The concept of positional exchange. Types of positional exchange. Positional changes of sounds. Positional changes of consonants

Types of phonetic alternations. Phonetic alternations, in turn, are positional and combinatorial. Positional alternation is a phonetic alternation of sounds depending on their position (position) in relation to the beginning or end of a word or in relation to a stressed syllable. Combinatorial alternation of sounds reflects their combinatorial changes due to the influence of neighboring sounds.

Another classification is their division on positional exchange and positional change. The basic concept for phenomena of phonetic nature is position– phonetically determined place of sound in the flow of speech in relation to significant manifestations of living phonetic laws: in Russian, for example, for vowels – in relation to stress or hardness/softness of the preceding consonant (in Proto-Slavic – in relation to the subsequent jj, in English – closedness /openness of syllable); for consonants - in relation to the end of the word or to the quality of the neighboring consonant. The types of phonetic alternations differ by the degree of positional conditioning. Positional exchange- alternation, rigidly occurring in all cases without exception and significant for meaning differentiation (a native speaker distinguishes it in the flow of speech): “akanye” - non-distinction of phonemes A and O in unstressed syllables, their coincidence in /\ or in b. Positional change– acts only as a tendency (knows exceptions) and is not recognized by a native speaker due to the lack of a semantic distinguishing function: A in MOTHER and MEAT are phonetically different A ([[ayaÿ]]and [[dä]]), but we do not recognize this difference; soft pronunciation of consonants before E is almost mandatory, but unlike I, there are exceptions (TEMP, TENDENCE).

Historical (traditional) alternations are alternations of sounds representing different phonemes, so historical alternations are reflected in writing. Non-phonetic, non-positional (historical) alternations are associated with the expression of grammatical (friend-friends) and word-formation (friend) meanings: act as an additional means of inflection, (formation and word formation. Historical alternation of sounds accompanying the formation of derivative words or grammatical forms words, is also called morphological, since it is determined by the proximity of phonemes with certain suffixes or inflections: for example, before diminutive suffixes -k(a), -ok etc. back-linguals regularly alternate with hissing ones (hand-hand, friend-friend), and before the suffix -yva(~yva-) part of the verbs alternates root vowels <о-а>(work-work out). Types of historical alternations.

1) Actually historical, phonetic-historical– alternations reflecting traces of once active living phonetic processes (palatalization, fall of reduced ones, iotation, etc.);

2)Etymological– reflecting the semantic or stylistic differentiation that once occurred in the language: EQUAL (identical) // EVEN (smooth), SOUL // SOUL; complete agreement // partial agreement, PR/PRI.

3) Grammatical, differentiating– which also have at the synchronic level the function of differentiating grammatical phenomena: NEIGHBOR//NEIGHBORS (D//D’’) – the change from hard to soft contrasts the singular and plural(these cases do not include truly different indicators, for example, conjugations –I and E, USH and YASH, since here we have before us not an exchange at the level of sound, but an opposition of morphological forms (the same – ENGINEER Y//ENGINEER A)).It is clear that all these phenomena, which have different natures, are only conditionally grouped as “historical” - therefore the term “non-phonetic” would be more accurate.

LECTURE 8. Positional change and positional changes of vowels and consonants. Historical alternations of vowels and consonants

Phonetic processes in the vowel region .

Positional exchange. To the main cases positional exchange vowels include cases of qualitative reduction of the vowel sounds A, O, E in unstressed positions. High-quality reduction– this is a weakening of sound, which is accompanied by a change in acoustic-articulatory characteristics (the sound changes its DP). There are positions: percussion– the sound remains unchanged (strong position); first pre-shock– first degree of reduction; second(all other unstressed positions) – the second degree of reduction (weak first and second positions). The sounds I, U, Y do not undergo qualitative changes, they change only quantitatively. Qualitative reduction of these sounds has different results depending on whether they appear after a soft or hard consonant. See table.

Let's not forget about the phenomenon of the absolute beginning of a word, where A and O in both the first and second position will be the same /\ (instead of /\ for the first and the expected b for the second position: [] ORANGE. E, respectively, in both the first and second position will be (instead of in the first and Kommersant in the second): ETAZHERKA [[t/\zh''erk]].

	first position	second position	first position	second position

*Sometimes after hard hissing Ж, Ш, Ц in the first position A instead of the expected /\ sounds like E: you just need to remember such words - JACKET, SORRY, SORRY, SORRY, SORRY, RYE, JASMINE, HORSES, TWENTY, THIRTY. But this is not for me, but for the next topic (changes), and also for spelling.

Positional changes. Positional changes include phenomena accommodation vowels before soft and after soft consonants. Accommodation is the process of mutual adaptation of sounds of different nature (vowel to consonant or vice versa). After a soft consonant, a non-front vowel moves forward and upward in formation at the beginning of pronunciation (progressive accommodation), before a soft one - at the end (regressive accommodation), between a soft one - throughout utterances (progressive-regressive accommodation).

MAT – [[MaT MINT – [[M’’˙aT]]

MOTHER – [[Ma˙T’’]] MOTHER – [[M’’däT’’]]

For the sounds O, A, E - only under stress - all 4 cases are possible; for sounds U - both stressed and not, all 4 cases; for ы both under stress and without stress, only 2 cases are possible ы and ыяÿ, for And a dot is not placed in front, since it is not used after a hard word - 2 cases And иыь. Sometimes instead of Yo (between soft ones) they designate kê – SING [[p’’kêt’’]]. Y and JJ are considered soft.

Another case of positional changes is the progressive accommodation of the initial I in Y, when a consonant prefix is ​​added to the root: GAME - PLAY UP (this applies to changes, since it knows exceptions - PEDAGOGICAL INSTITUTE is also possible to pronounce I).

Non-phonetic processes in the vowel area.

at the root - BIR//BER, GOR//GAR, non-accord//full consonance, E//O, A//Z, U//YU at the beginning of the word, O//E type VESNY//SPRING; in the prefix – PRE//PRI, NOT//NI, in the suffix – EK//IK, ETs//ITs, OVA//EVA//YVA//IVA, IN//EN//AN, in adjectives; at the end – OV//EV, IY//EYE, OH//EYE, OM//EM, ІY//Ой//Ий

2) Historical alternations of phonemes with zero sound (“fluent vowels”): in the root – DAY//DAY, WINDOW//WINDOWS, COLLECT//TAKE, WHO//WHOM, WHAT//WHAT, in the prefix – THROUGH//THROUGH, PRE//PERE, WITH//CO, VZ//WHOZ , IN//IN, OVER//NADO, FROM//OTO, KOY//KOE, in the suffix – PEAS//PEAS, RED//RED, BIRD//BIRD, TI//TH of the verb, SK//ESK, СН//ЭСН in adjectives, in the ending – ОY//ОУ, in the postfix – СЯ//Сь

The alternation RAZ//ROZ refers to phonetic types of writing and is one of the rare cases of reflection in writing not of historical, but of phonetic alternation within one phoneme - the strong position O (under the stress, which naturally sounds in the first and second positions, respectively, as /\ and Kommersant, which is reflected in the letter as A.

