapter 1. World Population Dynamics
Chapter 2. Socio-demographic classifications of regions and countries of the world
1.
Chapter 3. Projections for population growth in the world and its regions
Chapter 4. Features of population policy in countries and regions of the world
Chapter 5. Territorial movement of population (migration)
Chapter 6. Urban and rural settlements. Urbanization
Section 2. Geography of the world economy
Chapter 1. Geography of the global information industry
Chapter 2. Geography of world telecommunications
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Chapter 3. Geography of the worldwide computer telecommunications system Internet
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Chapter 4. Geography of world mechanical engineering
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Chapter 5. Geography of the global chemical industry
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Chapter 6. Geography of world energy
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Chapter 7. Geography of world metallurgy
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Chapter 8. Geography of world agriculture
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Chapter 9. Geography of the global food industry
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Chapter 10. Geography of world light industry
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Part 3. Economic geography of Russia
Chapter 1. General geographical characteristics Russia
SEG is a complex of scientific disciplines that study the territorial organization of social life, the features of its manifestation in different countries, regions and localities.
As a branch of fundamental science, SEG studies the territorial organization of social production, the peculiarities of the formation of territory - the economic structure of a particular country or individual regions.
Economic geography, in turn, is divided into:
· for general:
o economic geography of industry,
o agriculture,
o transport,
o construction,
o economic geography of natural resources,
o geourbanistics (geography of urban growth),
o geography of tourism,
o recreational geography;
· regional economic geography:
o geography of the world economy,
o population geography,
o geography of service, consumption, science, etc.
Any fundamental science is divided into a number of separate areas. A number of areas are moving into separate sciences. Sciences - from general to specific.
The object of study of modern social geography in a broad sense is the geographical environment and society in interaction with nature (after all, society cannot exist without nature).
SEG studies:
· the national economy as a whole and individual sectors (economic aspects of society, countries, markets; features of the distribution of population, resources, etc.)
· population as a whole (population migration, its dynamics, life of the population)
· natural conditions and resources (we pay little attention to this, but in vain: we live through these resources now. The Russian market is Japanese and European automation, American Boeings, even the products of the agro-industrial complex are not ours. The Russian Federation is a “backward” country, only exports natural resources.
Sectoral economic geography studies the spatial distribution of industry, agriculture, construction, transport, etc.
Regional economic geography - territorial division social labor in various areas and areas, taking into account economic laws, influence natural resources, cultural heritage of the past and historically developed production skills of the population.
Economic geography provides a scientific basis for economic policy in the field of distribution of production forces and territorial organization of the national economy. This branch of science is directly related to physical geography, but there is one fundamental difference between them. Physical geography is a natural science, the object of study of which is the natural-territorial complex.
A natural-territorial complex is a physical geographical zone (steppe zone, forest zone).
You can consider this at the level of the Nikolaevskaya Hill. Northern and southern slopes: on one side - taiga, on the other - steppe. The mountain was formed as a result of the intrusion of magma into the rock. The Nikolaevskaya Sopka was formed. Then the dome collapsed.
Physical geography is a separate education; countries, huge natural areas.
The object of economic geography is territorial-industrial complexes, laws of social development. Laws of state development. Studies the rationality of locating certain enterprises on the territory of a particular natural-territorial complex. For example, how profitable is it to locate an aluminum smelter in Krasnoyarsk? The hydroelectric power station and resources (Achinsk alumina) played a role here.
Economic geography is related to other sciences: it uses their methods and findings for its development, while simultaneously enriching these sciences with the results of its research. These sciences include:
· economic theory
· statistics
· geology
· ecology
· medicine
· and other sciences
The subject area of study of SEG is the spatial aspect, that is, in other words, the objects of study are considered from the point of view of their spatiotemporal location, their interaction and their territorial organization.
For example, Moscow and Krasnoyarsk: where are the differences in their territorial organization? Moscow is a ring, radial organization. Krasnoyarsk - meridional interchange.
There are, accordingly, various, pronounced differences in the transport network and in the location of enterprises in these cities. In the placement of sleeping areas.
Studies natural environment- conditions for social development are necessary. The natural factor has a significant impact on the distribution of industries across the territory of a particular country, which is especially noticeable in agriculture and the mining industry.
The impact of society on the environment is determined by the level of development of science and technology.
Let us note the demographic factor: it also influences the location of production; It is the population size, its structure, density and migration that determine the possibilities for the development of production forces and the development of new territories.
SEG studies objects at 4 levels:
1. Local or local level - the level of a settlement, a city; industry, population, socio-economic development factors
2. Regional
3. Interregional level (national level). Accommodation facilities within the state.
4. Global level (worldwide)
SEG methods
· A specific (main) method in economic geography is the balance method: sectoral and territorial balances (drawing parallels) allow you to choose the optimal proportions between interaction, as well as the work of specialized and service industries. The balance method allows you to determine rational inter-district and intra-district production connections.
Includes mathematical methods, which are also sometimes called "economic-statistical methods."
A set of mathematical and statistical techniques makes it possible to study and make predictions in the life of society.
These methods allow you to find a cost-effective option in accordance with a particular purpose.
· Cartographic method - combines physical geography and SEG. The information will be put on the map, the SEG cannot exist without it. The cartographic method is based on working not only with thematic maps, but also with physical ones. Promotes territorial generalization of information, determination of the location of an object, storage and analysis of the information received.
Methods
· Observation method. Systematic or episodic recording of processes occurring in public life and accumulation various factors in the life of a particular society.
· Survey. Studying the opinions of individuals through targeted formulation and pre-prepared and developed questions. There are two types of population survey - oral survey, interviewing, and written survey, questioning. Data from written and oral surveys in the USSR and the late Soviet space differ.
· Expeditionary method (collection of materials on the ground, what is the condition of the infrastructure)
· Historical methods - research into the history of the development processes of society, industry and commodity-money relations.