Phonetic processes in the area of ​​consonants.

Positional exchange. The positional exchange of consonants includes diverse processes, united by a common feature - they know no exceptions. 1) Positional deafening of noisy voiced sounds at the end of a word - RODA-ROD [[T]]; 2) Regressive assimilation in terms of voicing - noisy deaf people are voiced before voiced ones MOWING-MOWING [[Z]] (assimilation refers to the processes of assimilation of homogeneous sounds - the influence of vowels on vowels, consonants on consonants, in contrast to accommodation); regressive assimilation by deafness - noisy voiced ones are deafened in front of noisy voiced ones - BOAT[[T]]. The process does not concern sonorants - neither the sonorants themselves, nor the noisy ones before the sonorants. The double role of the B sound is interesting (it is no coincidence that some also consider it sonorant). In front of it, noisy ones behave not as in front of a voiced one, but as in front of a sonorant one - they do not become voiced (RESPECT: T does not turn into D); and he himself behaves like a noisy voiced person - in front of a deaf person and at the end of the word he is deafened - STORE [[F]]; 3) Regressive assimilation by softness - will be exchanged only for the anterior lingual teeth D, T, S, Z, N before any of them soft: NEWS [[S’’T’’]]; 4) Complete (such assimilation in which the sound changes not just one DP, but completely its entire characteristic) regressive assimilation of Z, S before hissing Sh, F, CH,SH, C – SEW [[SHH]], HAPPINESS [[SH’’SH’’]]; T and D before CH – REPORT [[CH’’CH’’]]; T+S= C – FIGHT [[CC]]; T and D before C (FATHER [[TTS]]; S and Z before SH (SPLITTLE [[Ш''Ш'']]; 5) Dieresis (loss of sound on a dissimilative basis) – KNOWN, HOLIDAY; ​​6) Dissimilation ( reverse assimilation - dissimilarity of sounds) G before K – SOFT [[ХК]]; 7) Accommodation by softness in front of I, b, (except C, W, F, H) – HAND//HANDS [[K]]//[[K’’]]; 8) Vocalization of the phoneme JJ: as a consonant sound jj appears only at the beginning of a stressed syllable (YUG), and in other positions it acts as a non-syllabic sound - a vowel sound.

Note: B at the end of participial and adverbial suffixes does not turn into F; there it is F, because in a strong position like B it never sounds (there is no alternation). The same thing - we must distinguish between, say, the loss of sound in the synchrony SUN and in the diachrony FEELING, where at the modern level there is no loss, because there is no alternation with its full version.

Positional changes. Processes that occur as a trend, but have exceptions. 1) Assimilation in softness of labial and dental before labial and R before labial (Z''BELIEV, LYUB''VI). The old norm required exactly this pronunciation, but now, apparently under the influence of spelling, this is not relevant. 2) Assimilation by softness before jj: most often softened, but, again under the influence of spelling, before the dividing b, denoting jj, at the junction of the prefix and the root - the hard consonant EAT [[С]] sounds; 3) Irregular dissimilation of H before T or N: WHAT, OF COURSE [[SHT]][[SHN]](does not always happen - for example SOMETHING - already only [[TH]]); 4) Accommodation by the softness of hard words before E - now, in many foreign words, it is also possible to pronounce a hard consonant before E: REVENGE [[M’’]], but TEMP [[T]]. 5) Deafening of the sonor in the position at the end of the word after the hard PETR. 6) Sonoran vocalization - acquisition of a syllabic character by a sonorant consonant in a cluster of consonants - SHIP[[ъ]]Л, TEMB[[ъ]]Р. All of these processes are at the same time orthoepic, because fluctuations in regular pronunciation are the reason for orthoepic variation.

Non-phonetic processes in the area of ​​consonants.

1) Historical alternations of phonemes: traces of palatalization (first, second, third) HAND//HANDLE; traces of the influence of iota LIGHT//CANDLE; traces of simplification of consonant groups BEREGU//BERECH; stun at the end of a word (unchecked BY DOING [[F]]); historical exchange of G for V in the endings of adjectives – RED [[V]]; alternation of suffixes CHIC//SCHIK; non-phonetic (phonemic) softness - WILL // BE, ZARYA // RADIANT (here it is not a softening, because in the word ZARYA before A should not be softened (non-anterior) - there is no positional conditionality).

2) Historical alternations of phonemes with zero sound (“fluent consonants): traces of L-epentheticum – EARTHLY//EARTH [[–]]//[[L]]; historical diaeresis (unverifiable) FEELING, LADDER; adjective suffixes SK//K; endings OV(EV)//– (GRAM//GRAMS).

Note. The change of Z//S in prefixes like IZ, WHO, RAZ, although reflected in the writing, is in fact not a historical, but a living, phonetic process of assimilation in terms of voiced-voicelessness: it’s just that phonetic, not phonemic, spelling is implemented here.

LECTURE 9. Segmental and supersegmental units. Stress and its types

Linear units are also called segmental, since they are obtained as a result of segmentation against the background of comparison with other similar units as minimal independent fragments. But as a result of the division of the sound flow, other, no longer limiting units are distinguished, which are called supersegmental. Supersegmental are units that do not have an independent semantic character, but simply organize the speech flow due to the characteristics of the matter of sound and our organs of speech and senses. If supersegmental units are not related to the expression of meaning, they still have their own articulatory-acoustic specificity. The articulatory-acoustic characteristics of supersegmental units are called PROSODY.

PROSODY is a set of phonetic features such as tone, volume, tempo, and general timbre coloring of speech. Initially, the term “prosody” (Greek prosodia – stress, melody) was applied to poetry and singing and meant a certain rhythmic and melodic scheme superimposed on a chain of sounds. The understanding of prosody in linguistics is similar to that accepted in the theory of verse in the sense that prosodic features relate not to segments (sounds, phonemes), but to the so-called supra- (i.e. supra-) segmental components of speech, longer in duration than a separate segment - to a syllable, word, syntagma (intonation-semantic unity, usually consisting of several words) and sentence. Accordingly, prosodic features are characterized by duration and impreciseness of their implementation.

The section of phonetics that studies these characteristics is called accordingly. Since their characteristics come down to two types of phenomena – STRESS and INTONATION, this section is divided into two subsections: ACCENTOLOGY and INTONOLOGY.

ACCENTOLOGY(Latin akcentus “emphasis” + Greek logos “word, teaching”). 1. System of accents of the language. 2. The doctrine of accentual (prosodic) means of language. Aspects of accentology: descriptive, comparative-historical, theoretical. Descriptive accentology studies the phonetic, phonological, and grammatical properties of prosodic means. Comparative-historical accentology studies historical changes in accent systems, their external and internal reconstruction. Theoretical accentology describes the systemic relationships of prosodic means, the role of significant units in the structure, and linguistic functions.

The central concept of accentology is emphasis.STRESS in a broad sense –– This is any emphasis (emphasis) in the flow of sounding speech of one or another part of it (sound - as part of a syllable, syllable - as part of a word, word - as part of a speech tact, syntagm; syntagm as part of a phrase) using phonetic means. STRESS in the narrow sense – only verbal stress

TYPES OF STRESS:

According to the acoustic-articulatory characteristics, stress differs between monotonic (expiratory) and polytonic (musical, melodic, tonic, tonal). They also talk about the quantitative type of stress.

Russian-type stress was traditionally considered dynamic, or expiratory. It was assumed that increased respiratory and articulatory effort on stressed vowels is reflected in their increased acoustic intensity.

Another way of organizing the relationship between stressed and unstressed syllables is possible: the vowel of a stressed syllable lengthens, while the unstressed ones retain a neutral duration (the quality of the vowels remains almost unchanged). These are languages ​​with quantitative (quantitative) stress. Modern Greek is usually cited as an example of this type of stress. In it, unstressed sounds are not subject to reduction and differ from stressed sounds only in the absence of an increment in duration. In ancient times, many languages ​​had such an accent.

Traditionally, there is another type of stress – tonal. In Europe, it is represented in the South Slavic (Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian) and Scandinavian (Swedish and Norwegian) languages. This type of stress is associated with a special interaction between verbal and phrasal prosody. In most languages ​​of the world, the beginning of the tonal movement that implements phrasal accent is combined with the beginning of the stressed syllable. However, it is also possible for two landmarks to appear to place the tonal emphasis. For example, in the Serbo-Croatian language there was a shift of stress by one syllable to the left (the so-called “retraction”), and in the place of stress, words with the former stress on the second syllable coincided with those that had the original initial stress; the old orientation of the tonal accent of the phrase was preserved. Therefore, in words where the stress has not shifted, the falling tone of the statement falls on the stressed vowel, and where it has shifted, the fall in tone falls on the overstressed syllable, while the fall in tone is often preceded by its rise. As a result, on the initial stressed syllable the falling and rising tones are opposed. For example, words glory, power in Serbo-Croatian have a falling accent, and words leg, needle–– ascending.

The object of emphasis is emphasized syllabic, verbal, syntagmatic (beat), phrasal.

Accent syllabic–– highlighting a specific sound within a syllable. Syllable stress is a change in the sound strength or tone of a syllabic sound. There are usually five types of syllable stress: smooth, ascending, descending, ascending-descending, descending-ascending. With rising stress, the syllable is characterized by rising intonation. With a descending stress, the stressed syllable is characterized by a descending intonation.

Accent verbal–– highlighting one syllable in a word using phonetic means, serving for phonetic unification. this word.

Russian verbal stress has qualitative and quantitative characteristics. According to the traditional point of view, Russian verbal stress is dynamic (force), expiratory, expiratory, i.e. the stressed vowel is the strongest and loudest in the word. However, experimental phonetic studies indicate that the loudness (“strength”) of a vowel depends both on the quality of the vowel ([a] is the loudest, \у], [and], [ы]- the quietest), and on the position of the vowel in the word: the closer to the beginning of the word the vowel is, the greater its volume, for example, in the word gardens an unstressed vowel is stronger than a stressed vowel. Therefore, an essential characteristic of verbal stress is its duration: a stressed vowel differs in longer duration from an unstressed one. In addition, a stressed syllable is distinguished by greater clarity: under stress, sounds are pronounced that are impossible in an unstressed position.

The languages ​​of the world differ both in the rhythmic patterns allowed in words and in the functions performed by stress in them. An example of a language with an exceptional variety of accentual (i.e., stressed) possibilities is Russian. Since the stress can fall on any syllable of a word, it can perform a semantic distinguishing function, contrasting pairs like: saw - pli, zmok - castle, etc.

In many languages, stress is fixed, occupying a permanent place in the word. Fixed stress is oriented toward extreme positions in a word—either its beginning or its end. Thus, Czech and Hungarian languages ​​have stress on the first syllable, Polish on the penultimate, and most Turkic languages ​​on the last. Languages ​​have a similar rhythmic organization, in which stress can occupy one of two positions, oriented to the edge of the word, and its placement depends on the so-called distribution of “light” and “heavy” syllables. “Light” are syllables that end in a short vowel, and “heavy” are syllables that have either a long vowel or a vowel covered by a final consonant. Thus, in Latin and Arabic, the stress in non-monosyllabic words falls on the penultimate syllable if it is “heavy”, otherwise it shifts to the previous syllable.

Russian stress is not only variable, but also mobile: it can shift when the grammatical form of the word changes (vod - vdu). English has more limited accent capabilities. As in Russian, the stress in it is varied, which implies the possibility of contrasting pairs like: ўsubject “subject” –– subўject “to subjugate”, ўdesert “desert” –– deўsert “to desert”; English stress can also change during suffixal word formation: ўsensitive –– sensitivity. However, inflectional possibilities in English are small, and there is no change in stress during inflection.

Languages ​​also show significant differences in the distribution of gradations of force in the unstressed part of a word. In some languages, all unstressed syllables are equally opposed to the stressed syllable, although marginal syllables may have additional strengthening or weakening. In other languages, the principle of "dipodia" operates: stronger and weaker syllables follow one another, with a gradual weakening of strength as they move away from the apex. This is the situation in Finnish and Estonian: the main stress in them falls on the first syllable, the secondary stress on the third, and the tertiary stress on the fifth. The situation in the Russian language is unusual: the pre-stressed syllable here is inferior in strength to the stressed syllable, but exceeds the others: potakla (here means reduced a).