Economic and social geography of the world as a science. Economic and social geography is the main
cell of social geography - the totality of all geographical disciplines involved in the study of social phenomena.
Economic and social geography of the world is a socio-geographical science, the subject of study of which is the general patterns of development and distribution of population and economy on the globe, as well as in individual regions and countries. The most important goals of her research are the search for rational settlement and economic placement and optimization of the relationship between the development of society and nature.
Basic methods of economic and social geography and its connections. In its research, economic and social geography uses the following main methods: cartographic, statistical, comparative geographical, historical (Diagram 1).
The cartographic method involves the compilation and analysis of thematic maps of the world, individual regions and countries.
The statistical (mathematical) method consists of analyzing digital data and constructing graphs, charts, maps based on them for a comprehensive analysis current state and identifying trends in the development of socio-economic processes and phenomena.
To make forecasts regarding the relatively effective placement of new industries and enterprises in a certain territory, a comparative geographical method is used, which involves comparing DIFFERENT regions, countries, cities, etc.
All modern economic and geographical processes are the result of a long historical development. Therefore, when studying the formation of the territories of states, their settlement and economic development, they use the historical method. Outstanding economic geographers of the world and modern concepts development of economic geography. Significant contributions to the formation and development of economic geography were made by scientists Konstantin Arsentiev (1789-1865 pp.), Pyotr Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914 pp.), Ivan Alexandrov (1875-1936 pp.), Nikolai Kolosovsky (1891-1954 pp.), Nikolai Baronsky (1881-1963 pp.) and others.
Throughout the 20th century, the theory of regional development was actively developed. In particular, Russian scientists Innokenty Gerasimov and Yulian Saushkin considered the doctrine of regions (their formation, development, prospects, practical significance) to be the core of all geographical sciences, including economic and social geography. Based on the theory of regionalism, regional economics, regional politics, regional demography, regional ecology, etc. arose.
In the 60-70s of the 20th century, the concept of problematic regional studies was developed. One of its founders was Jan Maiibits, who proposed a problem-based approach to economic-geographical regional studies of the foreign world. Jan Mashbits developed a new scheme for a comprehensive description of countries, the thematic blocks of which included the uniqueness of the territory, geographical location, historical and geographical stages of formation, nature and environmental management, population and culture, settlement, society, economy, regions, state of the environment, development prospects.
In the 20th century, the concept of “growth poles” arose, formulated by the French economist Francois Perroux. According to this concept, development in DIFFERENT sectors of the economy occurs unevenly. There are dynamic sectors that stimulate economic growth and are a kind of “development poles”. Basically, such a pole is a city, sometimes a region, which, as a result of concentration, has a favorable economic impact on the surrounding area. This concept in VARIOUS OPTIONS was used as the basis for regional policy plans and programs in many countries of the world.
1.1. Object and subject of economic and social geography. Place in the system of geographical sciences
Economic and social geography belongs to the system of geographical sciences, since it studies spatial combinations within the geographical envelope. It is connected with other geographical sciences by the concept “ geography", including territoriality(position in space), complexity(interconnectedness of all elements), to specificity(position on a certain area of the Earth with a combination of conditions and resources unique to it) and globality(correlation of the local or regional level with the global).
Object of economic and social geography in the broad sense of the word, it is the geographical environment - a part of the geographical envelope of the Earth that has been developed or is involved in the life of human society.
A more specific object is “a territory (or water area) as part of the geographical environment with its inherent natural and anthropogenic properties and resources, characterized by extent as a special type of resource, geographical location and other qualities."
However, the territory itself (water area) is the object of many sciences (soil science, geology, etc.), therefore it is important to establish that aspect of the study of the object that is specific to this section of geography - socio-economic - and distinguishes it from other geographical disciplines. It's about about the subject of research as a set of ideas that have developed in a particular science regarding the object of research. For economic and social geography subject of research are territorial (spatial) social systems operating at different hierarchical levels.
The object of study of economic and social geography is the spatial forms of organization of social life, the process of their evolution, as well as optimization. Most geographers recognize this as such an object. ecumene(Greek oikumene< oikeo- inhabit) - the most developed and human-inhabited part of the Earth’s geographic envelope. Within its boundaries, the main life activities of people take place and all spheres of society’s life are reproduced - demographic, economic, social, cultural, political, spiritual, etc.
The composition of the ecumene includes not only society, territorial forms of life of the population and its economic, household, and recreational activities, but also the surrounding natural environment. Economic and social geography focuses on the spatiotemporal integrity of society and the natural environment, their systematicity, complexity and structure.
The Ecumene is the object of study of an entire system of sciences, each of which explores its individual facets and aspects. The specific approach of economic and social geography to the study of the ecumene is territorial, and more precisely, spatial. It is this approach that distinguishes economic and social geography from the totality of sciences that study the ecumene.
Rice. 1.2. Internal structure of TOS. Infrastructure: # – socio-cultural; 2 – social and household; % – production; & – market; 5 – spiritual; (– natural-ecological
An integral subject of economic and social geography is territorial (spatial) social systems (TSS), operating at different hierarchical levels. TOS refers to spatial combinations of all components and spheres of life of the population. Territorial social systems act as spatiotemporal forms of organization of the ecumene, closely interacting with the environment, adjacent systems and systems of a higher hierarchical level.
The internal structure of territorial-social systems is shown in Fig. 1.2. The core of the systems is the population and the individual – the main producer and consumer of material and spiritual goods. People's lives include work, everyday life, rest and take place in the natural, economic, social and spiritual environments.
The infrastructure development of a territory plays an important role in people’s lives. Each system has production (communications), social, social, cultural, market, spiritual, environmental and other types of infrastructure. Territorial public systems belong to the class of self-developing and self-governing systems, therefore their most important component is management and institutional infrastructure.