There is another possibility of varying the prosodic scheme of a word with “dynamic” stress: different phonetic parameters can enhance different positions in this scheme. Thus, in Turkic languages, the main accentual vertex of a word is the final syllable, on which the intonation accent is placed. However, there is also a center of collateral reinforcement - the initial syllable, which has a loudness accent.

Languages ​​without accent (accent). In many languages ​​outside of Europe, there is no clearly defined accentual vertex of the word, and scientists have difficulty determining the place of stress. A typical example is Georgian, regarding the rhythmic organization of which there is no single point of view. There is an opinion that the assumption that the rhythmic combination of the syllables of a word is mandatory is false (V.B. Kasevich et al., S.V. Kodzasov). In particular, the history of the Russian language speaks in its favor. In Old Russian, a significant number of forms of full-valued words were the so-called “enclinomen” (V.A. Dybo, A.A. Zaliznyak). These words did not have their own stress and were added in the form of enclitics to the preceding full-stressed words.

Accent functions.Word-forming function: phonetic combination of a word. Russian words have only one main (acute) stress, but complex words can have, in addition to the main one, a secondary, side (gravity) stress: cf. rural And agricultural. The recognition function of word stress is also associated with the word-forming function, which allows you to recognize the word, since the word is characterized by non-two-stress.

One of the most important functions of word stress is differentiating function: stress serves as a means of distinguishing words (flour And flour, castle And lock) and their different meanings (chaos And chaos), word forms (hands And hands), as well as stylistic variations of the word (you call and decomposition you call, it's cold and dial. cold, alcohol and prof. alcohol,

The movable stress is not fixed on a separate syllable or morpheme and can be inflectional And word-formation. Mobile inflectional stress is capable of moving from one syllable to another during inflection (hand-hands). Mobile word-formation stress is capable of moving from one syllable to another, from one morpheme to another during word formation (horse-horse, hand – pen). Along with the movable stress, the Russian language also presents a fixed stress: shoe, shoes.

Not every vocabulary word has its own word stress. Functional words receive stress in the flow of speech only in exceptional cases, but usually they form clitics. In a statement, as a rule, there are fewer stresses than words, due to the formation of phonetic words, in which function and independent words are combined with one stress.

The accent is timed ( syntagmatic) – highlighting one of the words in a speech beat (syntagma) by strengthening the verbal stress that unites different words in one syntagma. Syntagmatic stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in a speech bar: In the original autumn there is / a short, / but wonderful time //.

The speech beat usually coincides with the respiratory group, i.e. a segment of speech pronounced with one blast of exhaled air, without pauses. The integrity of a speech beat as a rhythmic unit is created by its intonation design. The intonation center is concentrated on the stressed syllable of a word as part of a speech beat - - bar accent: On dry aspen / hoodie/... Each speech beat is formed by one of the intonation structures. Speech tact is sometimes called syntagma.

The main means of dividing into syntagms is a pause, which usually appears in combination with the melody of speech, the intensity and tempo of speech and can be replaced by sudden changes in the meanings of these prosodic features. One of the words of the syntagma (usually the last) is characterized by the strongest stress (With logical stress, the main stress can fall on any word of the syntagma).

A phrase usually stands out and contains several speech beats, but the boundaries of the phrase and the beat may coincide: Night. // Street. // Flashlight. // Pharmacy //(Block). The selection of speech beats can be characterized by variability: cf. Field behind the ravine And Field/behind the ravine.

Phrase stress–– highlighting one of the words in a phrase by increasing verbal stress, combining different words into one phrase. Phrasal stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in the final speech beat (syntagm): There is an initial autumn / short, / butmarvelousit's time //.

Within a bar (less often a phrase), two types of bar (phrase) stress are distinguished, depending on the functions – logical And emphatic.

Stress logical (semantic)–– stress, which consists of highlighting a certain part of a sentence (usually a word), on which the speakers’ main attention is focused. Logical stress is observed in cases where the content of speech requires special emphasis on certain parts of the statement. With the help of logical stress, one or another word is usually highlighted in a sentence, important from the logical, semantic side, on which all attention should be concentrated

Positional trading is trend trading on long time frames. Position trading is usually carried out on the basis of. This method of trading is used on almost all exchanges. Traders who use this style of trading keep both sell and buy trades open for a long time.

Sell ​​transactions make a profit when the price of an asset depreciates, which usually happens during times of economic/financial turmoil. This method of earning money brought many speculators considerable profits in 2008, when there was a sharp drop in prices in many markets.

Features of position trading

The essence of position trading is to open trades in order to receive maximum income from the trend. Position traders do not pay attention to minor price fluctuations and noise in the market. They try to find a major trend that may last for more than a few months. This method of trading has its advantages. The main one is that to trade in this way, a trader does not need to constantly be in front of a computer monitor. A trader just needs to carry out the analysis correctly, make a forecast for the future and open trades. Next, the trader simply observes the transactions and adjusts them if necessary. At the same time, the trader does not pay attention to market noise and minor pullbacks, so there is no need to constantly monitor orders.

Positional trading is the exact opposite, where the trader needs to actively participate in the execution of the trade. There is also another style of trading - swing trading, which involves opening orders once a week or month. Position traders create a couple of orders per year. Traders who swing trade create up to one hundred trades per year. As for day traders, they create about 1000 trades per year.

How to identify places to enter the market

Revealing suitable places To enter the market in positional trading, it is carried out using several methods. Some speculators are looking for assets with good trend potential, but which are still fluctuating within a certain range. Sometimes you can open trades on assets that have already started a trend. The second case is more convenient for traders, since the trend has already appeared and its direction is known. All a trader needs to do is simply open an order in the direction of the trend. In this case, there is no need to spend special effort and time on conducting analysis and making a forecast. The main goal of a position trader is to identify an emerging trend and open an order in accordance with its direction.

Risks of position trading

Position trading, like any other type of trading in the foreign exchange market, is subject to certain risks. Among the main risks associated with this trading method, it is worth noting the danger of a trend change before the created orders are closed. Under unfavorable circumstances, even weak corrections can cause a trend change.

Position trading also has some limitations due to the fact that traders invest existing capital for a fairly long period of time. For this reason, before creating an order, a trader must plan his investment in such a way as to prevent exit from the position due to a drawdown of the deposit.

Advantages of position trading

Among the many advantages of position trading special attention The following deserve:

1. This method of trading allows you to determine the true situation on the market, which, in turn, helps to identify the true direction of movement of the price level. Due to the fact that the trader is not distracted by small price fluctuations, he makes significantly fewer mistakes.
2. Ability to apply fundamental analysis. Having become familiar with the economic situation specific state, he will be able to quite accurately predict changes in quotes of the national currency.
3. Position trading involves more measured and calm trading, since there is no need to quickly make decisions. After opening orders, the trader only needs to monitor the situation on the market from time to time.

Is it worth using positional trading?

In order to receive good income When conducting positional trading, you need to have a certain amount of money. With a small initial capital, a trader has no right to count on serious income. And the money management recommendations here are somewhat different. The stop loss, due to work on older time periods, is set a little further. Therefore, if a trader violates money management recommendations and invests most of the initial capital into a position, then Stop-Loss will not save him from losses if the price level begins to move in a direction unfavorable for the trader. And this can happen at any moment. The size of the correction or sideways movement can be 500 points on pairs with high volatility. It is recommended to start with a small deposit at first so that the trader can understand whether he can trade in such conditions. Not every trader will be able to keep an order open for several months, let alone years. While testing, you can continue to day trade and occasionally test your position trading trades. This method will help the trader understand for himself whether it is suitable for him position trading.

If you cannot boast of having a large amount of free Money, then position trading most likely will not suit you, since with its help it is impossible to quickly disperse a small deposit.

Position trading is optimal choice for patient traders who are not chasing short-term income and can afford to invest capital in trading for a relatively long period.

Positional changes , occurring with sounds in the stream of speech (within one morpheme), are associated with the impact of sounds on each other, as well as with the general conditions of pronunciation: position at the absolute beginning / end of a word, in a stressed / unstressed syllable, etc.

Positional changes of vowels are associated primarily with the position in the stressed / specific pre-stressed or post-stressed syllable, at the absolute beginning or end of the word (see reduced vowels), as well as with the influence of soft consonants: vowels adapt to the articulation of soft consonants and, during pronunciation, move forward and upward or in the initial phase of its formation (if the soft consonant precedes the vowel), or in final stage(soft consonant comes after the vowel), or in general (the vowel is surrounded by soft consonants).

Positional changes of consonants in the flow of speech can relate to any of the characteristics: deafness / voicedness, hardness / softness, place and method of formation.

Strong positions for voiceless/voiced(i.e. those where this feature remains independent, independent of anything and serves to distinguish words and morphemes):

1) before vowels: there – I’ll give;

2) before sonorants: layer – evil;

3) before [в], [в’]: check – beast.

Weak positions for voiceless/voiced(i.e. those where this feature is not independent, depends on the position in the word or the phonetic environment):

1) at the end of the word, voiced noisy words are deafened: snow, oak;

2) before consonants (except for sonorants and [в], [в’]):

Deafening of voiced noisy ones in front of deaf ones (boat, spoon);

Voicing of voiceless noisy ones before voiced ones (threshing, request).

Articulatory assimilation of sounds of the same nature, i.e. two vowels or two consonants is called assimilation(from Latin assimilatio - “likeness”). In some cases, assimilation may result in long consonants (behind, give). In any case, the direction of influence is the same - from the subsequent sound to the previous one. This type of assimilation is called regressive assimilation. (Progressive assimilation is extremely rare: it is observed, for example, in the dialect pronunciation of words like “Vanka” [van "k"a], but this does not correspond to modern spelling norms.)

Strong positions for hard/soft consonants:

1) before vowels, including [e]: bow - hatch, nose - carried, pastel - bed (soft consonants before [e] are pronounced in native Russian words, hard ones - in borrowed ones);

2) at the end of the word: kon – horse;

3) before back-lingual consonants (for front-lingual ones): bank - bathhouse, gorka - bitterly;

4) before labial consonants (in front-linguals): izba - carving;

5) for sounds [l], [l’], regardless of their position: the wave is free.

Weak positions are all the rest. Assimilation in hardness, for example, is observed in the case of the connection of a soft tooth with a hard tooth (horse - horse, ex.: June). Assimilation in terms of softness is carried out inconsistently and respectfully A not spoken by all speakers (door - [d], [d’], eat - [s], [s’]). Only the replacement of [n] with [n’] before [h”], [w’] (drummer, drummer) knows no deviations.

The place and method of formation of consonants can only change as a result of the influence of sounds on each other (i.e. there are no strong positions).

Assimilation by place of education dental fricatives are exposed, which are replaced by anterior palatal ones before the anterior palatal noisy ones (sew, with championship, count);

Assimilation by mode of education plosive consonants are exposed, which alternate with affricates before fricatives and affricates of the same place of formation (spread, unhook).

In many cases, several features of consonants are subject to positional change at once.

The reverse of assimilation phenomenon, or dissimilation(from Latin dissimilatio - “dissimilarity”), consists in the loss of common phonetic characteristics by sounds. Such changes are characteristic of dialects and vernacular language; in the literary language they are associated with a limited range of examples: light, soft ([x"k’]) - dissimilation by method of formation + by deafness and softness.

In addition to the described phenomena, Russian speech can record simplification of consonant clusters(in a number of sound combinations, when three consonants are combined, one drops out): district, local, heart.

Syllable. Types of syllables.

Syllable- a sound or combination of sounds pronounced with one exhalation impulse.

In modern linguistics, it has become widespread sonorant syllable theory, developed by R.I. Avanesov. From the point of view of this theory, a syllable is considered as a set of sounds of different degrees of sonority (sonority) - from less sonorous to more sonorous. The most sonorous sound is considered to be the syllabic sound, which represents the core, the apex of the syllable, followed by other sounds - non-syllabic ones.

Avanesov assigned a certain type of sound to each type of sound. sonority level. Remember the chain:

Based on the relationship between noise and tone, all sounds of a language can be reflected in the form of a chain (as the noise increases):

vowels → sonorants acc. → noisy voiced acc. → noisy deaf acc. → pause

sonority level: 4 3 2 1 0

Thus, a syllable, according to Avanesov’s theory, represents waves of sonority. The number of syllables in a word is determined by the number of peaks, peaks of sonority. Usually the top of a syllable, i.e. syllabic sound turns out to be a vowel. In rare cases, a consonant can also become syllabic, most often sonorants (this is achieved by inserting a vowel overtone before such consonants): [zhyz" ьн"]

Types of syllables characterized by initial and final sounds.

By initial sound syllables can be:

1) covered - starting with a consonant sound: [ru-ka];

2) uncovered – starting with a vowel sound: [a-ist].

By final sound syllables are divided into:

1) closed – ending in a non-syllable sound (consonant): [balcon];

2) open – ending in a syllabic: [va-z].