The territorial social system is a conceptual model of individual forms of spatiotemporal organization of society. The real content of this model occurs through the direct study of geographical phenomena and processes that develop at different spatial levels. Examples include territorial social systems of the world, country, region, as well as cities, villages, administrative districts, etc. Thus, it is legitimate to talk about the territorial social systems of Russia, the USA, the Urals, the Perm Territory, the city of Solikamsk, the village of Kultaevo, etc. At the same time, a hierarchical structure is clearly manifested - a certain taxonomic subordination of geographical formations.
Within the boundaries of territorial social systems of all taxonomic ranks, processes of social reproduction take place, including social, spiritual, material aspects of reproduction (reproduction of people, infrastructure, ideas, forms of communication, etc.). The territorial totality of all reproductive processes creates conditions for increasing the integrity of systems, balance and complexity of all spheres of human existence. The relative autonomy of territorial social systems is combined with their openness, manifested in the processes of geographical division and integration of labor, services, culture, etc.
Territorial social systems are spatial combinations of all components and spheres of life of the population. Three approaches are used to study them: functional, procedural and territorial.
First approach - f functional – involves the identification of functional subsystems, which include:
– natural resource (the totality of natural resources);
– production (all types economic activity on the territory, a set of enterprises and industries);
– the population and settlement subsystem performs the function of reproducing demographic potential, labor resources, optimizing population settlement systems in the region;
– social includes the totality of social relations in the territory – industrial, religious, moral, environmental, etc.;
– infrastructural unites organizations and institutions that provide conditions for the functioning of production and people’s livelihoods (social, production, as well as transport) (Fig. 1.1).
Rice. 1.1. Functional subsystems of territorial
social systems
Based on the following approach − procedural – there is a study of energy-material cycles as a condition for the provision and exchange of all subsystems with energy, matter, information (for example, the pyrometallurgical cycle of non-ferrous metals, petro-energy-chemical, etc.).
Territorial an approach includes a study of the territorial structure (combinations) of these systems. The territorial combinations under study include economic regions, industrial hubs, territorial production complexes (fuel and energy, chemical and forestry, engineering, agro-industrial, etc.) in their mutual location and interconnection in a certain territory.
So, territorial social systems are complex polystructural formations, including multi-level subsystems, components and elements - from natural resources and natural environmental to social, political and spiritual. All private socio-geographical systems are integrated into them, forming qualitatively new spatio-temporal relations, which have become the main subject of research in economic and social geography.
1.2. The place of economic and social geography in the system of sciences is determined by its following features: it is a natural and social science at the same time; it is characterized by processes of sociologization, ecologization and economization; there is an increase in influence on other sciences (geographicization of other sciences, including economics, through the introduction of concepts related to spatial phenomena and processes).
Economic and social geography is divided into general, sectoral and regional. General covers issues of theory and methodology of science, studies the patterns of territorial organization of social production. The sectoral one includes the geography of population (demography), industry, agriculture, transport, natural resources, service sector, and recreational geography.
Regional geography, or regional studies, is devoted to the study of specific regions and is a part of economic geography that takes into account the characteristics of regional formation, the development of production methods and the division of labor in a territory allocated according to special characteristics.
Also, regional studies refers to regional sections of other sciences, for example sociology, economics, technology, medicine, etc. Sometimes it is considered as a synthesis of the approaches of various sciences to regional studies. This is where geography meets economics, the regional part of which is usually called “regional economics.”
Regional economics is a regional (geographical) direction in economics that studies the spatial aspects of the development of the national economy and its industries in order to improve the management of factors for the location of productive forces and territorial development, as well as the economy of individual regions, their economic relations with each other within the country and with foreign countries countries.
The study of regional economics is based on the methods and techniques of territorial geographical analysis, which is owned by economic and social geography, on knowledge of the spatial distribution of natural and economic objects, the presence of specific natural conditions, natural resource potential, and the nature of environmental changes. It is geography that gives an idea of the territory as a complex resource, the size and quality of which determine its further economic development; about environmental restrictions that determine the conservation of the natural environment and favorable conditions human life activity.
In the Russian Federation, there are three levels of regional hierarchy: the macro level, including economic zones, economic regions, interregional associations and federal districts, the meso level (subjects Russian Federation) and micro level (municipal areas) (Fig. 1.2).
Rice. 1.2. Hierarchy of socio-economic regions
The main element of the territorial structure at the macro level is the economic region. It is considered as an economic territory, which is characterized by specialization and structure of production, natural and human resources, economic and geographical location, and the presence of economic ties.
In accordance with these criteria, 11 large economic regions have been identified: Northern, Northwestern, Central, Volga-Vyatka, Central Black Earth, Povolzhsky, North Caucasus, Ural, West Siberian, East Siberian, Far Eastern.
In 1991, 8 interregional business cooperation associations were created. Their composition roughly corresponds to economic regions. At the same time, the Association "North-West" unites the Northern and North-Western, "Big Volga" - the Volga and Volga-Vyatka regions, and the "Siberian Agreement" - the East and West Siberian regions.
In order to strengthen state unity, ensuring the implementation by the President of the Russian Federation of his constitutional powers, increasing the efficiency of the activities of federal government bodies and improving the system of control over the implementation of their decisions in accordance with the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of May 13, 2000, 6 federal districts were allocated on the territory of the Russian Federation : Central, Southern, Volga, Ural, Siberian, Far Eastern. In 2010, the North Caucasian federal district. Federal districts are the top link of the macro-regional division. Existing scheme their formation includes not only elements of economic zoning, but also defense (military districts) and national-political ones. This led to the transformation of some (especially the Volga and Ural) economic regions.
At the meso level, mesoregions are distinguished, which include six types of subjects of the Federation: republics, territories, regions, cities of federal significance (Moscow and St. Petersburg); autonomous regions, autonomous okrugs. All these subjects of the Russian Federation have absolutely equal rights. The territories and administrative boundaries of each of them are determined by federal laws.