Avanesov’s theory will help determine the boundaries of the syllable division, according to which a syllable in the Russian language is built according to law of ascending sonority– from the least sonorous to the most sonorous, i.e. syllabic. This law defines the following syllable features:

1) Non-finite syllables tend to be open: [na-u-k], [a-pa-zda-l].

2) Closed syllables can appear only in three cases:

At the end of the word: [pla-tok];

At the junction of sonorant and noisy in a non-initial syllable (sonorant goes to the previous syllable, noisy to the subsequent one): [balcony];

At the junction of any consonant (goes to the previous syllable, another consonant to the subsequent one): [ma j’-къ], [wa j’-na].

When dividing a word into syllables, it is necessary to keep in mind that phonetic syllables often do not coincide with the morphemic structure and rules of transfer in writing.

Emphasis.

If a word consists of two or more syllables, then one of them is necessarily emphasized by the strength of the voice or the rise in tone. This emphasis on one of the syllables in a word is called word stress.

The phonetic type of stress is determined by the methods of highlighting the stressed syllable, which in different languages are not the same. The following phonetic types of stress are distinguished:

1) forceful stress (dynamic) is characterized by increased volume and increased exhalation force;

2) quantitative stress (quantitative) is associated with an increase in the length of pronunciation of the stressed syllable;

3) musical stress (tone) uses the movement of the vocal tone (ascending, descending, combined) to highlight the stressed syllable.

Stress in Russian is both forceful and quantitative.

Verbal stress performs an organizing function, combining into a single whole phonetic word - a group of syllables connected by a common verbal stress. Within the framework of a phonetic word, the stressed syllable turns out to be the reference point in relation to which the nature of the pronunciation of all other syllables is determined.

A phonetic word is not always equal to a lexical one. Some words in the text do not have their own stress, merging with adjacent stress and forming a single phonetic word with them. An unstressed word adjacent to a stressed word in front (conjunction, preposition, particle, pronoun) is called a proclitic: I won’t see, dust and mosquitoes. An unstressed word (particle, pronoun) adjacent to a stressed word at the back is called an enclitic: tell me. A situation is possible when a monosyllabic preposition or particle “pulls” the verbal stress onto itself and turns the significant word into an enclitic: led by the nose, fell to the floor.

There are words in which, in addition to the main one, there is a weaker side stress. It most often falls on the initial syllables and is fixed in difficult words: building materials, aerial photography.

When characterizing stress, it is important to take into account its position in the word. If the stress is assigned to a certain syllable, it is fixed (for example, in French stress can only fall on the last syllable). Russian stress is not fixed to a specific syllable and can fall on any syllable on any morpheme in a word (vybyt, gold, forests, ordinary), i.e. is varied.

Another feature of the Russian accent is its mobility. When forming grammatical forms of a word, stress transition is possible:

1) from stem to ending and vice versa (country - countries, head - heads);

2) from one syllable to another within the same morpheme (tree - trees, lake - lakes).

So, Russian accent is characterized by the following features:

1) force and quantity according to the phonetic type;

2) different places in a word;

3) mobile according to the criterion of attachment to a specific morpheme during inflection.

The orthoepic norm does not always affirm as the only correct one of the pronunciation options, rejecting the other as erroneous. In some cases, it allows variations in pronunciation. Literary, correct pronunciation is considered e[f"f"]at, in and[f"f"]atwith a soft long sound [zh "], ande[LJ]at, in and[LJ]at- with a hard long; correct andbefore[f"f"]And, Andbefore[railway]And, Andra[sh"sh"]istAndra[sh"h"]ist, and [d]believeand [d"]believe, AndP[O]eziaAndP[A]ezia. Thus, in contrast to spelling norms, which offer one option and prohibit others, orthoepic norms allow options that are either assessed as equal, or one option is considered desirable and the other acceptable. For example, Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian languageedited by R.I.Avanesov (M., 1997) wordpoolallows you to pronounce with both soft and hard [s], i.e. Andba[s"e]ynAndba[se]yn; in this dictionary it is suggested to pronouncemaneuvers, glider, but pronunciation is also allowedmaneuvers, plner. The appearance of many orthoepic variants is associated with the development literary language. The pronunciation is gradually changing. At the beginning of the 20th century. talked A[n"]gel, this[R"]forge, ve[r"x],ne[R"]vyy. And even now in the speech of older people one can often find such pronunciation. Very quickly disappears from the literary language solid pronunciation consonant [s] in the particle - Xia(sya) (laughed[With]A, met[With]). At the beginning of the 20th century. this was the norm of the literary language, just like the hard sounds [g, k, x] in adjectives in - cue, - Guy, - heyand in verbs ending in -nod, - give up, - huff. Wordshigh, strict, dilapidated, jump, bounce, shake offpronounced as if it were writtenstrict, dilapidated, jump up, jump up. Then the norm began to allow both options - old and new: andlaughed[With]AAndlaughed[s"]i, andstrictly[G]thstrictly[G"]th. As a result of changes in literary pronunciation Variants appear, some of which characterize the speech of the older generation, others - of the younger. In the pronunciation of genitive adjectives singular According to tradition, the neuter and masculine consonant [g] is replaced by [v]: near a black [ch"yaoґrnav] stone, without a blue [s"yn"въ] scarf. In adjectives starting with -Guy, -ky, -hiyand in verbs ending in -give up, -nod, -huff the consonants G, K, X are pronounced softly, in contrast to the Old Moscow pronunciation, which required a hard consonant in these cases: Unstressed personal endings of verbs 1 and 2 conjugations -ut, -yut, -at, -yatand suffixes active participles present time-ush-, -yush-, -ash-, -box- in the language of our days they are pronounced differently, their pronunciation is guided by writing. Old Moscow norms required the pronunciation of these endings and suffixes only according to option 1 of the conjugation. Similar options the pronunciations are now outdated, but they can still be heard in the speech of old intellectuals. Pronunciation of postfixes -Xia And -sya in reflexive verbs. Old Moscow pronunciation was characterized by the pronunciation of the hard [s] in these morphemes: fight[s], soap[s].The only exceptions were gerunds in which a hard consonant was pronounced:fighting[s"], knocking[s"]. IN modern language It is recommended to pronounce [s"] in all cases, except when the postfix is ​​preceded by the sound [s]: carried[s], shook[s],But:stay[s"b], washed [s"b]. 6. Difficulties may arise when choosing a vowel after hard sibilants in the first pre-stressed syllable in place of the letter A. According to modern standards, a vowel of the first degree of reduction of the lower rise of the middle row, non-labialized, should be pronounced in this position, i.e. [L]. However, the norms of Old Moscow pronunciation that were in force back in the middle of our century required that the sound [ы е] be used in this position, i.e. The following pronunciation of words was considered correct: heat - [zhy e raґ], balls - [shy e ryґ], naughty - [shy e lun], blackmail - [shy e ntash]. This norm can now be considered outdated. However, not a single norm that was previously in force in speech disappears, leaving no exceptions, a kind of speech atavisms in which, according to tradition, the old pronunciation is preserved. Such an exception in the Russian language was the pronunciation of words: regret - [zhy e l"]et, jasmine - [zhy e s]min, horses - lo[shy e]dey, jacket - [zhye]ket, as well as numerals 20 and 30 in indirect cases: twenty - twenty [tsy e]ti. On the contrary, after soft sibilants, as after any soft consonants, the sound [L] should not appear in the position of the first degree of reduction, but only [and e]. Therefore, you need to pronounce the words this way:

A correct understanding of position trading will allow you to add a powerful strategy to your arsenal for working in any financial markets.

The content of the article:

Before you start trading, you should understand the basic key concepts: what is position trading, how it differs from swing trading and what its strategy is.

What is position trading in simple words and with examples

Position trading– this is working on a trend on a long-term basis, on charts covering large time scales. To implement this, fundamental and technical analysis is often used. Position trading is suitable for all types of markets: stocks, commodities, Forex.

Here's how Wikipedia described position trading:

Position trader (short-term) - makes transactions with a duration of several days, closes all positions before periods of decreased liquidity (holidays, summer vacations, etc.)

Positional trading has existed since the advent of the first speculators, when charts with short time intervals were not available to people, and quotes were updated only a few times a day manually on the board in brokerage offices. In such conditions, it was more profitable to trade in the long term and hold the position.

Today, positional strategy is used on stock market, and in Forex, while position traders are often identified with investors, but this is not entirely true. It is necessary to understand the difference between this style and others:

Thus, position trading is an independent style, significantly different from others. Market participants can use this approach to hold short- and long-term positions. Its advantages:

1. Does not take into account small price changes, that is, does not require constant monitoring of the situation;
2. There is no need to be near the computer all the time. In positional strategy, the most important thing is a deep and thorough analysis, on the basis of which further decisions are made;
3. An open position simply needs to be monitored if there is a situation that could change the position or price.

Position trading strategy on the real market

Position trading strategy is an analysis of daily, weekly and monthly timeframes; holding an open position for at least several days to a month.

Position trading in simple words– this is a meaningful and balanced entry into a transaction, based on maintaining a position in a trend.

Each strategy implies the presence of certain basic rules, positional trading is characterized by the following:

• The signal to enter a position is the beginning of a trend on a large timeframe (with a period of 1 day or 1 week);
• Exit from a transaction is carried out only if there are sufficient grounds for the end of the trend.

The simplest idea and interpretation of such a strategy is the phrase “ buy and hold”, often applicable to long-term investors in blue chip stocks.

Let's look at a small example of positional trading in shares of the retail chain Magnit.

As you can see, the price has been in a strong uptrend for several years, which would be a good opportunity to hold the position for a long time. The technical signal for entering a position is the exit from consolidation at the end of 2012. Until the beginning of 2014, the price was steadily growing, reaching new highs. Only in March does a serious price drawdown appear, which breaks through the trend line and strong support levels. At this point, most position traders exit their trades as there is a clear sign that the trend is ending.

The result of the transaction could be a 120% increase; if trading is carried out with a leverage of 1:20, then it was possible to increase the capital by more than 40 times, with just one transaction.

In terms of technical tools, positional trading involves the use of:

• trend channels;
• support and resistance levels;
• moving averages, especially those with a 200-day period.

The main task is to identify a strong global movement, so analysis of news and fundamental background is used. However, news does not have a decisive meaning in position trading, but only serves as confirmation of technical signals.

Poll: What type of trading do you prefer?

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Difference from investing

Positional trading refers to holding a transaction for a relatively long time in the direction of the global trend.

It is a mistake to believe that position trading is similar to investing in the popular sense. Let's look at their main differences:

• trading as the main source implies income from profitable resale assets (stocks, futures, currencies), and investing is no less important passive income(dividends, monthly payments);
• investors rely on fundamental analysis of the asset (company performance indicators, business growth prospects), and the trader is more focused on charts, using economic indicators only for confirmation;
• Returns are often calculated at the end of the year, and a successful investor can wait for the final results for decades.

The only similarity between a position trader and an investor is the long-term holding of an asset and nothing more. Thus, each market participant needs to decide who he really is - an investor or a speculator.

Differences between position trading and swing trading

Another popular strategy is this, which differs from positional trading, if not radically, then quite significantly. The swing focuses on average time intervals and traders receive most of their income from entering the market, based entirely on changes in the exchange rate, which will lead to a change in the value of the open position. For analysis, not a fundamental, but only a technical approach is used.

Position traders, in turn, work over large periods of time. They do not dwell on small price fluctuations, but study the long-term perspective of the development of the economic situation. The strategy is drawn up taking into account the trend of changes in the financial situation over the course of days, weeks and even months.

This is the biggest difference between position trading and swing trading. The former take into account fundamental components in their decisions, such as long-term forecasts, political and economic decisions of the government, financial models, etc. And the latter open transactions, looking at the short-term perspective of price fluctuations of the selected currency.

Position trading, unlike other business strategies, is most similar to investing, which means it provides a full range of financial instruments for stock transactions. The main goal of such trading is to hold the stock for as long as possible while it makes a profit. This period can last from several days to months. Here the main task is to carefully study a certain sector of the economy and its general condition at the time of opening a position, as well as predicting the situation for the future in order to avoid risks. Useful assistant tools:

• Indicators;
• Trend lines;
• Long-term charts with non-technical information;
• Short-term charts with monthly and weekly changes;
• Fundamental analytics.

So, the whole strategy consists of three main steps:

1. Analysis of the economic sector and the position of the selected group of shares;
2. Choosing the most profitable moment to open a position;
3. Holding shares for the longest time long term, and its closure in case of a sharp change in the economic situation.

You need to choose a positional trading strategy only for those assets for which you can conduct fundamental analysis and technical analytics, give the most accurate forecasts and be confident that the price trend will continue for a long period (at least a week).

Positional trading on Forex

Most Forex participants use positional trading as the main approach to making money. This is due to the fact that this particular method in the Forex market has the following advantages:

• Low commission costs;
• More time to make the right decision;
• There is no need for constant analysis and daily monitoring of the media and for adjusting positions.