At the next level, the territory of each subject of the Federation is delimited by municipal districts. After this, urban districts are allocated within the municipal districts, the territory of which is excluded from the territory of the municipal district, and the remaining territory is distributed between urban and rural settlements. For sparsely populated areas, which include territories in which the density of the rural population is more than 3 times lower than the average density of the rural population in Russia, it is permissible to allocate inter-settlement territories.
1.3. Research methods. Main categories of science
The basis and guideline of socio-geographical science is methodology, which is the doctrine of the principles of construction, research approaches, forms and methods scientific activity.
Methodology includes a holistic system of approaches and methods of cognition, structured on the basis of certain logical principles and constructive for the development of science itself.
An approach is a methodological orientation of cognition processes that has a strategic direction.
Method– this is an algorithm of actions, techniques and operations, the implementation of which is necessary to achieve the goal.
Approaches
Socio-geographical research is carried out from the perspective of the following approaches: systemic-dialectical, territorial, problematic, reproductive, historical, social, environmental, geopolitical, typological.
The methodological basis of economic and social geography is system-dialectical approach, in which territorial social systems (the subject of knowledge) are considered as integral spatial formations developing according to the laws of society. The systematic nature of an object presupposes the presence of a complex internal structure, multiplicity of structures, integrity and balance of all components and elements, inconsistency, evolution, hierarchy, emergence, etc. Systems are internally organized, have boundaries and governing or self-government bodies.
This approach allows us to formalize the object of research and makes it possible to widely use mathematical apparatus. New geographical and mathematical methods are emerging, which, complementing traditional ones, increase the accuracy of research results and ensure the rigor of conclusions. The widespread introduction of mathematical models makes it possible not only to reach a new level of design and optimization of territorial public systems, but also increases the reliability of forecasting.
The system-dialectical approach allows not only to describe and explain the processes of territorial functioning, but also to construct rational options promising development of countries, regions, cities and villages.
This approach covers all interdisciplinary research within the structure of economic and social geography. It serves as a kind of “bridge” between geographical and cybernetic research, territorial management, planning and forecasting.
As a result, all private research is carried out from the position of preserving the integrity of territorial social systems. This reflects a qualitatively new stage in the development of economic and social geography - a constructive science capable of creating territorial systems with predetermined properties. This direction is called geographic engineering.
A special place in socio-geographical research occupies territorial (spatial) approach. The territory is a kind of platform on which the population settles, economic facilities are located, and service maintenance and all human life goes on. At the same time, the territory consolidates all spheres of human existence, economic, social, political, recreational, and environmental objects. The territorial approach allows us to take into account spatial differences in landscapes, ethnic groups, economy, way of life, recreation, and culture.
The territory is an exponent of both private (social, economic, national-ethnic, environmental, political, etc.) and integral problems. To identify and resolve them, it is widely used problematic approach. It intensifies scientific research, aims at solving the most important socio-economic, environmental, political problems, and stimulates the resolution of aggravated contradictions. It is this approach that is the basis for such current areas of geographical research as problem zoning, problem typology of regions, etc. The problem approach allows us to reveal the sources and contradictions of the evolution of territorial systems, diagnose the situation and determine the degree of crisis. The basic principles of the problem approach are found practical use V program-target method territorial administration.
In socio-geographical studies it is also used reproductive approach, which allows you to trace all processes of reproduction of the economy, population, energy, services, information, etc. in territorial and social systems of different profiles and spatial scales. The study of reproductive processes is aimed at coordinating the development of all spheres of people’s life, coordinating supply and demand, needs and resources, as well as increasing the balance of all system components, improving internal and external relations. The reproduction approach allows us to more objectively determine priorities in the structure of the functioning of territorial-social systems, orient the mechanism of territorial management, calculate the need for material, financial and other resources for self-sufficient and sustainable development countries and regions.
In all socio-geographical studies it is considered traditional historical approach. It allows us to trace the evolution of territorial-social systems, makes it possible to reveal the temporal aspect of their development and functioning, and to identify general patterns and trends. It is noteworthy that historians also point out the necessity and fruitfulness of such research.
Social orientation in the development of territorial-social systems can be identified and justified based on the use social approach. Socio-geographical research is becoming especially relevant, as it allows us to assess the conditions, level, lifestyle and quality of life of the population, the social situation (tension, activity, stability, etc.) in regions and countries. The social approach is used in the study of all spheres and forms of territorial organization of society. It is the basis for the development of such current areas of economic and social geography as electoral geography, geography of social pathologies (the latter include drug addiction, suicide, social diseases), confessional geography, cultural geography, etc.
Reveals new aspects of the development of territorial-social systems ecological (geoecological) approach. It allows us to consider all processes of interaction between the population and the economy and the environment, and assess the quality of life of the population. With its help, you can explore and optimize the environmental situation in localities, regions, and countries. The geoecological approach is becoming increasingly relevant in connection with the processes of globalization and a surge of interest in environmental problems.
For acceptance management decisions plays an important role in improving the territorial organization of society geopolitical approach. It makes it possible to objectively assess the role and place of countries and regions in the system of global political space, the relationship between the center and the periphery, the political situation in cities and villages, countries and regions in beginning of XXI V. The geopolitical approach is increasingly popular due to the aggravation of confrontation between civilizational systems (Christian and Muslim), the emergence of new centers of the world economy (China), and the formation of a multipolar system of world power structures.
Widely used in socio-geographical studies typological approach, which involves the systematization of territorial-social systems based on common characteristics. Classification and grouping of systems into certain types makes it possible to use models and designs, identify trends in future development, which are taken into account in forecast and program documents.
Methods
The activity and effectiveness of socio-geographical research largely depends on the system of methods used: philosophical (general), general scientific, interdisciplinary and special scientific.
General methods include dialectical, induction, deduction, analysis, synthesis, analogy, description, etc.
Of the general scientific methods, the most commonly used are mathematical, informational, modeling, systems, etc.
In the system of interdisciplinary methods, cartographic, zoning, balance, questioning, cycle, statistical and systematization are distinguished.
Particular scientific methods are methods of socio-economic zoning, energy production cycles, clusters, etc.
The leading role in socio-geographical research is played by general geographical methods: cartographic, division and differentiation of territory, zoning, identification of analogue regions, delimitation (drawing boundaries), chain reactions, diffusion of innovations, etc. Cartographic methods are most widely used for territorial research. A socio-economic map reflects the characteristics of individual territorial and social systems: countries, regions, localities, cities - their territorial structure, spatial processes, internal relationships of components.
Cards are carriers of a huge amount of information. Cartographic conventional signs act as a kind of information codes. They perform three main functions: indicate the type of objects, reveal their main characteristics, and show the position of objects in space.
Geographers, as professionals, are characterized by constant search and improvement of cartographic methods. Automated methods and computer-aided development of maps have been introduced into the modern practice of socio-economic mapping.
New directions for the future development of cartographic methods are associated with mathematical modeling, the creation of geographic information systems, mental mapping, etc. Traditional cartographic methods, for example, the isoline method, have also received further development. However, it is much more widely used in the natural geographical sciences and is rarely used within the framework of socio-and economic-geographical research.
In economic and social geography it remains traditional descriptive method. From a purely descriptive (statative) it turned into descriptive-comparative, descriptive-analytical and descriptive-explanatory. Description of countries, regions, cities, villages, socio-economic and political situations remains not only a mandatory stage of regional diagnostics, but also an important, sought-after attribute of economic and social geography.
Among general geographical methods, the fundamental one is method of socio-economic zoning, which allows you to identify and describe sectoral (agricultural, industrial, transport, etc.) and integral areas different levels. As a result of zoning, a network of socio-economic regions is created, which can serve as the basis for the administrative and territorial structure of countries, regional and local self-government.
To study the internal structure of regions, reproductive aspects of the regional economy, methods of energy production, resource and energy-material cycles, inter-industry complexes, chain reactions, clusters, etc. are used. energy production cycle method(EPC) are technologically sequential processes - from the extraction of raw materials and energy production to the receipt of finished products. The founder of the doctrine of energy production cycles N. N. Kolosovsky noted that the cycle method has significant benefits compared to the industry method. Cycles are “built” freely, regardless of the industry sector of the enterprise. The main principle for including enterprises in a particular cycle is the presence of economic and technological connections between these enterprises. A general idea of the design of cycles is given in Fig. 1.8, which reflects the complete production chain - from the extraction and preparation of raw materials to the release of final products.
When studying the processes of interaction between the economy and the natural environment, it is widely used resource cycle method, proposed by I.V. Komar in 1975. Resource cycles include a set of transformations and spatial movements of substances at all stages of their use by humans. They include identification, preparation for use, extraction of necessary substances from the natural environment, their processing, consumption and return to nature.
Along with loop methods, it is often used method of territorial intersectoral complexes. Its use makes it possible to link together all the industries that are involved in producing a certain type of product.
Socio-geographical research is based on information contained in statistical collections. For a deeper knowledge of the phenomena and processes being studied, primary information is needed, which can only be obtained at enterprises, organizations, firms, institutions, etc. It is very important to know people’s opinions about certain aspects of the socio-economic situation, which can only be determined by using survey methods, questionnaires, interviewing etc. Large-scale continuous surveys require large expenses. They can be avoided by using key method, underlying the identification of typical territories, phenomena, processes.
The increasing complexity of objects of study of economic and social geography, the presence in them large number nonlinear connections, susceptibility to fluctuations (random deviations) lead to the fact that territorial-social systems acquire the ability to so-called counterintuitive behavior. In this case, it is very difficult for the researcher not only to determine the promising parameters of the object, but even to correctly indicate the direction of influence of a particular event. All this requires the development and application of a set of special heuristic methods, based on the use of scientific intuition. Such methods include expert, business games, “goal tree”, “brainstorming”, Delphi methods, etc.
The mechanism of scientific knowledge itself is an algorithm for solving a socio-geographical problem. Algorithm – this is an exact prescription and system of actions for solving a problem. It includes successive stages, each of which combines stages and individual operations.
First, preparatory stage involves developing the main idea, identifying the problem, defining the subject of knowledge, formulating a hypothesis, setting goals and objectives of the study. The second stage includes the collection of information, its systematization and storage. The third stage consists of information processing, its analysis, diagnosis and forecast of the development of the phenomenon or process being studied. The fourth stage consists of checking the reliability of the results, their evaluation and examination, substantiation of recommendations and transfer of research results to consumers.
This algorithm reveals the general procedure for research activities. In individual studies there may be some deviations from the sequence and content of the stages.
Economic and social geography uses a system of methods: from general scientific and general geographical to methods directly applied by this science.
During the study of any spatial system, including the study of the state and processes of change over time, development forecast, three solvable problems are identified. The first is to study the past state of a given system in a specific spatiotemporal setting; the second - in the study of the current state; the third is in forecasting future development trends.
The collection of factual material is based on the use of analysis methods. Then, using synthesis methods, the information received is processed and the set goal is achieved - the study of the origin, structure, functioning, dynamics and development of spatio-temporal systems at the local, regional and global levels.
In the process of scientific knowledge, a special algorithm for solving a socio-geographic problem is performed. An algorithm is a specific system of actions that includes successive stages. The first - preparatory - involves developing a main idea, identifying a problem, a subject, setting a hypothesis, goals and objectives. The second stage includes collecting information and systematizing it. The third stage is information processing, its analysis, diagnosis and forecast of the development of the process being studied. At the fourth stage, the reliability of the results is checked, recommendations are substantiated and the research results are transferred to the consumer.