As in stock trading, a trader must have a reserve of capital that can cover possible losses. When choosing a currency pair, one strong and one weak currency are accepted. Many participants make the mistake of analyzing only one currency and neglecting the analytics for the second.

Positional trading on the stock exchange has several basic principles, adhering to which you can ensure a 90% probability of successful trading:

1. Analysis of structure and market restrictions;
2. Determination of monthly trend reversals;
3. A calm approach to business without unnecessary risks and excessive greed;
4. Confidence in your own decisions made taking into account news statements, forecasts and analysts’ comments;
5. Cool study of the media;
6. Entering a transaction with a size of assets that can be at least 5% at risk of loss.

Advantages and disadvantages

Any trading style has its advantages and disadvantages. In scalping, this means a long stay at the computer and strong nervous tension, but high level potential profit. The advantages of position trading include the following aspects:

• a relatively high percentage of profitable trades, since long-term trends are much more common on large time intervals and it is difficult to manipulate the market (put out stop orders);
• no need for a long stay at the monitor - the position can be monitored once a day or even a week;
• the possibility of a calm and long-term analysis (you can think about it for several days before entering);
• lower risk of psychological breakdown due to less frequent monitoring of the schedule;
• Huge profit potential with gradual increase and retention of a position.

The list is not exhaustive; the most significant advantages of the positional style are presented here. Let's move on to the disadvantages:

• long waits for results that can only really be measured months or years later;
• high responsibility for each forecast and analysis, since it can take many days and weeks in holding the wrong position;
• slow progress in trading (it’s good to hold positions if the trader already has experience, but you won’t be able to gain it quickly by opening trades once a year);
• the need for significant capital investments (you can only get significant income from positional trading if you have a decent amount of money in your account).

As a result, holding a position in certain cases is a significant advantage for an experienced trader, but disastrous for novice speculators.

Conclusion

So what is position trading - investing or trading?

Still, positional trading, in simple words, is not an investment, but trading, since the investor only hopes for growth, believes in the company, and he may not analyze the market, but influence the company itself. A position trader can trade for lower prices and in different markets.

Position trading is significantly different from day trading, scalping or swing in that it is aimed at holding a position throughout the entire trend, and not a specific part of it (fluctuations).

This approach is well suited for experienced traders with significant capital investments, and less so for beginners with a small deposit.

In the system of consonant phonemes, correlative rows of phonemes are distinguished, paired by:

v Deafness - voicedness.

v Hardness - softness.

Therefore, Russian consonant phonemes can be neutralized according to the characteristics deafness/voice And hardness/softness.

Not all consonant phonemes can be neutralized on the basis of deafness - voicedness. For example, phonemes can be represented by one sound<б>And<п>in the position of the end of the word: oak /dup/, stupid /stupid/ or phonemes<в>And<ф>: moat /roof/, closet /cabinet/. But cannot be represented by the sound /p/, for example, no other phoneme except<р>, she doesn't have a partner. This means that only paired phonemes can be neutralized on the basis of deafness-voiceness. Paired phonemes according to deafness and voicedness are as follows:<б п б’ п’ в ф в’ ф’ г к д т д’ т’ ж ж’ ш ш’ з с з’ с’ >. Such consonant phonemes cannot be neutralized by voiceness-voicelessness<м м’ н н’ л л’ р р’ j ц ч х>- these phonemes do not have a pair.

Paired phonemes, neutralized in weak positions, can be represented by voiceless or ringing sound. Neutralization occurs in the following positions:

Weak positions in deafness - voicedness:

1. at the end of a word. Voiced and voiceless consonant phonemes are realized in voiceless consonants: genus/mouth/ and mouth/mouth/, stupid/stupid/ and lips/gup/.

2. before voiceless noisy consonants. Voiced and voiceless consonant phonemes are realized in voiceless consonants: sleep/SP/at and from the desk/ISP/arts.

3. before voiced noisy ones. Voiced and voiceless consonant phonemes are realized in voiced consonants: from the bathhouse/IZB/ and with sauna/ZB/.

There is no neutralization for deafness - voicedness, which means sound is the main representative of the phoneme, in the following positions:

Strong positions on deafness - voicedness:

1. Position before a vowel.

2. Position before a sonorant consonant.

3. Position before [in] and [in’].

Unpaired phonemes<ч>, <ц>, <х>, , <м>, <н>, <л>, <р>, <м’>, <н’>, <р’>, <л’>do not participate in neutralization, but each of them is represented by variations, both voiceless and voiced:

<ц>

Consonant phonemes may not differ on the basis of hardness or softness. Consonant phonemes paired in hardness and softness are neutralized in the following positions:

Weak positions in terms of hardness and softness:

1. Dental before soft dental (except /l/). Soft and hard phonemes are realized in soft dental ones.

2. Before /sh’/, /ch’/ are neutralized<н>, <н’>. The soft and hard phonemes are realized in soft /n’/.

3. Dental before soft labial. Soft and hard phonemes are realized in soft dental ones.

There is no hardness-softness neutralization, which means sound is the main representative of the phoneme in the following positions:

Strong positions on hardness - softness:

1. at the end of a word.

2. before a vowel.

3. before the back lingual consonant.

Hard and soft phonemes are not distinguished in the following positions:

Unpaired phonemes by hardness - softness:

<к>, <г>, <х>, <ц>, <ч>, ,<л>, <л’>- these phonemes do not participate in neutralization by hardness - softness.

Consonant phonemes can be neutralized according to one more feature - the place of formation. Phonemes<с с’з з’ т т ’д д’ ц >are realized in dental noisy sounds / s’z z’ t t ’d d’ ts/. Phonemes<ш ш’ ж ж’ ч’>are realized in anteropalatal noisy / w w’ w w’ h’/. In the position in front of the anteropalatal noisy ones, the dental ones change to anteropalatal: sew/sew/, squeeze /burn/.

Questions and assignments.

1. What is neutralization?

2. Fill out the table:

Positions: at the end of a word, position before a vowel, position before a sonorant consonant, before a velar consonant, position before [в] and [в’].

3. Name unpaired phonemes based on deafness/voice, hardness/softness.

4. Determine the composition of phonemes in the following words:

house, family, mouth, with the wind, without the wind, out of trouble, out of the pond, cinema.

5. Determine the sound and phonemic composition of the following words:

With Shura, with Chuk, with Sasha, with Shchukar, with Zina, with Anya.