In economic and social geography the following are distinguished: groups of research methods:
– general scientific – experiment, observation, modeling, description and comparison, system analysis;
– general geographical – cartographic, field integrated research, zoning;
– methods of special sciences: economics – balance sheet, economic-mathematical modeling; sociological – questioning, survey of the population.
For territorial studies in geography, the cartographic method is widely used - a graphical way of presenting information about the types, location and main characteristics of natural, demographic, socio-economic objects in a certain territory. The cartographic method is not only a means for revealing spatial relationships between objects, but often the final goal of the study.
One of the specific methods of science is balance as a set of mathematical techniques for studying and forecasting the dynamics of development complex systems by quantitative comparison of incoming and outgoing flows of matter during the interaction of the system with the environment. The main tool is the balance sheet matrix, which identifies the “income” and “expense” of a resource (production - consumption, arrival - disposal, asset - liability, etc.) and a special apparatus for their quantitative comparison. Thus, the difference between income and expenses (the number of arrivals and departures) is called “balance” in demography. One example of the application of the balance method is the use of inter-district balance as a balance of production, consumption and territorial redistribution of the social product in the context of economic regions (or other territorial units).
INTRODUCTION
Economic and social geography is not only an educational, but also a scientific discipline. The formal date of birth of this science is 1976, when it was entered into the register State Committee in Science and Technology of the USSR (SCST USSR) as an independent scientific discipline. It was from this moment that it became possible to train highly qualified personnel and defend dissertations in this specialty.
Formal recognition of the young scientific field only officially secured its position. The professional geographical environment recognized and nurtured the “newborn” back in the 1960s. Its emergence, like the emergence of any other branch of knowledge, was a response to the unsatisfied demands of society, and by the time of its official recognition, economic and social geography already looked like a fairly mature science, burdened with rich life experience in the form of various theoretical and practical developments.
The presence of an extensive system of theoretical knowledge not only indicates the level of development of science, its rich methodological arsenal, but also its practical significance. A scientific discipline that has concepts and paradigms in its baggage (the most important of them will be presented below) has the right to claim the role of a constructive productive force. Economic and social geography, which has a rich set of paradigms that have proven their effectiveness, can create its own objects (societies, settlements, regions, etc.) with predetermined properties. Any science that has reached such a stage of evolution and is able to adequately respond to the needs of society becomes constructive.
The basis of scientific activity is methodology, which determines the strategy of scientific knowledge and tactics for implementing research results. Methodology is understood as the doctrine of the principles of construction, research approaches, forms and methods of scientific activity. It includes general philosophical and general scientific principles and approaches, laws of logic, methods, techniques and means of research.
The methodology of economic and social geography guides researchers towards solving territorial, socio-economic, environmental and political problems. The effectiveness and efficiency of the methodology largely depend on the objectivity and depth of disclosure of the fundamental issues of economic and social geography - the object and subject of science, its structure and place in the system of scientific disciplines, approaches and research methods.
OBJECT AND SUBJECT OF SCIENCE
In a unified system of scientific knowledge, separate sciences and scientific directions are formed, which are closely interconnected and have blurred boundaries. At the same time, each science solves separate, unique problems, addressing its own subject of knowledge with the help of general scientific and special scientific methods.
Rice. 1.1.
The truth of identifying the object and subject of study and the effectiveness of the methods used directly affect the effectiveness of all scientific activity.
Determining the object and subject of study in economic and social geography is especially important, since not only the production but also the social sphere is involved in the orbit of research and the process of formation of a new science - social geography - is taking place. The reason for this is a significant increase in the social order for territorial research, the study and design of spatio-temporal forms of human life.
Most scientists represent the relationship between the object and the subject of economic and social geography as the relationship between the whole and its part. An object represents a special phenomenon that exists independently, regardless of cognitive activity of people. The subject and its content are determined by researchers and cover only part of the object (Fig. 1.1).
In other words, under object of study one should understand a specific area of cognition, a part of the surrounding world (objective reality), which is studied by the corresponding science; subject of study is a set of ideas (theoretical knowledge - teachings, theories, hypotheses, concepts, paradigms) that have developed in science regarding the object of research.
Let us note the main features that separate these two concepts:
¦ the object is always more complete, interesting and completely unknowable. The subject includes only the main, most significant (from the point of view of this study) properties and characteristics;
¦ the subject of research is much more dynamic, and the object is more conservative. The subject of the study reflects specific historical views on the area under study;
¦ the subject of research carries within itself not only the subjective views of the researcher, but also the characteristic features of the corresponding social formation and, accordingly, is often burdened with political and ideological “load”.
The object of study of economic and social geography is the spatial forms of organization of social life, the process of their evolution, as well as optimization. Most geographers recognize this as such an object. ecumene(Greek oikumene< oikeo - населяю) - наиболее освоенная и населенная человеком часть географической оболочки Земли. В ее пределах протекает основная жизнедеятельность людей и воспроизводятся все сферы жизни общества - демографическая, хозяйственная, социальная, культурная, политическая, духовная и др.
The composition of the ecumene includes not only society, territorial forms of life of the population and its economic, household, and recreational activities, but also the surrounding natural environment. Economic and social geography focuses on the spatio-temporal integrity of society and the natural environment, their systematicity, complexity and structure.
The Ecumene is the object of study of an entire system of sciences, each of which explores its individual facets and aspects. The specific approach of economic and social geography to the study of the ecumene is territorial, or more precisely, spatial. It is this approach that distinguishes economic and social geography from the totality of sciences that study the ecumene.
Rice. 1.2. Internal structure of TOS. Infrastructure: # - socio-cultural; 2 - social and domestic; % - production; & - market; 5 - spiritual; (natural-ecological)
The integral subject of economic and social geography is territorial (spatial) social systems(TOS), operating at different hierarchical levels. TOS refers to spatial combinations of all components and spheres of life of the population. Territorial social systems act as spatiotemporal forms of organization of the ecumene, closely interacting with the environment, adjacent systems and systems of a higher hierarchical level.
The internal structure of territorial-social systems is shown in Fig. 1.2. The core in the systems is the population and the individual - the main producer and consumer of material and spiritual goods. People's lives include work, everyday life, rest and take place in the natural, economic, social and spiritual environments.
The infrastructure development of a territory plays an important role in people’s lives. Each system has production (communications), social, social, cultural, market, spiritual, environmental and other types of infrastructure. Territorial public systems belong to the class of self-developing and self-governing systems, therefore their most important component is management and institutional infrastructure.
The territorial social system is a conceptual model of individual forms of spatio-temporal organization of society. The real content of this model occurs through the direct study of geographical phenomena and processes that develop at different spatial levels. Examples include territorial social systems of the world, country, region, as well as cities, villages, administrative districts, etc. Thus, it is legitimate to talk about the territorial social systems of Russia, the USA, the Urals, the Perm Territory, the city of Solikamsk, the village of Kultaevo, etc. At the same time, a hierarchical structure is clearly manifested - a certain taxonomic subordination of geographical formations.
Within the boundaries of territorial social systems of all taxonomic ranks, processes of social reproduction take place, including social, spiritual, material aspects of reproduction (reproduction of people, infrastructure, ideas, forms of communication, etc.). The territorial totality of all reproductive processes creates conditions for increasing the integrity of systems, balance and complexity of all spheres of human existence. The relative autonomy of territorial social systems is combined with their openness, manifested in the processes of geographical division and integration of labor, services, culture, etc.
Territorial social systems are complex polystructural formations. To study them, a number of approaches are used, among which the following three stand out: functional, procedural and territorial.
The functional approach involves the identification of functional subsystems that are responsible within the framework of holistic education for solving specific problems.
Rice. 1.3.
The procedural approach involves the study of procedural formations - energy-material cycles(ECC), permeating functional subsystems and ensuring the exchange of energy, matter and information.
The territorial approach focuses on the territorial structure of TPS.
Included functional structure TOS distinguishes the following subsystems: natural resource, production, population and settlement, social, infrastructure, united by direct and feedback(Fig. 1.3).
The natural resource subsystem covers the entire set of components of the natural environment used by society as resources. These are not only production, but also aesthetic, tourist, recreational, balneological and other resources.
The production subsystem unites all types of economic activity in the territory, a set of enterprises and industries in the primary and secondary (material) spheres.
The population and settlement subsystem performs the function of reproducing demographic potential, labor resources and optimizing the population settlement system in the region.
The social subsystem is responsible for the formation of the entire set of social relations in the territory - industrial, religious, national, moral, environmental, etc., forming the main features of society.
The infrastructure subsystem unites organizations and institutions of tertiary activities (service sectors) that provide the most General terms the functioning of production (production infrastructure) and people’s livelihoods (social infrastructure).
The components of the procedural structure of TOS - energy-material cycles - ensure the reproduction of the main components of society and represent successive stages of their transformation, starting from the stage of study and extraction from the environment and ending with the stage of regeneration and restoration of consumer value.
In the very general view In the system of energy-material cycles, we can distinguish the ECC of material production (things), demographic (people), information (innovation), institutional (organizations) and energy.
The territorial structure of TOS combines point, linear and areal components of territorial public systems. The set of point components (buildings, enterprises, settlements, etc.) depends on the level of generalization and scale of the study. Linear components include geographical features, the length of which is the most important characteristic, and the area and width do not matter (streets, roads, borders, etc.). Areal components unite various geographical taxa - territorial units with specific qualifying characteristics (areas, zones, regions).
Area (lat. area - area, space) is the simplest taxon. The boundaries of the range are determined by the presence or absence of any characteristic feature(for example, corn range, hare range, etc.).
Rice. 1.4.
The zone is characterized by both the presence of a sign and its intensity. The trait itself may be present outside the boundaries of the zone, but dominates only within its boundaries (zone of risky farming, zone of the North, zone of product sales, etc.).
An area (region) is distinguished not by its presence and intensity, but by a set of interrelated characteristics. Characteristics the region is unity and integrity, which serve as an indispensable condition for its existence and development.
The most complex territorial structure develops in the integral systems of the world, countries, and regions. They function, combine and interact with a variety of point, linear and area components. The territorial structure of state and regional systems in the most general form represents the interaction of the center (core) and the periphery (Fig. 1.4).
The center of territorial social systems represents the concentration of all spheres of life of the population. It includes functional blocks and performs consolidating and regulatory functions. Concentric belts (zones) of gravity are formed around the center, forming the semi-periphery and periphery. Each belt has a characteristic profile and has corresponding systems of settlement, production and infrastructure.
The unification of territorial entities (phenomena) into an integral system occurs through the geographical division and integration of labor, leisure, services, etc. An important role is played by the communication infrastructure (transport, communications, etc.).
This structure of regional social systems is abstract in nature and represents ideal model. In some regions there are many deviations due to the specifics economic activity people, national-ethnic and historical characteristics, lifestyle of the population, natural conditions and resources, etc.
So, territorial social systems are complex polystructural formations, including multi-level subsystems, components and elements - from natural resource and natural-ecological to social, political and spiritual. All private socio-geographical systems are integrated into them, forming qualitatively new spatio-temporal relations, which have become the main subject of research in economic and social geography
Socio-economic geography (SEG) is one of the large and complex branches of geography - the science of the Earth in general and especially its surface (“the face of the Earth”, in the words of the outstanding Russian scientist, Academician Vladimir Vernadsky).
Socio-economic (social) geography of Ukraine is part of a large scientific branch of Ukrainian studies, uniting sciences that study Ukraine and the Ukrainian people as an integral part of human civilization from different sides and with different methods. In addition to geography, it is also the history of Ukraine, its ethnography (the science of the peculiarities of the material and spiritual culture of the population, regional studies of Ukraine, Ukrainian linguistic and literary studies, etc.). Mastering Ukrainian studies is the patriotic duty of every citizen of our country, every student. You cannot love your Motherland without deep knowledge of Ukrainian history, culture, science, including geography.
If physical geography studies the nature of the Earth’s surface, its differences in latitude and longitude, and the features of territorial natural combinations (complexes), then SEG studies the ecumene, which is a territory as a result of the interaction of human society with natural conditions. Ukraine, one of the largest countries in the world, occupies such a clearly defined spatially defined and long-developed territory.
SEG studies the geospatial organization of the ecumene - the earth's surface inhabited by people and transformed by them in the process of economic activity - resource extraction earth's crust, their processing, development of the processing industry, agriculture and forestry, fishing and hunting, development of recreation (sanatorium-resort treatment, tourism), creation of communication networks (communications) in the form of railway, road transport, telecommunications lines and nodes (television, telegraph, telephone), construction of enterprises, settlements.
The territory of Ukraine is a significant part of the ecumene. Thus, SEGU studies the geospatial organization of the ecumene within our state in the closest connection with the processes occurring in it on a global scale. The very geospatial organization of the ecumene within Ukraine is the presence in it of territorial socio-economic differences and connections between them. Such differences are, first of all, all settlements, their territorial connections - settlement systems, territorial combinations of agricultural and industrial processing production - agro-industrial complexes, industrial hubs, and finally, agricultural, industrial, recreational, complex economic and socio-economic regions and zones.
The main and most active objects of the ecumene, endowed with reason and will, are people. People (population) united in territorial groups with the aim of creating material and spiritual conditions for their lives create human society. Such an association arises in the process of interaction of people with the natural conditions of specific territories and water areas on the earth's surface and as a result of material and spiritual communication between people.
The basis for the emergence, development and existence of society is human activity. The following main types are distinguished: labor, reproductive, socio-natural, ecological, consumer.
Labor activity, or labor (physical and mental) is a process that occurs between man and nature, a process in which man, as a force of nature, regulates, controls and mediates the metabolism between himself and nature. Thus, in the development and geospatial organization of the ecumene and its defining element - man, at least the following interacting components are necessary: a) the natural environment (natural conditions and resources), b) the people themselves, endowed with the ability to work, c) means of production (objects and tools) which, using the matter and energy of nature, being on the side of a person, increase his physical “mental powers. Therefore characteristics ecumene in each case depends both on the characteristics of its natural environment, and from the society (its economic, social, intellectual potential, etc.) that was formed in this environment, and are the result of long-term evolution and interaction.
Reproductive life activity is the birth rate and raising of children, the functioning of the family, the reproduction of the physical and intellectual potential of the population, the preparation of physically and spiritually healthy people, etc. This type of activity develops taking into account not only social, but also natural laws regulating bioenergy processes. Reproductive activity is closely related to problems of protecting the health of the population and in particular mothers and children, the moral health of the nation, the food problem, etc.
The socio-natural type of human life is that man, as a living being, interacts with nature directly on the population (within all of humanity), society (within individual parts of civilization - countries, nations, settlements) and organism (as an individual human body). This interaction has quantitative and quality characteristics. In particular, biological factors created by humans in nature (growing crops, biotechnology, etc.) are becoming increasingly important; the total number of people themselves is increasing, as a result of which the scale of socio-natural life activity is increasing.
Ekistic, or settlement, life activity is associated with the “force field” of a person and is manifested in the communication of people with each other in a system of certain settlements, resulting in the emergence of a network of settlements, which are connected by communication lines of road and rail, river, sea, air transport, power lines, pipelines and communications form a global ecological continuum, components which became the ecological systems of countries and individual regions.
The sixth type of life activity is consumer. It consists in the fact that people use the material and spiritual goods created in the process of labor in their own interests - they consume. In the process of consumption, additional needs for energy and other resources arise.
With the interaction of human society and nature, as well as people among themselves in the process of production and consumption of material and spiritual goods, various shapes geospatial organization of the ecumene as a whole and its component - society.
The initial form of geospatial organization of human society on a global scale is the state (country). Thus, the main branch of the NEG is the economic and social geography of countries - regional studies. This means that SEGU as a country is the main task of studying social geography as a whole. And mastering the SEG of other countries of the world not only expands students’ knowledge about near and far abroad, but first of all makes it possible to understand the place of Ukraine in the development of human civilization.
The main attention in SEGU should be paid to the study of the geospatial organization of society within state borders as a whole, as well as the territorial organization of individual parties (aspects), components, etc. Therefore, we will study, on the one hand, the “aspect” (“industry”, “ component" - geopolitical, demogeographical, social and economic-geographical) territorial organization, and on the other - "integral" territorial organization - the division of Ukraine into complex regions, in other words, its social regionalization.
To better understand the place of SEGU in the complex of socio-geographical sciences, we present general scheme interrelationships of scientific disciplines of this complex (Fig. 1).
The entire complex of socio-economic and geographical sciences is divided into two groups of scientific disciplines: 1) component (population geography, economic and social geography); 2) spatial (global SEG - “world vision”, SEG individual countries). SEGU is included in the second group of disciplines. It is closely related to the first group because:
a) knowledge, especially theoretical principles obtained in “component” disciplines, are used in NEGU to study the geospatial organization of its population, economy, territorial-administrative structure, etc.; b) the study of the real geospatial organization of society, its individual aspects and processes in Ukraine is the basis for the further development of the theory and methodology of component disciplines (for example, geography of the population as a whole, its subsections - geography of population settlement, geography of labor resources, etc.).
